Less a barrier, more a line: The migration of Bechuanaland women to South Africa, 1850-1930

Journal of Historical Geography

Volumn 22, Issue 3, 1996, Pages 291-307

  Cockerton, Camilla M ^a,b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF WAIKATO   (New Zealand)

^b UNIVERSITY OF CANTERBURY   (New Zealand)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

BECHUANALAND WOMEN; HISTORICAL STUDY; MIGRATION TREND; NINETEENTH CENTURY; POPULATION HISTORY; TWENTIETH CENTURY; WOMEN'S MIGRATION;

SOUTH AFRICA;

EID: 0030482833     PISSN: 03057488     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1006/jhge.1996.0018     Document Type: Article

References (182)

1. Some of the major studies include: Jonathan Crush, Alan Jeeves and David Yudelman, South Africa's Labor Empire: a History of Black Migrancy to the Gold Mines (Boulder 1991); Wilmot Godfrey James, Our Precious Metal: African Labour in South Africa's Gold Industry, 1970-1990 (Bloomington, Cape Town, London 1992); Alan Jeeves, Migrant Labour in South Africa's Mining Economy (Kingston 1985); Frederick A. Johnstone, Class, Race and Gold: a Study of Class Relations and Race Discrimination in South Africa (London 1976); Francis Wilson, Labour in the South African Gold Mines, 1911-1969 (Cambridge 1972)
2. Some of the major studies include: Jonathan Crush, Alan Jeeves and David Yudelman, South Africa's Labor Empire: a History of Black Migrancy to the Gold Mines (Boulder 1991); Wilmot Godfrey James, Our Precious Metal: African Labour in South Africa's Gold Industry, 1970-1990 (Bloomington, Cape Town, London 1992); Alan Jeeves, Migrant Labour in South Africa's Mining Economy (Kingston 1985); Frederick A. Johnstone, Class, Race and Gold: a Study of Class Relations and Race Discrimination in South Africa (London 1976); Francis Wilson, Labour in the South African Gold Mines, 1911-1969 (Cambridge 1972)
3. Some of the major studies include: Jonathan Crush, Alan Jeeves and David Yudelman, South Africa's Labor Empire: a History of Black Migrancy to the Gold Mines (Boulder 1991); Wilmot Godfrey James, Our Precious Metal: African Labour in South Africa's Gold Industry, 1970-1990 (Bloomington, Cape Town, London 1992); Alan Jeeves, Migrant Labour in South Africa's Mining Economy (Kingston 1985); Frederick A. Johnstone, Class, Race and Gold: a Study of Class Relations and Race Discrimination in South Africa (London 1976); Francis Wilson, Labour in the South African Gold Mines, 1911-1969 (Cambridge 1972)
4. Some of the major studies include: Jonathan Crush, Alan Jeeves and David Yudelman, South Africa's Labor Empire: a History of Black Migrancy to the Gold Mines (Boulder 1991); Wilmot Godfrey James, Our Precious Metal: African Labour in South Africa's Gold Industry, 1970-1990 (Bloomington, Cape Town, London 1992); Alan Jeeves, Migrant Labour in South Africa's Mining Economy (Kingston 1985); Frederick A. Johnstone, Class, Race and Gold: a Study of Class Relations and Race Discrimination in South Africa (London 1976); Francis Wilson, Labour in the South African Gold Mines, 1911-1969 (Cambridge 1972)
5. Some of the major studies include: Jonathan Crush, Alan Jeeves and David Yudelman, South Africa's Labor Empire: a History of Black Migrancy to the Gold Mines (Boulder 1991); Wilmot Godfrey James, Our Precious Metal: African Labour in South Africa's Gold Industry, 1970-1990 (Bloomington, Cape Town, London 1992); Alan Jeeves, Migrant Labour in South Africa's Mining Economy (Kingston 1985); Frederick A. Johnstone, Class, Race and Gold: a Study of Class Relations and Race Discrimination in South Africa (London 1976); Francis Wilson, Labour in the South African Gold Mines, 1911-1969 (Cambridge 1972)
6. A selection of these includes: Philip L. Bonner, "Desirable or undesirable Basotho women": liquor, prostitution and the migration of Basotho women to the Rand, 1920-1945, in C. Walker (Ed.), Women and Gender in Southern Africa to 1945 (London 1990) 221-50; Belinda Bozzoli with Mmantho Nkotsoe, Women of Phokeng: Consciousness, Life Strategy, and Migrancy in South Africa, 1900-1983 (London 1991); B. Bozzoli, Marxism, feminism, and South African studies Journal of Southern African Studies (hereafter JSAS) 2 (1983) 139-71; G. Chauncey, The locus of reproduction: women's labour in the Zambian Copperbelt, 1927-1953 JSAS 7 (1981) 15-64; S. Marks and E. Unterhalter, Women and the migrant labour system in southern Africa Conference on Migratory Labour in Southern Africa (Lusaka 4-8 April 1978); Marjorie Mbilinyi, Women's resistance in "customary" marriage: Tanzania's runaway wives, in A. Zegeye and S. Ishemo (Eds), Forced Labour and Migration (London and New York 1989) 211-54; M. C. Miles, Missing women: a study of Swazi female migration to the Witwatersrand, 1920-1970 (unpubl. M. A. thesis, Queen's University 1991); Sharon B. Stichter, Migrant Laborers (Cambridge 1985); Cherryl Walker, Gender and the development of the migrant labour system c. 1850-1930: an overview, in Walker, op. cit. 168-96
7. A selection of these includes: Philip L. Bonner, "Desirable or undesirable Basotho women": liquor, prostitution and the migration of Basotho women to the Rand, 1920-1945, in C. Walker (Ed.), Women and Gender in Southern Africa to 1945 (London 1990) 221-50; Belinda Bozzoli with Mmantho Nkotsoe, Women of Phokeng: Consciousness, Life Strategy, and Migrancy in South Africa, 1900-1983 (London 1991); B. Bozzoli, Marxism, feminism, and South African studies Journal of Southern African Studies (hereafter JSAS) 2 (1983) 139-71; G. Chauncey, The locus of reproduction: women's labour in the Zambian Copperbelt, 1927-1953 JSAS 7 (1981) 15-64; S. Marks and E. Unterhalter, Women and the migrant labour system in southern Africa Conference on Migratory Labour in Southern Africa (Lusaka 4-8 April 1978); Marjorie Mbilinyi, Women's resistance in "customary" marriage: Tanzania's runaway wives, in A. Zegeye and S. Ishemo (Eds), Forced Labour and Migration (London and New York 1989) 211-54; M. C. Miles, Missing women: a study of Swazi female migration to the Witwatersrand, 1920-1970 (unpubl. M. A. thesis, Queen's University 1991); Sharon B. Stichter, Migrant Laborers (Cambridge 1985); Cherryl Walker, Gender and the development of the migrant labour system c. 1850-1930: an overview, in Walker, op. cit. 168-96
8. A selection of these includes: Philip L. Bonner, "Desirable or undesirable Basotho women": liquor, prostitution and the migration of Basotho women to the Rand, 1920-1945, in C. Walker (Ed.), Women and Gender in Southern Africa to 1945 (London 1990) 221-50; Belinda Bozzoli with Mmantho Nkotsoe, Women of Phokeng: Consciousness, Life Strategy, and Migrancy in South Africa, 1900-1983 (London 1991); B. Bozzoli, Marxism, feminism, and South African studies Journal of Southern African Studies (hereafter JSAS) 2 (1983) 139-71; G. Chauncey, The locus of reproduction: women's labour in the Zambian Copperbelt, 1927-1953 JSAS 7 (1981) 15-64; S. Marks and E. Unterhalter, Women and the migrant labour system in southern Africa Conference on Migratory Labour in Southern Africa (Lusaka 4-8 April 1978); Marjorie Mbilinyi, Women's resistance in "customary" marriage: Tanzania's runaway wives, in A. Zegeye and S. Ishemo (Eds), Forced Labour and Migration (London and New York 1989) 211-54; M. C. Miles, Missing women: a study of Swazi female migration to the Witwatersrand, 1920-1970 (unpubl. M. A. thesis, Queen's University 1991); Sharon B. Stichter, Migrant Laborers (Cambridge 1985); Cherryl Walker, Gender and the development of the migrant labour system c. 1850-1930: an overview, in Walker, op. cit. 168-96
9. A selection of these includes: Philip L. Bonner, "Desirable or undesirable Basotho women": liquor, prostitution and the migration of Basotho women to the Rand, 1920-1945, in C. Walker (Ed.), Women and Gender in Southern Africa to 1945 (London 1990) 221-50; Belinda Bozzoli with Mmantho Nkotsoe, Women of Phokeng: Consciousness, Life Strategy, and Migrancy in South Africa, 1900-1983 (London 1991); B. Bozzoli, Marxism, feminism, and South African studies Journal of Southern African Studies (hereafter JSAS) 2 (1983) 139-71; G. Chauncey, The locus of reproduction: women's labour in the Zambian Copperbelt, 1927-1953 JSAS 7 (1981) 15-64; S. Marks and E. Unterhalter, Women and the migrant labour system in southern Africa Conference on Migratory Labour in Southern Africa (Lusaka 4-8 April 1978); Marjorie Mbilinyi, Women's resistance in "customary" marriage: Tanzania's runaway wives, in A. Zegeye and S. Ishemo (Eds), Forced Labour and Migration (London and New York 1989) 211-54; M. C. Miles, Missing women: a study of Swazi female migration to the Witwatersrand, 1920-1970 (unpubl. M. A. thesis, Queen's University 1991); Sharon B. Stichter, Migrant Laborers (Cambridge 1985); Cherryl Walker, Gender and the development of the migrant labour system c. 1850-1930: an overview, in Walker, op. cit. 168-96
