Sorcery and sovereignty: Taxation, witchcraft, and political symbols in the 1880 Transkeian Rebellion

Journal of Southern African Studies

Volumn 22, Issue 2, 1996, Pages 249-270

  Redding, Sean ^a  

^a AMHERST COLLEGE   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

CIVIL UNREST; COLONIAL CONTROL; HISTORICAL STUDY; NINETEENTH CENTURY; POLITICAL SYMBOLISM; TAX PAYMENT; TRANSKEIAN REBELLION (1880);

SOUTH AFRICA, NATAL, TRANSKEI;

EID: 0030480827     PISSN: 03057070     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/03057079608708490     Document Type: Article

References (145)

1. The limited number of studies that discuss taxes include Ramdhani, 'Taxation without Representation: The Hut Tax System in Colonial Natal 1849-1898', Journal of Natal and Zulu History. 11 (1986), pp. 12-25; S. Marks, Reluctant Rebellion: The 1906-8 Disturbances in Natal (Oxford, 1970), pp. 15, 132-133; and 'Class Ideology and the Bambatha Rebellion,' in D. Crummey (ed.), Banditry. Rebellion and Social Protest in Africa (Portsmouth, 1986), pp. 351-372. C. Bundy, 'The Emergence and Decline of a South African Peasantry', African Affairs, 71 (October 1972). pp. 369-388 and H. Bradford. A Taste of Freedom: The ICU in Rural South Africa 1924-30 (New Haven 1987), especially pp. 215-245. See also C. Bundy. 'Mr Rhodes and the Poisoned Goods: Popular Opposition to the Glen Grey Council System 1894-1906', in W. Beinart and C. Bundy (eds), Hidden Struggles in Rural South Africa (Berkeley. 1987). pp. 138-165.
2. The limited number of studies that discuss taxes include Ramdhani, 'Taxation without Representation: The Hut Tax System in Colonial Natal 1849-1898', Journal of Natal and Zulu History. 11 (1986), pp. 12-25; S. Marks, Reluctant Rebellion: The 1906-8 Disturbances in Natal (Oxford, 1970), pp. 15, 132-133; and 'Class Ideology and the Bambatha Rebellion,' in D. Crummey (ed.), Banditry. Rebellion and Social Protest in Africa (Portsmouth, 1986), pp. 351-372. C. Bundy, 'The Emergence and Decline of a South African Peasantry', African Affairs, 71 (October 1972). pp. 369-388 and H. Bradford. A Taste of Freedom: The ICU in Rural South Africa 1924-30 (New Haven 1987), especially pp. 215-245. See also C. Bundy. 'Mr Rhodes and the Poisoned Goods: Popular Opposition to the Glen Grey Council System 1894-1906', in W. Beinart and C. Bundy (eds), Hidden Struggles in Rural South Africa (Berkeley. 1987). pp. 138-165.
3. The limited number of studies that discuss taxes include Ramdhani, 'Taxation without Representation: The Hut Tax System in Colonial Natal 1849-1898', Journal of Natal and Zulu History. 11 (1986), pp. 12-25; S. Marks, Reluctant Rebellion: The 1906-8 Disturbances in Natal (Oxford, 1970), pp. 15, 132-133; and 'Class Ideology and the Bambatha Rebellion,' in D. Crummey (ed.), Banditry. Rebellion and Social Protest in Africa (Portsmouth, 1986), pp. 351-372. C. Bundy, 'The Emergence and Decline of a South African Peasantry', African Affairs, 71 (October 1972). pp. 369-388 and H. Bradford. A Taste of Freedom: The ICU in Rural South Africa 1924-30 (New Haven 1987), especially pp. 215-245. See also C. Bundy. 'Mr Rhodes and the Poisoned Goods: Popular Opposition to the Glen Grey Council System 1894-1906', in W. Beinart and C. Bundy (eds), Hidden Struggles in Rural South Africa (Berkeley. 1987). pp. 138-165.