10. A selection of these includes: Philip L. Bonner, "Desirable or undesirable Basotho women": liquor, prostitution and the migration of Basotho women to the Rand, 1920-1945, in C. Walker (Ed.), Women and Gender in Southern Africa to 1945 (London 1990) 221-50; Belinda Bozzoli with Mmantho Nkotsoe, Women of Phokeng: Consciousness, Life Strategy, and Migrancy in South Africa, 1900-1983 (London 1991); B. Bozzoli, Marxism, feminism, and South African studies Journal of Southern African Studies (hereafter JSAS) 2 (1983) 139-71; G. Chauncey, The locus of reproduction: women's labour in the Zambian Copperbelt, 1927-1953 JSAS 7 (1981) 15-64; S. Marks and E. Unterhalter, Women and the migrant labour system in southern Africa Conference on Migratory Labour in Southern Africa (Lusaka 4-8 April 1978); Marjorie Mbilinyi, Women's resistance in "customary" marriage: Tanzania's runaway wives, in A. Zegeye and S. Ishemo (Eds), Forced Labour and Migration (London and New York 1989) 211-54; M. C. Miles, Missing women: a study of Swazi female migration to the Witwatersrand, 1920-1970 (unpubl. M. A. thesis, Queen's University 1991); Sharon B. Stichter, Migrant Laborers (Cambridge 1985); Cherryl Walker, Gender and the development of the migrant labour system c. 1850-1930: an overview, in Walker, op. cit. 168-96
11. A selection of these includes: Philip L. Bonner, "Desirable or undesirable Basotho women": liquor, prostitution and the migration of Basotho women to the Rand, 1920-1945, in C. Walker (Ed.), Women and Gender in Southern Africa to 1945 (London 1990) 221-50; Belinda Bozzoli with Mmantho Nkotsoe, Women of Phokeng: Consciousness, Life Strategy, and Migrancy in South Africa, 1900-1983 (London 1991); B. Bozzoli, Marxism, feminism, and South African studies Journal of Southern African Studies (hereafter JSAS) 2 (1983) 139-71; G. Chauncey, The locus of reproduction: women's labour in the Zambian Copperbelt, 1927-1953 JSAS 7 (1981) 15-64; S. Marks and E. Unterhalter, Women and the migrant labour system in southern Africa Conference on Migratory Labour in Southern Africa (Lusaka 4-8 April 1978); Marjorie Mbilinyi, Women's resistance in "customary" marriage: Tanzania's runaway wives, in A. Zegeye and S. Ishemo (Eds), Forced Labour and Migration (London and New York 1989) 211-54; M. C. Miles, Missing women: a study of Swazi female migration to the Witwatersrand, 1920-1970 (unpubl. M. A. thesis, Queen's University 1991); Sharon B. Stichter, Migrant Laborers (Cambridge 1985); Cherryl Walker, Gender and the development of the migrant labour system c. 1850-1930: an overview, in Walker, op. cit. 168-96
12. A selection of these includes: Philip L. Bonner, "Desirable or undesirable Basotho women": liquor, prostitution and the migration of Basotho women to the Rand, 1920-1945, in C. Walker (Ed.), Women and Gender in Southern Africa to 1945 (London 1990) 221-50; Belinda Bozzoli with Mmantho Nkotsoe, Women of Phokeng: Consciousness, Life Strategy, and Migrancy in South Africa, 1900-1983 (London 1991); B. Bozzoli, Marxism, feminism, and South African studies Journal of Southern African Studies (hereafter JSAS) 2 (1983) 139-71; G. Chauncey, The locus of reproduction: women's labour in the Zambian Copperbelt, 1927-1953 JSAS 7 (1981) 15-64; S. Marks and E. Unterhalter, Women and the migrant labour system in southern Africa Conference on Migratory Labour in Southern Africa (Lusaka 4-8 April 1978); Marjorie Mbilinyi, Women's resistance in "customary" marriage: Tanzania's runaway wives, in A. Zegeye and S. Ishemo (Eds), Forced Labour and Migration (London and New York 1989) 211-54; M. C. Miles, Missing women: a study of Swazi female migration to the Witwatersrand, 1920-1970 (unpubl. M. A. thesis, Queen's University 1991); Sharon B. Stichter, Migrant Laborers (Cambridge 1985); Cherryl Walker, Gender and the development of the migrant labour system c. 1850-1930: an overview, in Walker, op. cit. 168-96
13. A selection of these includes: Philip L. Bonner, "Desirable or undesirable Basotho women": liquor, prostitution and the migration of Basotho women to the Rand, 1920-1945, in C. Walker (Ed.), Women and Gender in Southern Africa to 1945 (London 1990) 221-50; Belinda Bozzoli with Mmantho Nkotsoe, Women of Phokeng: Consciousness, Life Strategy, and Migrancy in South Africa, 1900-1983 (London 1991); B. Bozzoli, Marxism, feminism, and South African studies Journal of Southern African Studies (hereafter JSAS) 2 (1983) 139-71; G. Chauncey, The locus of reproduction: women's labour in the Zambian Copperbelt, 1927-1953 JSAS 7 (1981) 15-64; S. Marks and E. Unterhalter, Women and the migrant labour system in southern Africa Conference on Migratory Labour in Southern Africa (Lusaka 4-8 April 1978); Marjorie Mbilinyi, Women's resistance in "customary" marriage: Tanzania's runaway wives, in A. Zegeye and S. Ishemo (Eds), Forced Labour and Migration (London and New York 1989) 211-54; M. C. Miles, Missing women: a study of Swazi female migration to the Witwatersrand, 1920-1970 (unpubl. M. A. thesis, Queen's University 1991); Sharon B. Stichter, Migrant Laborers (Cambridge 1985); Cherryl Walker, Gender and the development of the migrant labour system c. 1850-1930: an overview, in Walker, op. cit. 168-96
14. A selection of these includes: Philip L. Bonner, "Desirable or undesirable Basotho women": liquor, prostitution and the migration of Basotho women to the Rand, 1920-1945, in C. Walker (Ed.), Women and Gender in Southern Africa to 1945 (London 1990) 221-50; Belinda Bozzoli with Mmantho Nkotsoe, Women of Phokeng: Consciousness, Life Strategy, and Migrancy in South Africa, 1900-1983 (London 1991); B. Bozzoli, Marxism, feminism, and South African studies Journal of Southern African Studies (hereafter JSAS) 2 (1983) 139-71; G. Chauncey, The locus of reproduction: women's labour in the Zambian Copperbelt, 1927-1953 JSAS 7 (1981) 15-64; S. Marks and E. Unterhalter, Women and the migrant labour system in southern Africa Conference on Migratory Labour in Southern Africa (Lusaka 4-8 April 1978); Marjorie Mbilinyi, Women's resistance in "customary" marriage: Tanzania's runaway wives, in A. Zegeye and S. Ishemo (Eds), Forced Labour and Migration (London and New York 1989) 211-54; M. C. Miles, Missing women: a study of Swazi female migration to the Witwatersrand, 1920-1970 (unpubl. M. A. thesis, Queen's University 1991); Sharon B. Stichter, Migrant Laborers (Cambridge 1985); Cherryl Walker, Gender and the development of the migrant labour system c. 1850-1930: an overview, in Walker, op. cit. 168-96
15. Bozzoli, Marxism, feminism, and South African studies
16. C. Murray, Migrant labour and changing family structure in the rural periphery of southern Africa JSAS 6 (1980) 139-56;
17. H. Wolpe, Capitalism and cheap labour-power in South Africa: from segregation to Apartheid Economy and Society 1 (1972) 42-55
18. See, for example: J. Taylor, Some consequences of recent reductions in mine labour recruitment in Botswana Geography 71 (1986) 34-46; C. Kerven, Underdevelopment, migration and class formation in the north east of Botswana (unpubl. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Toronto 1979); D. Massey, A case of colonial collaboration (unpubl. manuscript n/d); D. Massey, Labor migration and rural development in Botswana (unpubl. Ph.D dissertation, Boston University 1980); M. Leepile, The impact of migrant labour on the economy of the Kweneng, 1940-1980 (unpubl. B.A. history thesis, University of Botswana and Swaziland 1981); Christopher Colclough and Stephen McCarthy, The Political Economy of Botswana: a Study of Growth and Distribution (Oxford 1980)
19. See, for example: J. Taylor, Some consequences of recent reductions in mine labour recruitment in Botswana Geography 71 (1986) 34-46; C. Kerven, Underdevelopment, migration and class formation in the north east of Botswana (unpubl. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Toronto 1979); D. Massey, A case of colonial collaboration (unpubl. manuscript n/d); D. Massey, Labor migration and rural development in Botswana (unpubl. Ph.D dissertation, Boston University 1980); M. Leepile, The impact of migrant labour on the economy of the Kweneng, 1940-1980 (unpubl. B.A. history thesis, University of Botswana and Swaziland 1981); Christopher Colclough and Stephen McCarthy, The Political Economy of Botswana: a Study of Growth and Distribution (Oxford 1980)
20. See, for example: J. Taylor, Some consequences of recent reductions in mine labour recruitment in Botswana Geography 71 (1986) 34-46; C. Kerven, Underdevelopment, migration and class formation in the north east of Botswana (unpubl. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Toronto 1979); D. Massey, A case of colonial collaboration (unpubl. manuscript n/d); D. Massey, Labor migration and rural development in Botswana (unpubl. Ph.D dissertation, Boston University 1980); M. Leepile, The impact of migrant labour on the economy of the Kweneng, 1940-1980 (unpubl. B.A. history thesis, University of Botswana and Swaziland 1981); Christopher Colclough and Stephen McCarthy, The Political Economy of Botswana: a Study of Growth and Distribution (Oxford 1980)
21. See, for example: J. Taylor, Some consequences of recent reductions in mine labour recruitment in Botswana Geography 71 (1986) 34-46; C. Kerven, Underdevelopment, migration and class formation in the north east of Botswana (unpubl. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Toronto 1979); D. Massey, A case of colonial collaboration (unpubl. manuscript n/d); D. Massey, Labor migration and rural development in Botswana (unpubl. Ph.D dissertation, Boston University 1980); M. Leepile, The impact of migrant labour on the economy of the Kweneng, 1940-1980 (unpubl. B.A. history thesis, University of Botswana and Swaziland 1981); Christopher Colclough and Stephen McCarthy, The Political Economy of Botswana: a Study of Growth and Distribution (Oxford 1980)
22. See, for example: J. Taylor, Some consequences of recent reductions in mine labour recruitment in Botswana Geography 71 (1986) 34-46; C. Kerven, Underdevelopment, migration and class formation in the north east of Botswana (unpubl. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Toronto 1979); D. Massey, A case of colonial collaboration (unpubl. manuscript n/d); D. Massey, Labor migration and rural development in Botswana (unpubl. Ph.D dissertation, Boston University 1980); M. Leepile, The impact of migrant labour on the economy of the Kweneng, 1940-1980 (unpubl. B.A. history thesis, University of Botswana and Swaziland 1981); Christopher Colclough and Stephen McCarthy, The Political Economy of Botswana: a Study of Growth and Distribution (Oxford 1980)
23. See, for example: J. Taylor, Some consequences of recent reductions in mine labour recruitment in Botswana Geography 71 (1986) 34-46; C. Kerven, Underdevelopment, migration and class formation in the north east of Botswana (unpubl. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Toronto 1979); D. Massey, A case of colonial collaboration (unpubl. manuscript n/d); D. Massey, Labor migration and rural development in Botswana (unpubl. Ph.D dissertation, Boston University 1980); M. Leepile, The impact of migrant labour on the economy of the Kweneng, 1940-1980 (unpubl. B.A. history thesis, University of Botswana and Swaziland 1981); Christopher Colclough and Stephen McCarthy, The Political Economy of Botswana: a Study of Growth and Distribution (Oxford 1980)
24. C. M. Cockerton, "Running away" from the "land of the desert": women's migration from colonial Botswana to South Africa, 1885-1966 (unpubl. Ph.D. dissertation, Queen's University 1995)
25. P. L. Bonner, African urbanization on the Rand between the 1930s and 1960s: its social character and political consequences JSAS 21 (1995) 117, 118. On a broader scale, Phillip Bonner debunks the notion that African men's and women's post-1930 urbanization on the Reef was permanent
26. See, for example: M. Enge, Women in Botswana: Dependent yet Independent (Gaborone 1982); Elvyn Jones-Dube, Final Report: Training and Educational Needs of Women in Botswana (1990); Ulla Kann, Voluntary Women's Organizations in Botswana (Gaborone 1979); Julia Majaha-Jartby and Ulla Kann, Women, Education and Employment: the Case of Botswana (Umea 1982); R. K. Motsete, The Role of Women's Organizations in Development in Botswana (Addis Adaba 1982); Roselyn Ribeiro, Working Paper for Women in Development: Employment and Rural Services (Gaborone 1982); Titia Van de Wall-Bake and Thea de Jager, Boiteko/Serowe and Itekeng Batlokwa Laundry/Tlokweng: a Socio-economic Study of Two Projects in Botswana involving Women of Low-income Households (Gaborone 1980)
27. See, for example: M. Enge, Women in Botswana: Dependent yet Independent (Gaborone 1982); Elvyn Jones-Dube, Final Report: Training and Educational Needs of Women in Botswana (1990); Ulla Kann, Voluntary Women's Organizations in Botswana (Gaborone 1979); Julia Majaha-Jartby and Ulla Kann, Women, Education and Employment: the Case of Botswana (Umea 1982); R. K. Motsete, The Role of Women's Organizations in Development in Botswana (Addis Adaba 1982); Roselyn Ribeiro, Working Paper for Women in Development: Employment and Rural Services (Gaborone 1982); Titia Van de Wall-Bake and Thea de Jager, Boiteko/Serowe and Itekeng Batlokwa Laundry/Tlokweng: a Socio-economic Study of Two Projects in Botswana involving Women of Low-income Households (Gaborone 1980)
28. See, for example: M. Enge, Women in Botswana: Dependent yet Independent (Gaborone 1982); Elvyn Jones-Dube, Final Report: Training and Educational Needs of Women in Botswana (1990); Ulla Kann, Voluntary Women's Organizations in Botswana (Gaborone 1979); Julia Majaha-Jartby and Ulla Kann, Women, Education and Employment: the Case of Botswana (Umea 1982); R. K. Motsete, The Role of Women's Organizations in Development in Botswana (Addis Adaba 1982); Roselyn Ribeiro, Working Paper for Women in Development: Employment and Rural Services (Gaborone 1982); Titia Van de Wall-Bake and Thea de Jager, Boiteko/Serowe and Itekeng Batlokwa Laundry/Tlokweng: a Socio-economic Study of Two Projects in Botswana involving Women of Low-income Households (Gaborone 1980)
29. See, for example: M. Enge, Women in Botswana: Dependent yet Independent (Gaborone 1982); Elvyn Jones-Dube, Final Report: Training and Educational Needs of Women in Botswana (1990); Ulla Kann, Voluntary Women's Organizations in Botswana (Gaborone 1979); Julia Majaha-Jartby and Ulla Kann, Women, Education and Employment: the Case of Botswana (Umea 1982); R. K. Motsete, The Role of Women's Organizations in Development in Botswana (Addis Adaba 1982); Roselyn Ribeiro, Working Paper for Women in Development: Employment and Rural Services (Gaborone 1982); Titia Van de Wall-Bake and Thea de Jager, Boiteko/Serowe and Itekeng Batlokwa Laundry/Tlokweng: a Socio-economic Study of Two Projects in Botswana involving Women of Low-income Households (Gaborone 1980)
30. See, for example: M. Enge, Women in Botswana: Dependent yet Independent (Gaborone 1982); Elvyn Jones-Dube, Final Report: Training and Educational Needs of Women in Botswana (1990); Ulla Kann, Voluntary Women's Organizations in Botswana (Gaborone 1979); Julia Majaha-Jartby and Ulla Kann, Women, Education and Employment: the Case of Botswana (Umea 1982); R. K. Motsete, The Role of Women's Organizations in Development in Botswana (Addis Adaba 1982); Roselyn Ribeiro, Working Paper for Women in Development: Employment and Rural Services (Gaborone 1982); Titia Van de Wall-Bake and Thea de Jager, Boiteko/Serowe and Itekeng Batlokwa Laundry/Tlokweng: a Socio-economic Study of Two Projects in Botswana involving Women of Low-income Households (Gaborone 1980)
31. See, for example: M. Enge, Women in Botswana: Dependent yet Independent (Gaborone 1982); Elvyn Jones-Dube, Final Report: Training and Educational Needs of Women in Botswana (1990); Ulla Kann, Voluntary Women's Organizations in Botswana (Gaborone 1979); Julia Majaha-Jartby and Ulla Kann, Women, Education and Employment: the Case of Botswana (Umea 1982); R. K. Motsete, The Role of Women's Organizations in Development in Botswana (Addis Adaba 1982); Roselyn Ribeiro, Working Paper for Women in Development: Employment and Rural Services (Gaborone 1982); Titia Van de Wall-Bake and Thea de Jager, Boiteko/Serowe and Itekeng Batlokwa Laundry/Tlokweng: a Socio-economic Study of Two Projects in Botswana involving Women of Low-income Households (Gaborone 1980)
32. See, for example: M. Enge, Women in Botswana: Dependent yet Independent (Gaborone 1982); Elvyn Jones-Dube, Final Report: Training and Educational Needs of Women in Botswana (1990); Ulla Kann, Voluntary Women's Organizations in Botswana (Gaborone 1979); Julia Majaha-Jartby and Ulla Kann, Women, Education and Employment: the Case of Botswana (Umea 1982); R. K. Motsete, The Role of Women's Organizations in Development in Botswana (Addis Adaba 1982); Roselyn Ribeiro, Working Paper for Women in Development: Employment and Rural Services (Gaborone 1982); Titia Van de Wall-Bake and Thea de Jager, Boiteko/Serowe and Itekeng Batlokwa Laundry/Tlokweng: a Socio-economic Study of Two Projects in Botswana involving Women of Low-income Households (Gaborone 1980)
33. Government Documents (hereafter GD) University of the Witwatersrand (hereafter UW) Cape Census, 1891, 78-79; GD Census of South Africa Annexure to General Report (1911), part VIII, 989; GD, Census of South Africa, 1921, 233
34. This paper uses the spellings of place and group names used in colonial Botswana
35. R. Fred Morton, Chiefs and ethnic unity in two colonial worlds: the Bakgatla baga Kgafela of the Bechuanaland Protectorate and the Transvaal, 1872-1966, in A. I. Asiwaju (Ed), Partitioned Africans: Ethnic Relations across Africa's International Boundaries, 1884-1984 (London 1985) 127-54
36. BL WP 3890/2, Dundas and Ashton 44; Charles Drummond and Andrew Manson, The evolution and significance of the Bophutatswana-Botswana border, in D. Rumley and J. V Minghi (Eds), The Geography of B order Landscapes (London 1991) 229, quoting Botswana National Archives (hereafter BNA) despatch #142 G30/5/93, Major Lowe, R. M. Taung to Colonial Secretary, Vryburg, 20/05/1893