4. The limited number of studies that discuss taxes include Ramdhani, 'Taxation without Representation: The Hut Tax System in Colonial Natal 1849-1898', Journal of Natal and Zulu History. 11 (1986), pp. 12-25; S. Marks, Reluctant Rebellion: The 1906-8 Disturbances in Natal (Oxford, 1970), pp. 15, 132-133; and 'Class Ideology and the Bambatha Rebellion,' in D. Crummey (ed.), Banditry. Rebellion and Social Protest in Africa (Portsmouth, 1986), pp. 351-372. C. Bundy, 'The Emergence and Decline of a South African Peasantry', African Affairs, 71 (October 1972). pp. 369-388 and H. Bradford. A Taste of Freedom: The ICU in Rural South Africa 1924-30 (New Haven 1987), especially pp. 215-245. See also C. Bundy. 'Mr Rhodes and the Poisoned Goods: Popular Opposition to the Glen Grey Council System 1894-1906', in W. Beinart and C. Bundy (eds), Hidden Struggles in Rural South Africa (Berkeley. 1987). pp. 138-165.
5. The limited number of studies that discuss taxes include Ramdhani, 'Taxation without Representation: The Hut Tax System in Colonial Natal 1849-1898', Journal of Natal and Zulu History. 11 (1986), pp. 12-25; S. Marks, Reluctant Rebellion: The 1906-8 Disturbances in Natal (Oxford, 1970), pp. 15, 132-133; and 'Class Ideology and the Bambatha Rebellion,' in D. Crummey (ed.), Banditry. Rebellion and Social Protest in Africa (Portsmouth, 1986), pp. 351-372. C. Bundy, 'The Emergence and Decline of a South African Peasantry', African Affairs, 71 (October 1972). pp. 369-388 and H. Bradford. A Taste of Freedom: The ICU in Rural South Africa 1924-30 (New Haven 1987), especially pp. 215-245. See also C. Bundy. 'Mr Rhodes and the Poisoned Goods: Popular Opposition to the Glen Grey Council System 1894-1906', in W. Beinart and C. Bundy (eds), Hidden Struggles in Rural South Africa (Berkeley. 1987). pp. 138-165.
6. The limited number of studies that discuss taxes include Ramdhani, 'Taxation without Representation: The Hut Tax System in Colonial Natal 1849-1898', Journal of Natal and Zulu History. 11 (1986), pp. 12-25; S. Marks, Reluctant Rebellion: The 1906-8 Disturbances in Natal (Oxford, 1970), pp. 15, 132-133; and 'Class Ideology and the Bambatha Rebellion,' in D. Crummey (ed.), Banditry. Rebellion and Social Protest in Africa (Portsmouth, 1986), pp. 351-372. C. Bundy, 'The Emergence and Decline of a South African Peasantry', African Affairs, 71 (October 1972). pp. 369-388 and H. Bradford. A Taste of Freedom: The ICU in Rural South Africa 1924-30 (New Haven 1987), especially pp. 215-245. See also C. Bundy. 'Mr Rhodes and the Poisoned Goods: Popular Opposition to the Glen Grey Council System 1894-1906', in W. Beinart and C. Bundy (eds), Hidden Struggles in Rural South Africa (Berkeley. 1987). pp. 138-165.
7. D. Kertzer, Ritual, Politics and Power (New Haven, 1988), p. 9.
8. The theoretical basis for this hermeneutic approach is drawn from the works of philosopher Paul Ricoeur, The Reality of the Historical Past. The Aquinas Lecture, 1984 (Milwaukee, 1984),
9. and Time and Narrative, 3 Vols (Chicago. 1984). particularly Vol. 1, pp. 52-87.
10. The rebellion will be more fully described later.
11. There were also outbreaks in Xalanga and Cofimvaba.
12. Christopher Saunders. 'The Transkeian Rebellion of 1880-81: A Case Study of Transkeian Resistance to White Control'. South African Historical Journal, 8 (1976). pp. 32-39. Saunders also wrote a more detailed account of the rebellion and its consequences in his The Annexation of the Transkeian Territories. Archives Year Book for South African History. Vol. 39 (Pretoria, 1978), particularly pp. 91-109.
13. Christopher Saunders. 'The Transkeian Rebellion of 1880-81: A Case Study of Transkeian Resistance to White Control'. South African Historical Journal, 8 (1976). pp. 32-39. Saunders also wrote a more detailed account of the rebellion and its consequences in his The Annexation of the Transkeian Territories. Archives Year Book for South African History. Vol. 39 (Pretoria, 1978), particularly pp. 91-109.
14. Saunders, 'Transkeian Rebellion', p. 33.
15. Beinart, 'Conflict in Qumbu: Rural Consciousness, Ethnicity and Violence in the Colonial Transkei', in Beinart and Bundy (eds), Hidden Struggle, p. 109.
16. Saunders, 'Transkeian Rebellion', p. 39.
17. Beinart, 'Conflict in Qumbu'. pp. 130-131.
18. Saunders, 'Transkeian Rebellion', p. 39.
19. Beinart. 'Conflict in Qumbu'.
20. Other examples include, T. O. Ranger, 'The Invention of Tradition in Colonial Africa 'in T. O. Ranger and E. Hobsbawm (eds), The Invention of Tradition (Cambridge, 1985): L. Vail (ed), The Invention of Tribalism in Southern Africa (Berkeley, 1991) and J. Comaroff. Revelation and Revolution: Christianity. Colonialism and Consciousness in South Africa (Chicago, 1991), Vol. 1, pp. 31-32.
21. Other examples include, T. O. Ranger, 'The Invention of Tradition in Colonial Africa 'in T. O. Ranger and E. Hobsbawm (eds), The Invention of Tradition (Cambridge, 1985): L. Vail (ed), The Invention of Tribalism in Southern Africa (Berkeley, 1991) and J. Comaroff. Revelation and Revolution: Christianity. Colonialism and Consciousness in South Africa (Chicago, 1991), Vol. 1, pp. 31-32.
22. Other examples include, T. O. Ranger, 'The Invention of Tradition in Colonial Africa 'in T. O. Ranger and E. Hobsbawm (eds), The Invention of Tradition (Cambridge, 1985): L. Vail (ed), The Invention of Tribalism in Southern Africa (Berkeley, 1991) and J. Comaroff. Revelation and Revolution: Christianity. Colonialism and Consciousness in South Africa (Chicago, 1991), Vol. 1, pp. 31-32.
23. Comaroff, Revelation and Revolution, p. 31.
24. This definition of the state is taken partly from M. Levi, Rule and Revenue (Berkeley, 1988) who in her notes acknowledges her debt to Max Weber.
25. Monica Wilson, Reaction to Conquest: Effects of Contact with Europeans on the Pondo of South Africa, 2nd edn (London, 1961), pp. 384-387 and J. B. Peires, The House of Phalo (Berkeley, 1981), pp. 27-42.
26. Monica Wilson, Reaction to Conquest: Effects of Contact with Europeans on the Pondo of South Africa, 2nd edn (London, 1961), pp. 384-387 and J. B. Peires, The House of Phalo (Berkeley, 1981), pp. 27-42.
27. Cape of Good Hope, Report and Proceedings with Appendices of the Government Commission on Native Laws and Customs 1883, 2 Vol, facsimile reprint (Cape Town, 1968 [1884]), Vol. 1, pp. 82-92. Testimony of five members of the Gaika tribe. Cape Archives Depot, Cape Town Records of the Chief Magistrate of Thembuland - later the Transkei - (hereafter CMT) 1146. Answers by Chief Magistrate to Questions Put by Native Laws Commission dated 27 September 1881.
28. J. B. Peires, House of Phalo, pp. 27-44, 136-137 and The Dead Will Arise (Bloomington, 1989), pp. 61-62; Wilson, Reaction to Conquest, pp. 311-319, 389-392, 402-410, 413-420.