37. Interview: Ruth Moganedi, by C. M. Cockerton, Meadowlands (Soweto), 25/02/1993; interview: Ruth Moganedi, by C. V Kunene and C. M. Cockerton, Meadowlands, 7/03/ 1993; Central Archives Depot (hereafter CAD) Native Affairs Department (hereafter NTS) 2570 901/295, Government Secretary, Mafeking (hereafter GS), to the Secretary for Native Affairs, Pretoria (hereafter SNA), 26/02/1931
38. R. Fred Morton (Ed.), Interview Notes on Bakgatla History (Gaborone 1982) interview: Mrs. Gladys Boitumelo Bakwena, Mochudi, 18/12/1981, 27-29; ibid, interview: Mrs. Motswere Pilane, 22/12/1981; ibid, interview: Bitsang Matlapehng, 15/12/1981; ibid, interview: Serufe Pilane, 21/12/1981
39. R. Fred Morton (Ed.), Interview Notes on Bakgatla History (Gaborone 1982) interview: Mrs. Gladys Boitumelo Bakwena, Mochudi, 18/12/1981, 27-29; ibid, interview: Mrs. Motswere Pilane, 22/12/1981; ibid, interview: Bitsang Matlapehng, 15/12/1981; ibid, interview: Serufe Pilane, 21/12/1981
40. BL CSD 514, Bechuanaland Protectorate Census 1946, xiii
41. Morton, Interview Notes 27-29, interview: Mrs. Gladys Boitumelo Bakwena, 18/12/1981; ibid, interview: Mrs. Motswere Pilane, 22/12/1981; ibid. interview: Bitsang Matlapeng, 15/ 12/1981; ibid. interview: Mrs. Serufe Pilane, 21/12/1981, 33
42. Morton, Chiefs and ethnic unity in two colonial worlds: the Bakgatla baga Kgafela of the Bechuanaland Protectorate and the Transvaal, 1872-1966, 141
43. Morton, Interview Notes 11, interview: Mrs. Mmankae Bogatsu, 14/12/1981
44. Ibid., interview: Mmankae Bogatsu, 14/12/1981
45. CAD NTS 2559, letter # 136/14/37. Director of Native Labour, to the SNA, 16/02/1925
46. Interview: anonymous woman, by C. V Kunene and C. M. Cockerton, Meadowlands, 25/ 02/1993
47. Interview: Mma Motshegare, by Mr. Lekoko and C. M. Cockerton, Mafeking, 10/03/1993
48. Morton, Interview Notes 82, interview: Mrs. Motswere Pilane
49. Bozzoli with Nkotsoe, Women of Phokeng: Consciousness, Life Strategy and Migrancy in South Africa, 1900-1983; K. Eales, "Good girls" versus "bad girls", 8 Agenda: a Journal about Women and Gender 4 (1989) 1-22; Kathy Eales, Patriarchs, passes and privilege: Johannesburg's African middle classes and the question of night passes for African women, 1920-1931, in P. Bonner, I. Hofmeyer, D. James and T. Lodge (Eds), Holding their Ground: Class, Locality and Culture in 19th and 20th century South Africa (Johannesburg 1989); P. L. Bonner, African urbanization on the Rand between the 1930s and 1960s: its social character and political consequences
50. Bozzoli with Nkotsoe, Women of Phokeng: Consciousness, Life Strategy and Migrancy in South Africa, 1900-1983; K. Eales, "Good girls" versus "bad girls", 8 Agenda: a Journal about Women and Gender 4 (1989) 1-22; Kathy Eales, Patriarchs, passes and privilege: Johannesburg's African middle classes and the question of night passes for African women, 1920-1931, in P. Bonner, I. Hofmeyer, D. James and T. Lodge (Eds), Holding their Ground: Class, Locality and Culture in 19th and 20th century South Africa (Johannesburg 1989); P. L. Bonner, African urbanization on the Rand between the 1930s and 1960s: its social character and political consequences
51. Bozzoli with Nkotsoe, Women of Phokeng: Consciousness, Life Strategy and Migrancy in South Africa, 1900-1983; K. Eales, "Good girls" versus "bad girls", 8 Agenda: a Journal about Women and Gender 4 (1989) 1-22; Kathy Eales, Patriarchs, passes and privilege: Johannesburg's African middle classes and the question of night passes for African women, 1920-1931, in P. Bonner, I. Hofmeyer, D. James and T. Lodge (Eds), Holding their Ground: Class, Locality and Culture in 19th and 20th century South Africa (Johannesburg 1989); P. L. Bonner, African urbanization on the Rand between the 1930s and 1960s: its social character and political consequences
52. Bozzoli with Nkotsoe, Women of Phokeng: Consciousness, Life Strategy and Migrancy in South Africa, 1900-1983; K. Eales, "Good girls" versus "bad girls", 8 Agenda: a Journal about Women and Gender 4 (1989) 1-22; Kathy Eales, Patriarchs, passes and privilege: Johannesburg's African middle classes and the question of night passes for African women, 1920-1931, in P. Bonner, I. Hofmeyer, D. James and T. Lodge (Eds), Holding their Ground: Class, Locality and Culture in 19th and 20th century South Africa (Johannesburg 1989); P. L. Bonner, African urbanization on the Rand between the 1930s and 1960s: its social character and political consequences
53. Interview: Sejosennye Kgari, by S. Kogomo and C. Cockerton, Bokaa, 6/06/1993; Phutadikobo Museum, Mochudi, James Chalmers, Head of Lovedale, The South African Outlook: a Journal dealing with Native Problems, Missionary News, and Social Science, 60 712 1/09/1930 171; CAD NTS 2559 16/295, Dutton, GS, to the SNA, 16 February 1925; Morton, Interview Notes interview: Mrs. Motswere Pilane, 22/12/1981; Isaac Schapera, Present-day life in the native reserves, in I. Schapera (Ed.), Western Civilization and the Natives of South Africa: Studies in Culture Contact (London 1967) 56
54. Interview: Sejosennye Kgari, by S. Kogomo and C. Cockerton, Bokaa, 6/06/1993; Phutadikobo Museum, Mochudi, James Chalmers, Head of Lovedale, The South African Outlook: a Journal dealing with Native Problems, Missionary News, and Social Science, 60 712 1/09/1930 171; CAD NTS 2559 16/295, Dutton, GS, to the SNA, 16 February 1925; Morton, Interview Notes interview: Mrs. Motswere Pilane, 22/12/1981; Isaac Schapera, Present-day life in the native reserves, in I. Schapera (Ed.), Western Civilization and the Natives of South Africa: Studies in Culture Contact (London 1967) 56
55. N. Parsons, Khama III, the Bamangwato, and the British (unpubl. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Edinburgh 1973) 423
56. M. Mgadla, Missionary and colonial education among the Bamangwato (unpubl. B.A. thesis, University of Botswana 1986) 193; Jack Bermingham, Perspectives on colonial education in Botswana, in A. Mugomba and M. Nyaggah (Eds), Independence without Freedom: the Political Economy of Colonial Education in Southern Africa (Oxford 1980) 179
57. M. Mgadla, Missionary and colonial education among the Bamangwato (unpubl. B.A. thesis, University of Botswana 1986) 193; Jack Bermingham, Perspectives on colonial education in Botswana, in A. Mugomba and M. Nyaggah (Eds), Independence without Freedom: the Political Economy of Colonial Education in Southern Africa (Oxford 1980) 179
58. BNA BT Admin 19/9, Tiger Kloof Hand Book, 1; Moeding College (heareafter MC) Envelope #41, Pamphlets relating to Tiger Kloof organisation and events, 1908-1954
59. MC Report 31, file #12, Tiger Kloof Native institution annual report, 1931, 12; BNA Bamangwato Administration 19/9, Tiger Kloof hand book, 2
60. Bermingham, op. cit. 175
61. MC London Missionary Society, Tiger Kloof Institution, Girls Department, Register of Pupils, volume 1
62. Ibid., volumes 1-3
63. Interview: Reverend Barry and Mrs. Barry, by C. M. Cockerton, Zeerust, 21/06/1993; Botswana Collection (hereafter BC) Bechuanaland Protectorate Native Advisory Council (hereafter BPNAC) Minutes of the 10th session, 15/04/1930; 35; MC Tiger Kloof Native Institution Register 2, Keleapere Modise; ibid. Gladys Grace Mahloane; ibid. Kelebale Maphanyane; ibid. Monosi T. Chiepe; MC Tiger Kloof Register 3, Neo Manenye; MC Tiger Kloof Register 4, Kealeboga Mosadimotho Baruti
64. Heather Hughes, "A lighthouse for African womanhood": Inanda Seminary, 1869-1945, in Walker (Ed), op. cit. (London 1990) 197-220; Jacklyn Cock, Domestic service and education for domesticity: the incorporation of Xhosa women into colonial society, in Walker (Ed), ibid. 76-96; S. Meintjes, Family and gender in the Christian community at Edendale, Natal in colonial times, in Walker (Ed.), ibid. 125-45
65. Heather Hughes, "A lighthouse for African womanhood": Inanda Seminary, 1869-1945, in Walker (Ed), op. cit. (London 1990) 197-220; Jacklyn Cock, Domestic service and education for domesticity: the incorporation of Xhosa women into colonial society, in Walker (Ed), ibid. 76-96; S. Meintjes, Family and gender in the Christian community at Edendale, Natal in colonial times, in Walker (Ed.), ibid. 125-45
66. Heather Hughes, "A lighthouse for African womanhood": Inanda Seminary, 1869-1945, in Walker (Ed), op. cit. (London 1990) 197-220; Jacklyn Cock, Domestic service and education for domesticity: the incorporation of Xhosa women into colonial society, in Walker (Ed), ibid. 76-96; S. Meintjes, Family and gender in the Christian community at Edendale, Natal in colonial times, in Walker (Ed.), ibid. 125-45
67. P. Bonner, "Desirable or undesirable Basotho women": liquor, prostitution and the migration of Basotho women to the Rand, 1920-1945. For similar situations in Northern Rhodesia, Southern Rhodesia, and Central Africa, see: J. Wright, Justice, women, and the social order, Workshop on the History of Pre-colonial Nguni Societies (1976 Rhodes University) 37, 39; D. Jeater, Women's emancipation and the limits of paternalism: Zimbabwe under the BSAC, 7 Postgraduate Seminar "Women, Colonialism, and Commonwealth" (16 May 1991) London: Institute of Commonwealth Studies, University of London: Mbilinyi, op. cit.