29. J. B. Peires, House of Phalo, pp. 27-44, 136-137 and The Dead Will Arise (Bloomington, 1989), pp. 61-62; Wilson, Reaction to Conquest, pp. 311-319, 389-392, 402-410, 413-420.
30. J. B. Peires, House of Phalo, pp. 27-44, 136-137 and The Dead Will Arise (Bloomington, 1989), pp. 61-62; Wilson, Reaction to Conquest, pp. 311-319, 389-392, 402-410, 413-420.
31. The Griqua in the districts of Matatiele, Mount Currie and Umzimkulu had been brought under Cape control in 1874, four years earlier than the rest of the region. See Cape of Good Hope Native Affairs Department, Report of a Commission Appointed to Inquire into the Causes of the Recent Outbreak in Griqualand East (Cape Town, 1879). p. 5.
32. Copies of the Letters submitted to the Cape government when these chiefs came under its control are reprinted in Cape of Good Hope, Native Laws and Customs Commission 1883, Vol. 1, pp. 425-431.
33. Public Record Office, Kew Gardens, Records of the British Colonial Office (hereafter CO) 48503 Dispatch 62, Hercules Robinson to Lord Kimberley, 21 February 1882, Enclosure: Proclamation.
34. In implementing hut tax Cape officials drew upon the experience of Natal where the hut tax had been in force since 1857. The man who had imposed hut tax thefe, Sir Theophilus Shepstone, told the 1881-1883 Cape Native Laws and Customs Commission: 'I think the hut tax is a good foundation for a revenue: in Natal it produces £60,000 a year: it is besides a tax on polygamists because if a man has 20 wives he has 20 huts and pays a tax on each' (Cape of Good Hope, Native Laws and Customs Commission 1883, Vol. 1, p. 63).
35. Sean Redding. 'Legal Minors and Social Children: Taxation and African Women in the Transkei', African Studies Review, 36, 3 (December 1993), pp. 49-75.
36. Cape of Good Hope, Native Laws and Customs Commission 1883, p. 65. See also CMT 1/146, Answers by Chief Magistrate Elliot to Native Laws Commission dated 27 September 1881.
37. Cape of Good Hope, Report of East Griqualand Commission, p. 301 and testimony of Jan Jood, 10 January 1879, pp. 71-72.
38. Cape of Good Hope Native Affairs Department, Blue Book on Native Affairs 1879 (Cape Town, 1879), p. 48; Cape Archives Depot, Cape Town Records of the Chief Magistrate of East Griqualand (hereafter CMK) 1/97, Letter 7 May 1880, RM Tsolo (A. R. Welsh) to Chief Magistrate East Griqualand (CMK), enclosing 'Approximate Statement of Hut Tax Outstanding in the District of Tsolo'. See also CMK 1/97, Letter 2 September 1880, RM Tsolo (A. R. Welsh) to CMK.
39. CMK 1/97, Letter 2 September 1880 RM Tsolo (A. R. Welsh) to CMK.
40. Cape Archives Depot, Cape Town, Records of the Resident Magistrate of the Umtata District (hereafter 1/UTA) 5/1/1/2. Letter 280, 6 January 1880, RM Umtata (A. H. Stanford) to CMT.
41. For evidence of fear and suspicion regarding census taking in Engcobo and Umtata districts see CMT 1/27, Letters 2 September 1879 and 11 September 1879, RM Engcobo (W. E. Stanford) to CMT, and CMT 1/35 Letter 148/2, 12 August 1879, RM Umtata (A. H. Stanford) to CMT.
42. For examples see C. Fisiy and P. Geshiere, 'Sorcery, Witchcraft and Accumulation: Regional Variations in South and West Cameroon', Critique of Anthropology. 11 (1991), pp. 251-278; R. M. Packard, 'Social Change and the History of Misfortune among the Bashu of Eastern Zaire', in I. Karp and C. S. Bird (eds), Explorations in African Systems of Thought (Bloomington, 1980), pp. 237-267; D. Lan. Guns and Rain (Berkeley 1984).
43. For examples see C. Fisiy and P. Geshiere, 'Sorcery, Witchcraft and Accumulation: Regional Variations in South and West Cameroon', Critique of Anthropology. 11 (1991), pp. 251-278; R. M. Packard, 'Social Change and the History of Misfortune among the Bashu of Eastern Zaire', in I. Karp and C. S. Bird (eds), Explorations in African Systems of Thought (Bloomington, 1980), pp. 237-267; D. Lan. Guns and Rain (Berkeley 1984).
44. For examples see C. Fisiy and P. Geshiere, 'Sorcery, Witchcraft and Accumulation: Regional Variations in South and West Cameroon', Critique of Anthropology. 11 (1991), pp. 251-278; R. M. Packard, 'Social Change and the History of Misfortune among the Bashu of Eastern Zaire', in I. Karp and C. S. Bird (eds), Explorations in African Systems of Thought (Bloomington, 1980), pp. 237-267; D. Lan. Guns and Rain (Berkeley 1984).
45. For a discussion of a similar interpretation of colonial actions in Swaziland see A. R. Booth. ' "European Courts Protect Women and Witches": Colonial Law Courts as Redistributors of Power in Swaziland 1920-50', Journal of Southern African Studies, 18, 2 (June 1992), pp. 253-275.
46. CMK 1/97, Letter 2 April 1880, RM Tsolo (Welsh) to CMK, enclosing Letter 27 March 1880, the Rev. Bransby Key to RM Tsolo.
47. Ibid.
48. CMK 1/97. Letter 5 September 1879. RM Tsolo RM Welsh to CMK.
49. Ibid.
50. Ibid.
51. CMT 1/27, Letter 3 November 1879, RM Engcobo to CMT.
52. Ibid
53. CMT 1/27, Letters 2 September 1879 and 1 December 1879, RM Engcobo (W. E. Stanford) to CMT.
54. CMT 1/27, Letter 27 August 1879, RM Engcobo (W. E. Stanford) to CMT.
55. Saunders, Annexation of Transkeian Territories, p. 96.
56. CMK 1/97 Letter to CMK.
57. W. T. Brownlee, Reminiscences of a Transkeian (Pietermaritzburg, 1975), p. 81.
58. CMK 1/152, Letter 14 October 1880, A. Davis, 'Clerk to RM Qumbu deceased to Chief Magistrate East Griqualand', typescript copy of original.
59. The chief was quoted by an African policeman named Matanga who accompanied Hope to the meeting but managed to escape; the policeman's account appears in Brownlee, Reminiscences, p. 84.
60. Ibid. This version of events is supported by the account of the policeman Matanga in Brownlee, Reminiscences, pp. 84-86.
61. Ibid. This version of events is supported by the account of the policeman Matanga in Brownlee, Reminiscences, pp. 84-86.
62. It should be noted that evidently not all Africans who rebelled were of Mhlonhlo's opinion on this matter. In Engcobo district rebels burned down at least one mission station (All Saints), and missionaries were threatened in other districts. Also, in all of the districts that rebelled trading stores were looted. See Cape of Good Hope, Native Laws and Customs Commission 1883, Vol. 1, p. 388; CMT 1/27, Letter, 23 November 1880, RM Engcobo (W. E. Stanford) to CMT and Saunders, Annexation of Transkeian Territories, pp. 94-95.
63. It should be noted that evidently not all Africans who rebelled were of Mhlonhlo's opinion on this matter. In Engcobo district rebels burned down at least one mission station (All Saints), and missionaries were threatened in other districts. Also, in all of the districts that rebelled trading stores were looted. See Cape of Good Hope, Native Laws and Customs Commission 1883, Vol. 1, p. 388; CMT 1/27, Letter, 23 November 1880, RM Engcobo (W. E. Stanford) to CMT and Saunders, Annexation of Transkeian Territories, pp. 94-95.