68. P. Bonner, "Desirable or undesirable Basotho women": liquor, prostitution and the migration of Basotho women to the Rand, 1920-1945. For similar situations in Northern Rhodesia, Southern Rhodesia, and Central Africa, see: J. Wright, Justice, women, and the social order, Workshop on the History of Pre-colonial Nguni Societies (1976 Rhodes University) 37, 39; D. Jeater, Women's emancipation and the limits of paternalism: Zimbabwe under the BSAC, 7 Postgraduate Seminar "Women, Colonialism, and Commonwealth" (16 May 1991) London: Institute of Commonwealth Studies, University of London: Mbilinyi, op. cit.
69. P. Bonner, "Desirable or undesirable Basotho women": liquor, prostitution and the migration of Basotho women to the Rand, 1920-1945. For similar situations in Northern Rhodesia, Southern Rhodesia, and Central Africa, see: J. Wright, Justice, women, and the social order, Workshop on the History of Pre-colonial Nguni Societies (1976 Rhodes University) 37, 39; D. Jeater, Women's emancipation and the limits of paternalism: Zimbabwe under the BSAC, 7 Postgraduate Seminar "Women, Colonialism, and Commonwealth" (16 May 1991) London: Institute of Commonwealth Studies, University of London: Mbilinyi, op. cit.
70. BNA, District Commissioner Serowe (hereafter DCS) 5/14, Tshekedi Khama, to the Resident Magistrate, Serowe, 5/03/1936
71. BNA DCS, Ag. Additional DCS, to the Acting Chief Tshekedi Khama, 4/09/1936. ibid, 11/ 08/1936 The Commissioner repeatedly alerted Khama to numerous cases of Sarwa children being abducted from their parents
72. Interview: Dr. Ed Wilmsen, by C. M. Cockerton, Johannesurg, 23/02/1993. Dr. Wilmsen has seen evidence of these relations throughout the Central District in Botswana
73. BNA High Commissioner 84/31, Dr. W. J. Leyds, State Secretary, Pretoria, to His Majesty's Agent, Pretoria, 3/09/1890. This request to the British government foreshadowed the decline of chiefly authority throughout the next century
74. Diana Wylie, Migrants to freehold farms and to farms in South Africa, 438, in C. Kerven (Ed), Final Report of the National Migration Survey - Migration in Botswana: Patterns, Causes and Consequences (hereafter NMS) (Gaborone 1982) 377-441; G. N. Simpson, Peasants and politics in the Western Transvaal, 1920-1960 (unpubl. M.A. thesis, University of the Witwatersrand 1986) 361
75. Diana Wylie, Migrants to freehold farms and to farms in South Africa, 438, in C. Kerven (Ed), Final Report of the National Migration Survey - Migration in Botswana: Patterns, Causes and Consequences (hereafter NMS) (Gaborone 1982) 377-441; G. N. Simpson, Peasants and politics in the Western Transvaal, 1920-1960 (unpubl. M.A. thesis, University of the Witwatersrand 1986) 361
76. Interview: James Thebe, by C. M. Cockerton, Sikwane, 10/06/1993. Mr. Thebe, the local Sikwane historian, provided fascinating details on this little-known labour movement
77. Shula Marks and Richard Rathbone (Eds), Industrialisation and Social Change in South Africa: African Class Formation, Culture, and Consciousness, 1870-1930 (London 1987); Stichler, op. cit.; William H. Worger, South Africa's City of Diamonds: Mine Workers and Monopoly Capitalism in Kimberley, 1867-1895 (London 1987)
78. Shula Marks and Richard Rathbone (Eds), Industrialisation and Social Change in South Africa: African Class Formation, Culture, and Consciousness, 1870-1930 (London 1987); Stichler, op. cit.; William H. Worger, South Africa's City of Diamonds: Mine Workers and Monopoly Capitalism in Kimberley, 1867-1895 (London 1987)
79. Shula Marks and Richard Rathbone (Eds), Industrialisation and Social Change in South Africa: African Class Formation, Culture, and Consciousness, 1870-1930 (London 1987); Stichler, op. cit.; William H. Worger, South Africa's City of Diamonds: Mine Workers and Monopoly Capitalism in Kimberley, 1867-1895 (London 1987)
80. Margaret L. Hodgson and William George Ballinger, Britain in South Africa (No. 2) Bechuanaland Protectorate (Cape Town 1931) 17; Robert Vicat Turrell, Capital and Labour on the Kimberley Diamond Fields, 1871-1890 (Cambridge 1987) 19-25
81. Margaret L. Hodgson and William George Ballinger, Britain in South Africa (No. 2) Bechuanaland Protectorate (Cape Town 1931) 17; Robert Vicat Turrell, Capital and Labour on the Kimberley Diamond Fields, 1871-1890 (Cambridge 1987) 19-25
82. Turrell, op. cit. 20-21
83. Neil Parsons, The economic history of Khama's country in Botswana, 1844-1930, 124 in R. Palmer and N. Parsons (Eds), The Roots of Rural Poverty in South and Central Africa (London 1977); Turrell, op. cit. 21
84. Neil Parsons, The economic history of Khama's country in Botswana, 1844-1930, 124 in R. Palmer and N. Parsons (Eds), The Roots of Rural Poverty in South and Central Africa (London 1977); Turrell, op. cit. 21
85. G. Pirie, Railways and labour migration to the Rand mines: constraints and significance JSAS 4 (1993)
86. Worger, op. cit. 79
87. Interview: Naomi Madube, by S. Kgomo and C. M. Cockerton, Bokaa, 6/06/1993
88. Worger, op. cit.; Turrell, op. cit.
89. Worger, op. cit.; Turrell, op. cit.
90. J. Taylor, Mine labour migration from Botswana to South Africa (unpubl. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Liverpool 1981); C. Kerven, op. cit.; Carol Kerven, Botswana mine labour migration to South Africa, in NMS; David Massey, The development of a labor reserve: the impact of colonial rule on Botswana, in NMS; D. Massey, Labour migration and rural development in Botswana (unpubl. Ph.D. dissertation, Boston University 1980)
91. J. Taylor, Mine labour migration from Botswana to South Africa (unpubl. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Liverpool 1981); C. Kerven, op. cit.; Carol Kerven, Botswana mine labour migration to South Africa, in NMS; David Massey, The development of a labor reserve: the impact of colonial rule on Botswana, in NMS; D. Massey, Labour migration and rural development in Botswana (unpubl. Ph.D. dissertation, Boston University 1980)
92. J. Taylor, Mine labour migration from Botswana to South Africa (unpubl. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Liverpool 1981); C. Kerven, op. cit.; Carol Kerven, Botswana mine labour migration to South Africa, in NMS; David Massey, The development of a labor reserve: the impact of colonial rule on Botswana, in NMS; D. Massey, Labour migration and rural development in Botswana (unpubl. Ph.D. dissertation, Boston University 1980)
93. J. Taylor, Mine labour migration from Botswana to South Africa (unpubl. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Liverpool 1981); C. Kerven, op. cit.; Carol Kerven, Botswana mine labour migration to South Africa, in NMS; David Massey, The development of a labor reserve: the impact of colonial rule on Botswana, in NMS; D. Massey, Labour migration and rural development in Botswana (unpubl. Ph.D. dissertation, Boston University 1980)
94. J. Taylor, Mine labour migration from Botswana to South Africa (unpubl. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Liverpool 1981); C. Kerven, op. cit.; Carol Kerven, Botswana mine labour migration to South Africa, in NMS; David Massey, The development of a labor reserve: the impact of colonial rule on Botswana, in NMS; D. Massey, Labour migration and rural development in Botswana (unpubl. Ph.D. dissertation, Boston University 1980)
95. See, for instance: Jonathan Crush, The Struggle for Swazi Labour, 1890-1920 (Montreal 1987); Elizabeth A. Eldredge, A South African Kingdom; the Pursuit of Security in Nineteenth- century Lesotho (Cambridge 1993); Colin Bundy, The Rise and Fall of the South African Peasantry (Berkeley 1979); Robert H. Palmer, Land and Racial Domination in Rhodesia (London 1977)
96. See, for instance: Jonathan Crush, The Struggle for Swazi Labour, 1890-1920 (Montreal 1987); Elizabeth A. Eldredge, A South African Kingdom; the Pursuit of Security in Nineteenth-century Lesotho (Cambridge 1993); Colin Bundy, The Rise and Fall of the South African Peasantry (Berkeley 1979); Robert H. Palmer, Land and Racial Domination in Rhodesia (London 1977)
97. See, for instance: Jonathan Crush, The Struggle for Swazi Labour, 1890-1920 (Montreal 1987); Elizabeth A. Eldredge, A South African Kingdom; the Pursuit of Security in Nineteenth- century Lesotho (Cambridge 1993); Colin Bundy, The Rise and Fall of the South African Peasantry (Berkeley 1979); Robert H. Palmer, Land and Racial Domination in Rhodesia (London 1977)
98. See, for instance: Jonathan Crush, The Struggle for Swazi Labour, 1890-1920 (Montreal 1987); Elizabeth A. Eldredge, A South African Kingdom; the Pursuit of Security in Nineteenth- century Lesotho (Cambridge 1993); Colin Bundy, The Rise and Fall of the South African Peasantry (Berkeley 1979); Robert H. Palmer, Land and Racial Domination in Rhodesia (London 1977)
99. Jack Parson, The "labor reserve" in historical perspective: toward a political economy of the Bechuanaland Protectorate, in L. Picard (Ed.), The Evolution of Modern Botswana (London 1985) 11
100. Massey, The development of a labour reserve, 9, quoting LMS Archives, H. Williams to London, 27/03/1896 and 10/03/1897; Palmer and Parsons, op. cit. 125; ibid. 7, quoting Annual Report for the Bechuanaland Protectorate, 1896-97, 10