64. CMK 1/152, Letter 14 October 1880, A. Davis, 'Clerk to RM Qumbu (deceased) to Chief Magistrate East Griqualand', typescript. The idea for my analysis that the reason for not burying Hope and the others was to keep their influence out of the land was suggested by T. O. Ranger, 'Taking Hold of the Land: Holy Places and Pilgrimages in 20th Century Zimbabwe'. Past and Present, 117 (1987), pp. 159-194.
65. Native Laws and Customs Commission 1883, Vol. 2, Appendix I. 'A Brief History of the Pondomise Tribe, as related by Mabasa, late Regent of Umditshwa's Section and Nomlala. an old Councillor, and written by E. S. Bam, Interpreter to the Resident Magistrate Tsolo'; see also Beinart. 'Conflict in Qumbu', p. 135, note 57, and Peires, The Dead Will Arise, p. 302.
66. Native Laws and Customs Commission 1883, Vol. 2, Appendix I. 'A Brief History of the Pondomise Tribe, as related by Mabasa, late Regent of Umditshwa's Section and Nomlala. an old Councillor, and written by E. S. Bam, Interpreter to the Resident Magistrate Tsolo'; see also Beinart. 'Conflict in Qumbu', p. 135, note 57, and Peires, The Dead Will Arise, p. 302.
67. Native Laws and Customs Commission 1883, Vol. 2, Appendix I. 'A Brief History of the Pondomise Tribe, as related by Mabasa, late Regent of Umditshwa's Section and Nomlala. an old Councillor, and written by E. S. Bam, Interpreter to the Resident Magistrate Tsolo'; see also Beinart. 'Conflict in Qumbu', p. 135, note 57, and Peires, The Dead Will Arise, p. 302.
68. The quotation is given by policeman Matanga in Brownlee, Reminiscences, p. 87.
69. CMT 1/80 'Annual Report for 1880', Letter 648/0, CMT to the Under Secretary for Native Affairs (USNA).
70. Ibid.
71. CMK 1/97. Letter 2 September 1880, RM Tsolo (A. R. Welsh) to CMK.
72. Cape Archives Depot, Cape Town, Records of the Resident Magistrate of Tsolo district (hereafter TSO) 5/1/21, File 41 marked 'Confidential', Letter 28 July 1931, CMT (W. T. Welsh) to RM Tsolo, enclosing copy of extract from the Kaffrarian Watchman, dated 26 September 1881 containing report on Mditshwa's trial.
73. Ibid.
74. Ibid. See also Native Laws and Customs Commission 1883, Vol. 2, Appendix 1, 'A Brief History of the Pondomise Tribe' and Peires, House of Phalo, pp. 66-67.
75. Ibid. See also Native Laws and Customs Commission 1883, Vol. 2, Appendix 1, 'A Brief History of the Pondomise Tribe' and Peires, House of Phalo, pp. 66-67.
76. CMT 1/80. 'Annual Report for 1880'; Letter 64/80. CMT to SNA; CMT 1/28, Letter 18 August 1882, RM Engcobo (Stanford) to CMT; CMT 1/27, Letter, 9 June 1881, RM Engcobo (Stanford) to CMT; CMK 1/98 Letter, 2 April 1883, RM Tsolo (A. R. Welsh) to CMK; CMK 1/98, Letter, 14 May 1883 RM Tsolo (A. R. Welsh) to CMK.
77. CMT 1/27, 'Statement made in the Court of the Resident Magistrate Engcobo, Tembuland', 9 December 1881; CMT 1/28 'Report on Native Affairs district of Engcobo Tembuland 1881', dated 5 January 1882 by W. E. Stanford; CMK 1/97, Letter 13 April 1881, RM Tsolo (A. R. Welsh) to the Secretary for Native Affairs (SNA); I/UTA 5/1/1/3, 'Annual Report for 1880'. Letter 142, 10 February 1881, RM Umtata (A. H. Stanford) to CMT 1/TSO5/1/21, File 41 Marked 'Confidential', Letter, 28 July 1931, CMT W. T. Welsh to RM Tsolo, enclosing copy of extract from the Kaffrarian Watchman, dated 26th September 1881.