101. Massey, The development of a labour reserve, 9, quoting LMS Archives, H. Williams to London, 27/03/1896 and 10/03/1897; Palmer and Parsons, op. cit. 125; ibid. 7, quoting Annual Report for the Bechuanaland Protectorate, 1896-97, 10
102. Massey, The development of a labour reserve, 9, quoting LMS Archives, H. Williams to London, 27/03/1896 and 10/03/1897; Palmer and Parsons, op. cit. 125; ibid. 7, quoting Annual Report for the Bechuanaland Protectorate, 1896-97, 10
103. F. J. Ramsay, The rise and fall of the Bakwena dynasty of south-central Botswana, 1820-1940 (unpubl. Ph.D. dissertation, Boston University 1990) 246-47
104. BNA S. 360/15, Gaberones District Annual Report, 1933; E. B. Egner and A.-L. Klausen, Poverty in Botswana (1980 National Institute of Development and Cultural Research, University College of Botswana) 29-30
105. BNA S. 360/15, Gaberones District Annual Report, 1933; E. B. Egner and A.-L. Klausen, Poverty in Botswana (1980 National Institute of Development and Cultural Research, University College of Botswana) 29-30
106. P. Steenkamp, "Cinderella of the empire?": development policy in Bechuanaland in the 1930s JSAS 2 (1991) 292-308; Paul Maylam, Rhodes, the Tswana, and the British: Colonialism, Collaboration and Conflict in the Bechuanaland Protectorate, 1885-1899 (London 1990) 213
107. P. Steenkamp, "Cinderella of the empire?": development policy in Bechuanaland in the 1930s JSAS 2 (1991) 292-308; Paul Maylam, Rhodes, the Tswana, and the British: Colonialism, Collaboration and Conflict in the Bechuanaland Protectorate, 1885-1899 (London 1990) 213
108. Isaac Schapera, Married Life in an African Tribe (New York 1941)
109. See, for instance: William Beinart, Peter Delius, and Stanley Trapido (Eds), Putting a Plough to the Ground: Accumulation and Dispossession in Rural South Africa 1850-1930 (Johannesburg 1986); Timothy J. Keegan, Rural Transformations in Industrializing South Africa: the Southern Highveld to 1914 (London 1987); Tessa Marcus, Modernizing Super- exploitation: Restructuring South African Agriculture (London 1989)
110. See, for instance: William Beinart, Peter Delius, and Stanley Trapido (Eds), Putting a Plough to the Ground: Accumulation and Dispossession in Rural South Africa 1850-1930 (Johannesburg 1986); Timothy J. Keegan, Rural Transformations in Industrializing South Africa: the Southern Highveld to 1914 (London 1987); Tessa Marcus, Modernizing Super- exploitation: Restructuring South African Agriculture (London 1989)
111. See, for instance: William Beinart, Peter Delius, and Stanley Trapido (Eds), Putting a Plough to the Ground: Accumulation and Dispossession in Rural South Africa 1850-1930 (Johannesburg 1986); Timothy J. Keegan, Rural Transformations in Industrializing South Africa: the Southern Highveld to 1914 (London 1987); Tessa Marcus, Modernizing Super-exploitation: Restructuring South African Agriculture (London 1989)
112. Cockerton, op. cit.
113. CAD NTS 2693, file #5/301, D. 96/36, Chief-Inspector, f/Deputy Commissioner, S. A. Police, Commanding Kimberley Division (AOD), to the Commissioner of the South African Police, 3/02/1940
114. Church of the Province of South Africa Collection, UW, The Ballinger Papers, A.3.1.2.5., Influence of European culture on Bakhgatla culture, 11
115. Interview: James Thebe, by C. M. Cockerton, Sikwane, 10/06/1993
116. Interview: Mr. Moshampi Pilane, by Mpho and C. M. Cockerton, Sikwane, 8/06/1993. The following information comes from this interactive interview in the main kgotla building with Mr. Pilane, Headman of Sikwane Village, other royal family members, male elders, the local social worker, and some of the administrative staff. They stated that most of the farm workers were women. On the other hand, in a group interview with 15 elderly, ex-migrant women at Sikwane on 8 June 1993, none of the women admitted working on farms just across the border
117. Morton, Interview Notes 16-17 interview: Mrs. Seipati Ralefala, 16/12/1981
118. Interview: Mr. Moshampi Pilane, by Mpho and C. M. Cockerton, Sikwane, 8/06/1993; Cockerton, op. cit.
119. Interview: Mokuduba Rantlhang, by L. Loboro and C. M. Cockerton, Kanye, 12/06/1992
120. Interview: Lizi Tlhowe, by Mpho and C. M. Cockerton, Mabalane, 8/06/1993; interview: Naomi Madube, by S. Kgomo and C. M. Cockerton, Bokaa, 6/06/1993; interview: Mmamilo Sentsho, by S. Kgaswane and C. M. Cockerton, Morwa, 12/05/1993
121. Interview: group of 15 Sikwane women, by Mpho and C. M. Cockerton, Sikwane, 8/06/ 1993
122. CAD NTS 2527 154/293, letter #2/13/24 (1300), W. D. v. d. Berg, Native Commissioner, Nylstroom, to the SNA, 23/10/1924
123. Interview: group of 15 Sikwane women by Mpho and C. M. Cockerton, Sikwane, 8/06/ 1993
124. Isaac Schapera, Migrant Labour and Tribal Life: a Study of Conditions in the Bechuanaland Protectorate (London 1947) 32
125. BNA DCS 30/6, Tshekedi Khama, to DCS, 2/03-1/04/1940
126. BNA, S. 387/5, Bechuanaland Protectorate African Advisory Council (hereafter BPAAC) Minutes of 21st session, 26/03-1/04/1940, comment by Resident Commissioner; BPNAC Minutes of 2oth session, 26, comment by GS; Schapera, op. cit.; Schapera, Labour migration from a Bechuanaland native reserve (part one) Journal of the African Society 32 (1933) 386-97; I. Schapera, Labour migration from a Bechuanaland native reserve (part two) Journal of the African Society 33 (1934) 49-58
127. BNA, S. 387/5, Bechuanaland Protectorate African Advisory Council (hereafter BPAAC) Minutes of 21st session, 26/03-1/04/1940, comment by Resident Commissioner; BPNAC Minutes of 2oth session, 26, comment by GS; Schapera, op. cit.; Schapera, Labour migration from a Bechuanaland native reserve (part one) Journal of the African Society 32 (1933) 386-97; I. Schapera, Labour migration from a Bechuanaland native reserve (part two) Journal of the African Society 33 (1934) 49-58
128. BNA, S. 387/5, Bechuanaland Protectorate African Advisory Council (hereafter BPAAC) Minutes of 21st session, 26/03-1/04/1940, comment by Resident Commissioner; BPNAC Minutes of 2oth session, 26, comment by GS; Schapera, op. cit.; Schapera, Labour migration from a Bechuanaland native reserve (part one) Journal of the African Society 32 (1933) 386-97; I. Schapera, Labour migration from a Bechuanaland native reserve (part two) Journal of the African Society 33 (1934) 49-58
129. See, for instance: Hoyt Alverson, Mind in the Heart of Darkness: Value and Self-identity among the Tswana of Southern Africa (London 1978); B. Brown, The impact of male labour migration on women in Botswana African Affairs 82 (1983) 367-88; W. Izzard, Rural- urban migration in a developing country: the case of women migrants in Botswana (unpubl. Ph.D. dissertation, Oxford University 1982); Carol Kerven (Ed), Workshop on Migration Research on Rural Environment and Development Planning in Southern Africa (Gaborone 12-24 July 1979); Carol Kerven (Ed.), NMS (Gaborone 1982); K. E. Kobokobo, Labour migration and its economic impact on the north-east district: case of Bakalanga, 1870-1939 (unpubl. B.A. History thesis, University of Botswana and Swaziland 1982); N. Kubanji, The impact of migrant labour on Tutume Central Sub District: a case study of the villages of Sebina, Tutume and Maitengwe (1900-1966) (unpubl. B.A. History thesis, University of Botswana n/d)
130. See, for instance: Hoyt Alverson, Mind in the Heart of Darkness: Value and Self-identity among the Tswana of Southern Africa (London 1978); B. Brown, The impact of male labour migration on women in Botswana African Affairs 82 (1983) 367-88; W. Izzard, Rural- urban migration in a developing country: the case of women migrants in Botswana (unpubl. Ph.D. dissertation, Oxford University 1982); Carol Kerven (Ed), Workshop on Migration Research on Rural Environment and Development Planning in Southern Africa (Gaborone 12-24 July 1979); Carol Kerven (Ed.), NMS (Gaborone 1982); K. E. Kobokobo, Labour migration and its economic impact on the north-east district: case of Bakalanga, 1870-1939 (unpubl. B.A. History thesis, University of Botswana and Swaziland 1982); N. Kubanji, The impact of migrant labour on Tutume Central Sub District: a case study of the villages of Sebina, Tutume and Maitengwe (1900-1966) (unpubl. B.A. History thesis, University of Botswana n/d)
131. See, for instance: Hoyt Alverson, Mind in the Heart of Darkness: Value and Self-identity among the Tswana of Southern Africa (London 1978); B. Brown, The impact of male labour migration on women in Botswana African Affairs 82 (1983) 367-88; W. Izzard, Rural-urban migration in a developing country: the case of women migrants in Botswana (unpubl. Ph.D. dissertation, Oxford University 1982); Carol Kerven (Ed), Workshop on Migration Research on Rural Environment and Development Planning in Southern Africa (Gaborone 12-24 July 1979); Carol Kerven (Ed.), NMS (Gaborone 1982); K. E. Kobokobo, Labour migration and its economic impact on the north-east district: case of Bakalanga, 1870-1939 (unpubl. B.A. History thesis, University of Botswana and Swaziland 1982); N. Kubanji, The impact of migrant labour on Tutume Central Sub District: a case study of the villages of Sebina, Tutume and Maitengwe (1900-1966) (unpubl. B.A. History thesis, University of Botswana n/d)