78. CMT 1/27, 'Statement made in the Court of the Resident Magistrate Engcobo, Tembuland', 9 December 1881; CMT 1/28 'Report on Native Affairs district of Engcobo Tembuland 1881', dated 5 January 1882 by W. E. Stanford; CMK 1/97, Letter 13 April 1881, RM Tsolo (A. R. Welsh) to the Secretary for Native Affairs (SNA); I/UTA 5/1/1/3, 'Annual Report for 1880'. Letter 142, 10 February 1881, RM Umtata (A. H. Stanford) to CMT 1/TSO5/1/21, File 41 Marked 'Confidential', Letter, 28 July 1931, CMT W. T. Welsh to RM Tsolo, enclosing copy of extract from the Kaffrarian Watchman, dated 26th September 1881.
79. CMT 1/27, 'Statement made in the Court of the Resident Magistrate Engcobo, Tembuland', 9 December 1881; CMT 1/28 'Report on Native Affairs district of Engcobo Tembuland 1881', dated 5 January 1882 by W. E. Stanford; CMK 1/97, Letter 13 April 1881, RM Tsolo (A. R. Welsh) to the Secretary for Native Affairs (SNA); I/UTA 5/1/1/3, 'Annual Report for 1880'. Letter 142, 10 February 1881, RM Umtata (A. H. Stanford) to CMT 1/TSO5/1/21, File 41 Marked 'Confidential', Letter, 28 July 1931, CMT W. T. Welsh to RM Tsolo, enclosing copy of extract from the Kaffrarian Watchman, dated 26th September 1881.
80. Beinart, 'Conflict in Qumbu', pp. 113-114.
81. 1/UTA 5/1/1/2, 'Annual Report for 1878', 30 December 1878, RM Umtata to CMT; 1/UTA 5/1/1/3, Letter 82/30 November 1880 RM Umtata to CMT; 1/UTA 5/1/1/3, Letter 142 'Annual Report for 1880', 10 February 1881 RM Umtata to CMT; 1/UTA 5/1/1/3, Letter 462, 25 October 1881, RM Umtata to CMT; CMT 1/36, Letter 3 April 1881, RM Umtata to CMT; CMT 1/5, Letter 2484, 15 September 1881,USNA to CMT.
82. 1/UTA 5/1/1/2, 'Annual Report for 1878', 30 December 1878, RM Umtata to CMT; 1/UTA 5/1/1/3, Letter 82/30 November 1880 RM Umtata to CMT; 1/UTA 5/1/1/3, Letter 142 'Annual Report for 1880', 10 February 1881 RM Umtata to CMT; 1/UTA 5/1/1/3, Letter 462, 25 October 1881, RM Umtata to CMT; CMT 1/36, Letter 3 April 1881, RM Umtata to CMT; CMT 1/5, Letter 2484, 15 September 1881,USNA to CMT.
83. CMT 1/5 Letter 2/487, 15 September 1881. (USNA) Rose Innes to CMT. See also CMT 1/36, Letter 5 April 1881; 'Weekly Report re Relocation of Rebels', RM Umtata to CMT.
84. Chief Magistrate Elliot was asked by one of the Commissioners on the 1883 Native Laws and Customs Commission, 'In confiscating a man's property do you carry out the Kafir custom?' Elliot replied affirmatively and later elaborated: Mn native law the term used by them is "eating a man up", which means depriving him of all he possesses in the hope that he will leave the district and trouble it no more'. Cape of Good Hope, Native Laws and Customs Commission 1883. Vol. 1, p. 417.