132. See, for instance: Hoyt Alverson, Mind in the Heart of Darkness: Value and Self-identity among the Tswana of Southern Africa (London 1978); B. Brown, The impact of male labour migration on women in Botswana African Affairs 82 (1983) 367-88; W. Izzard, Rural- urban migration in a developing country: the case of women migrants in Botswana (unpubl. Ph.D. dissertation, Oxford University 1982); Carol Kerven (Ed), Workshop on Migration Research on Rural Environment and Development Planning in Southern Africa (Gaborone 12-24 July 1979); Carol Kerven (Ed.), NMS (Gaborone 1982); K. E. Kobokobo, Labour migration and its economic impact on the north-east district: case of Bakalanga, 1870-1939 (unpubl. B.A. History thesis, University of Botswana and Swaziland 1982); N. Kubanji, The impact of migrant labour on Tutume Central Sub District: a case study of the villages of Sebina, Tutume and Maitengwe (1900-1966) (unpubl. B.A. History thesis, University of Botswana n/d)
133. See, for instance: Hoyt Alverson, Mind in the Heart of Darkness: Value and Self-identity among the Tswana of Southern Africa (London 1978); B. Brown, The impact of male labour migration on women in Botswana African Affairs 82 (1983) 367-88; W. Izzard, Rural- urban migration in a developing country: the case of women migrants in Botswana (unpubl. Ph.D. dissertation, Oxford University 1982); Carol Kerven (Ed), Workshop on Migration Research on Rural Environment and Development Planning in Southern Africa (Gaborone 12-24 July 1979); Carol Kerven (Ed.), NMS (Gaborone 1982); K. E. Kobokobo, Labour migration and its economic impact on the north-east district: case of Bakalanga, 1870-1939 (unpubl. B.A. History thesis, University of Botswana and Swaziland 1982); N. Kubanji, The impact of migrant labour on Tutume Central Sub District: a case study of the villages of Sebina, Tutume and Maitengwe (1900-1966) (unpubl. B.A. History thesis, University of Botswana n/d)
134. See, for instance: Hoyt Alverson, Mind in the Heart of Darkness: Value and Self-identity among the Tswana of Southern Africa (London 1978); B. Brown, The impact of male labour migration on women in Botswana African Affairs 82 (1983) 367-88; W. Izzard, Rural- urban migration in a developing country: the case of women migrants in Botswana (unpubl. Ph.D. dissertation, Oxford University 1982); Carol Kerven (Ed), Workshop on Migration Research on Rural Environment and Development Planning in Southern Africa (Gaborone 12-24 July 1979); Carol Kerven (Ed.), NMS (Gaborone 1982); K. E. Kobokobo, Labour migration and its economic impact on the north-east district: case of Bakalanga, 1870-1939 (unpubl. B.A. History thesis, University of Botswana and Swaziland 1982); N. Kubanji, The impact of migrant labour on Tutume Central Sub District: a case study of the villages of Sebina, Tutume and Maitengwe (1900-1966) (unpubl. B.A. History thesis, University of Botswana n/d)
135. See, for instance: Hoyt Alverson, Mind in the Heart of Darkness: Value and Self-identity among the Tswana of Southern Africa (London 1978); B. Brown, The impact of male labour migration on women in Botswana African Affairs 82 (1983) 367-88; W. Izzard, Rural- urban migration in a developing country: the case of women migrants in Botswana (unpubl. Ph.D. dissertation, Oxford University 1982); Carol Kerven (Ed), Workshop on Migration Research on Rural Environment and Development Planning in Southern Africa (Gaborone 12-24 July 1979); Carol Kerven (Ed.), NMS (Gaborone 1982); K. E. Kobokobo, Labour migration and its economic impact on the north-east district: case of Bakalanga, 1870-1939 (unpubl. B.A. History thesis, University of Botswana and Swaziland 1982); N. Kubanji, The impact of migrant labour on Tutume Central Sub District: a case study of the villages of Sebina, Tutume and Maitengwe (1900-1966) (unpubl. B.A. History thesis, University of Botswana n/d)
136. BNA S. 299/5, Bechuanaland Protectorate Government Representative, Johannesburg, to A. D. Forsyth Thompson, 11/01/1940; BNA BPNA C Minutes of the 19th session, 28/02-7/ 03/1938, comment by Chief Bathoen, 84
137. C. Kerven, Report on Tsamaya village, north east district Rural Sociology Report Series 1 (1976 Gaborone); M. Dumisani, The origins and growth of Oodi village: a sociopolitical and economic analysis (unpubl. B.A. thesis, University College of Botswana 1980) 17; Schapera, Migrant Labour 165-67, 222
138. C. Kerven, Report on Tsamaya village, north east district Rural Sociology Report Series 1 (1976 Gaborone); M. Dumisani, The origins and growth of Oodi village: a sociopolitical and economic analysis (unpubl. B.A. thesis, University College of Botswana 1980) 17; Schapera, Migrant Labour 165-67, 222
139. C. Kerven, Report on Tsamaya village, north east district Rural Sociology Report Series 1 (1976 Gaborone); M. Dumisani, The origins and growth of Oodi village: a sociopolitical and economic analysis (unpubl. B.A. thesis, University College of Botswana 1980) 17; Schapera, Migrant Labour 165-67, 222
140. BNA S. 264/3, District Commissioner, Bakhatla Reserve Annual Report, 1943, 6; N. Mahoney, Contract and neighborly exchange among the Birwa of Botswana Journal of African Law 21 (1977) 40-65; S. Kossoudji and E. Mueller, The economic and demographic status of female-headed households in rural Botswana Economic Development and Cultural Change 31 (1983) 831-59; Cockerton, op. cit., chapter two; M. Kinsman, Beasts of burden: the subordination of southern Tswana women ca. 1800-1840 JSAS 10 (1983) 39-54; Isaac Schapera, The Tswana: Ethnographic Survey of Africa Southern Africa, part 3 (London 1968)
141. BNA S. 264/3, District Commissioner, Bakhatla Reserve Annual Report, 1943, 6; N. Mahoney, Contract and neighborly exchange among the Birwa of Botswana Journal of African Law 21 (1977) 40-65; S. Kossoudji and E. Mueller, The economic and demographic status of female-headed households in rural Botswana Economic Development and Cultural Change 31 (1983) 831-59; Cockerton, op. cit., chapter two; M. Kinsman, Beasts of burden: the subordination of southern Tswana women ca. 1800-1840 JSAS 10 (1983) 39-54; Isaac Schapera, The Tswana: Ethnographic Survey of Africa Southern Africa, part 3 (London 1968)
142. BNA S. 264/3, District Commissioner, Bakhatla Reserve Annual Report, 1943, 6; N. Mahoney, Contract and neighborly exchange among the Birwa of Botswana Journal of African Law 21 (1977) 40-65; S. Kossoudji and E. Mueller, The economic and demographic status of female-headed households in rural Botswana Economic Development and Cultural Change 31 (1983) 831-59; Cockerton, op. cit., chapter two; M. Kinsman, Beasts of burden: the subordination of southern Tswana women ca. 1800-1840 JSAS 10 (1983) 39-54; Isaac Schapera, The Tswana: Ethnographic Survey of Africa Southern Africa, part 3 (London 1968)
143. BNA S. 264/3, District Commissioner, Bakhatla Reserve Annual Report, 1943, 6; N. Mahoney, Contract and neighborly exchange among the Birwa of Botswana Journal of African Law 21 (1977) 40-65; S. Kossoudji and E. Mueller, The economic and demographic status of female-headed households in rural Botswana Economic Development and Cultural Change 31 (1983) 831-59; Cockerton, op. cit., chapter two; M. Kinsman, Beasts of burden: the subordination of southern Tswana women ca. 1800-1840 JSAS 10 (1983) 39-54; Isaac Schapera, The Tswana: Ethnographic Survey of Africa Southern Africa, part 3 (London 1968)
144. BNA S. 264/3, District Commissioner, Bakhatla Reserve Annual Report, 1943, 6; N. Mahoney, Contract and neighborly exchange among the Birwa of Botswana Journal of African Law 21 (1977) 40-65; S. Kossoudji and E. Mueller, The economic and demographic status of female-headed households in rural Botswana Economic Development and Cultural Change 31 (1983) 831-59; Cockerton, op. cit., chapter two; M. Kinsman, Beasts of burden: the subordination of southern Tswana women ca. 1800-1840 JSAS 10 (1983) 39-54; Isaac Schapera, The Tswana: Ethnographic Survey of Africa Southern Africa, part 3 (London 1968)
145. BNA S. 264/3, District Commissioner, Bakhatla Reserve Annual Report, 1943, 6; N. Mahoney, Contract and neighborly exchange among the Birwa of Botswana Journal of African Law 21 (1977) 40-65; S. Kossoudji and E. Mueller, The economic and demographic status of female-headed households in rural Botswana Economic Development and Cultural Change 31 (1983) 831-59; Cockerton, op. cit., chapter two; M. Kinsman, Beasts of burden: the subordination of southern Tswana women ca. 1800-1840 JSAS 10 (1983) 39-54; Isaac Schapera, The Tswana: Ethnographic Survey of Africa Southern Africa, part 3 (London 1968)
146. Interview: Motlapele Tabane, by Snowhite and C. M. Cockerton, Morwa, 16/09/1992
147. Ibid.; interview: Ruth Moganedi, by C. M. Cockerton, Meadowlands, 7/03/1993; CAD NTS 2559, E. R. Garthorne, SNA, to the GS, 13/12/1920
148. Ibid.; interview: Ruth Moganedi, by C. M. Cockerton, Meadowlands, 7/03/1993; CAD NTS 2559, E. R. Garthorne, SNA, to the GS, 13/12/1920
149. Ibid.; interview: Ruth Moganedi, by C. M. Cockerton, Meadowlands, 7/03/1993; CAD NTS 2559, E. R. Garthorne, SNA, to the GS, 13/12/1920
150. Interview: Elizabeth Pule, by S. Kgaswane and C. M. Cockerton, Morwa, 13/05/1993
151. Interview: Flora Koloti, by C. V. Kunene and C. M. Cockerton, Dobsonville, 26/02/1993; interview: Emily Moralo, by C. V. Kunene and C. M. Cockerton, Dobsonville, 26/02/1993; interview: Madirane Bontseng, by C. V. Kunene and C. M. Cockerton, Meadowlands, 25/ 02/1993
152. Cockerton, op. cit.
153. Colclough and McCarthy, op. cit. 174
154. London School of Economics, Archives (hereafter LSE), Schapera's Diaries (hereafter SD), book 1/4, interview: Isang, 20/12/1929
155. Morton, Interview Notes 36, interview: Mrs. Leah Moagi, 22 December 1981
156. LSE SD, book 1/13, 84-85, interview: Sofonia, 14/10/1932
157. Kubanji, op. cit. 26
158. LSE SD, book 1/7, interview: Sofonia, 24/06/1931
159. LSE SD, book 1/12, interview: Isang, 26/09/1932
160. P. Harries, Symbols and sexuality: culture and identity on the early Witwatersrand gold mines Gender and History 2 (1990) 323; Eales, "Good girls" versus "bad girls"; Eales, Patriarchs, passes and privilege: Johannesburg's African middle classes and the question of night passes for African women, 1920-1931
161. P. Harries, Symbols and sexuality: culture and identity on the early Witwatersrand gold mines Gender and History 2 (1990) 323; Eales, "Good girls" versus "bad girls"; Eales, Patriarchs, passes and privilege: Johannesburg's African middle classes and the question of night passes for African women, 1920-1931
162. P. Harries, Symbols and sexuality: culture and identity on the early Witwatersrand gold mines Gender and History 2 (1990) 323; Eales, "Good girls" versus "bad girls"; Eales, Patriarchs, passes and privilege: Johannesburg's African middle classes and the question of night passes for African women, 1920-1931
163. D. Gaitskell, Female mission initiatives: black and white women in three Witwatersrand churches, 1903-1939 (unpubl. Ph.D dissertation, University of London) 107, quoting J. J. Fourie, "Die Koms van die Bantee," 140
164. D. Gaitskell, Female mission initiatives: black and white women in three Witwatersrand churches, 1903-1939 (unpubl. Ph.D dissertation, University of London) 107, quoting J. J. Fourie, "Die Koms van die Bantee," 140
165. C. B. J. Mulle (Ed.), Five Hundred Years: a History of South Africa (Pretoria 1975)
166. Bonner, "Desirable or undesirable Basotho women": liquor, prostitution and the migration of Basotho women to the Rand, 1920-1945 11
167. The figures for the other High Commission territories (also eventually to become major sources of female migrants) were broadly similar. Some 2,972 women were from Basutoland and only 100 from Swaziland in 1911; see Gay, op. cit. 40; Miles, op. cit. 65
168. The figures for the other High Commission territories (also eventually to become major sources of female migrants) were broadly similar. Some 2,972 women were from Basutoland and only 100 from Swaziland in 1911; see Gay, op. cit. 40; Miles, op. cit. 65
169. Bonner, African urbanization on the Rand between the 1930s and 1960s: its social character and political consequences 115; Bozzoli, Women of Phokeng: Consciousness, Life Strategy and Migrancy in South Africa, 1900-1983; J. Gugler, Women stay on the farm no more: changing patterns of rural-urban migration in sub-saharan Africa Journal of Modern African Studies 2 (1989) 347-52; Walker, op. cit.; Bonner, "Desirable or undesirable Basotho women": liquor, prostitution and the migration of Basotho women to the Rand, 1920-1945; Miles, op. cit.; Cockerton, op. cit.
170. Bonner, African urbanization on the Rand between the 1930s and 1960s: its social character and political consequences 115; Bozzoli, Women of Phokeng: Consciousness, Life Strategy and Migrancy in South Africa, 1900-1983; J. Gugler, Women stay on the farm no more: changing patterns of rural-urban migration in sub-saharan Africa Journal of Modern African Studies 2 (1989) 347-52; Walker, op. cit.; Bonner, "Desirable or undesirable Basotho women": liquor, prostitution and the migration of Basotho women to the Rand, 1920-1945; Miles, op. cit.; Cockerton, op. cit.
171. Bonner, African urbanization on the Rand between the 1930s and 1960s: its social character and political consequences 115; Bozzoli, Women of Phokeng: Consciousness, Life Strategy and Migrancy in South Africa, 1900-1983; J. Gugler, Women stay on the farm no more: changing patterns of rural-urban migration in sub-saharan Africa Journal of Modern African Studies 2 (1989) 347-52; Walker, op. cit.; Bonner, "Desirable or undesirable Basotho women": liquor, prostitution and the migration of Basotho women to the Rand, 1920-1945; Miles, op. cit.; Cockerton, op. cit.
172. Bonner, African urbanization on the Rand between the 1930s and 1960s: its social character and political consequences 115; Bozzoli, Women of Phokeng: Consciousness, Life Strategy and Migrancy in South Africa, 1900-1983; J. Gugler, Women stay on the farm no more: changing patterns of rural-urban migration in sub-saharan Africa Journal of Modern African Studies 2 (1989) 347-52; Walker, op. cit.; Bonner, "Desirable or undesirable Basotho women": liquor, prostitution and the migration of Basotho women to the Rand, 1920-1945; Miles, op. cit.; Cockerton, op. cit.
173. Bonner, African urbanization on the Rand between the 1930s and 1960s: its social character and political consequences 115; Bozzoli, Women of Phokeng: Consciousness, Life Strategy and Migrancy in South Africa, 1900-1983; J. Gugler, Women stay on the farm no more: changing patterns of rural-urban migration in sub-saharan Africa Journal of Modern African Studies 2 (1989) 347-52; Walker, op. cit.; Bonner, "Desirable or undesirable Basotho women": liquor, prostitution and the migration of Basotho women to the Rand, 1920-1945; Miles, op. cit.; Cockerton, op. cit.
174. Bonner, African urbanization on the Rand between the 1930s and 1960s: its social character and political consequences 115; Bozzoli, Women of Phokeng: Consciousness, Life Strategy and Migrancy in South Africa, 1900-1983; J. Gugler, Women stay on the farm no more: changing patterns of rural-urban migration in sub-saharan Africa Journal of Modern African Studies 2 (1989) 347-52; Walker, op. cit.; Bonner, "Desirable or undesirable Basotho women": liquor, prostitution and the migration of Basotho women to the Rand, 1920-1945; Miles, op. cit.; Cockerton, op. cit.
175. Bonner, African urbanization on the Rand between the 1930s and 1960s: its social character and political consequences 115; Bozzoli, Women of Phokeng: Consciousness, Life Strategy and Migrancy in South Africa, 1900-1983; J. Gugler, Women stay on the farm no more: changing patterns of rural-urban migration in sub-saharan Africa Journal of Modern African Studies 2 (1989) 347-52; Walker, op. cit.; Bonner, "Desirable or undesirable Basotho women": liquor, prostitution and the migration of Basotho women to the Rand, 1920-1945; Miles, op. cit.; Cockerton, op. cit.
176. Bonner, African urbanization on the Rand between the 1930s and 1960s: its social character and political consequences 128; Cockerton, op. cit.
177. Bonner, African urbanization on the Rand between the 1930s and 1960s: its social character and political consequences 128; Cockerton, op. cit.
178. Cockerton, op. cit.
179. Gaitskell op. cit., 108, citing E. Preston-Whyte, "The making of a townswoman?," 258, 281, 273
180. Gaitskell op. cit., 108, citing E. Preston-Whyte, "The making of a townswoman?," 258, 281, 273
181. Cockerton, op. cit., chapter eight
182. M. Ramphele, Do women help perpetuate sexism?: a bird's eye view from South Africa Africa Today 37 (1990) 7-18