85. Saunders, Annexation of Transkeian Territories, pp. 93-94.
86. CMT 1/27, Letter 23 November 1880, RM Engcobo (W. E. Stanford) to CMT.
87. CMT 1/28, 'Report on Native Affairs District of Engcobo Tembuland 1881', 5 January 1882, RM Engcobo (W. E. Stanford) to CMT.
88. CMT 1/27, 'Statement Made in the Court of the Resident Magistrate Tembuland', 9 December 1881; CMT 1/28, Letter, 21 January 1881, RM Engcobo (W. E. Stanford) to CMT; CMT 1/28. Letter 2 February 1882, RM Engcobo (W. E. Stanford) to CMT; CMT 1/28, Letter 22 February 1882, RM Engcobo (W. E. Stanford) to CMT.
89. CMK 1/98, Letter, 14 May 1883, RM Tsolo (A. R. Welsh) to CMK.
90. Ibid
91. CMT 1/13, Letter 24/10H, 13 May 1891, (USNA) Rose Innes to CMT.
92. Cape of Good Hope, Native Laws and Customs Commission 1883, vol. 1, p. 458, testimony of Alex Welsh (RM Tsolo).
93. 1/TSO 5/1/21, File 41. 'Confidential', Letter 28 July 1931, CMT to RM Tsolo, enclosure typed extract from The Kaffrarian Watchman, 26 September 1881.
94. CMK 1/98, Minutes of Meeting held at Tsolo on 26 January 1885.
95. CMK 1/98, Letter 4 March 1885, RM Tsolo (Captain Hook) to CMK
96. Ibid.
97. CMK 1/100, Letter 18 October 1886, RM Tsolo (J. Monroe) to CMK.
98. Ibid.
99. CMT 3/162, Letter 5 August 1904, RM Tsolo (A. Gladwin) to CMT.
100. See CMT 1/146, Answers by CMT (Major Henry Elliot) to Native Laws Commission dated 27 September 1881; Cape of Good Hope, Native Laws and Customs Commission 1883, Vol. 2, Appendix C, p. 49, replies by Captain M. Blylh, CMK; Cape Archives Depot, Cape Town, Records of the Resident Magistrate of Engcobo District (hereafter 1/ENC) 5/1/1/3, 'Report on the District of Engcobo Tembuland for the year 1883', 10 January 1884, RM Engcobo to CMT.
101. See CMT 1/146, Answers by CMT (Major Henry Elliot) to Native Laws Commission dated 27 September 1881; Cape of Good Hope, Native Laws and Customs Commission 1883, Vol. 2, Appendix C, p. 49, replies by Captain M. Blylh, CMK; Cape Archives Depot, Cape Town, Records of the Resident Magistrate of Engcobo District (hereafter 1/ENC) 5/1/1/3, 'Report on the District of Engcobo Tembuland for the year 1883', 10 January 1884, RM Engcobo to CMT.
102. Cape of Good Hope, Native Laws and Customs Commission 1883, Vol. 1, p. 447. See also W. J. G. Mears, 'A Study in Native Administration: The Transkeian Territories 1894-1943' (DLitt, University of South Africa 1947), pp. 34-41.
103. Cape of Good Hope, Native Laws and Customs Commission 1883, Vol. 1, p. 447. See also W. J. G. Mears, 'A Study in Native Administration: The Transkeian Territories 1894-1943' (DLitt, University of South Africa 1947), pp. 34-41.
104. Beinart, 'Conflict in Qumbu', pp. 112-114.
105. Statement by Charles Mhlonhlo (Chief Mhlonhlo's son) before RM Qumbu. quoted in Beinart, 'Conflict in Qumbu', pp. 119.
106. Ibid., pp. 120-125.
107. CMK 1/99, 'Native Affairs Blue Book for 1886', 2 January 1886, RM Tsolo (Captain Hook) to CMK.
108. Ibid.
109. For examples of this thinking see CMK 1/139, Letter 11 January 1887, RM Tsolo (J. Monroe) to CMK: CMK 1/139, 'Report for Blue Book on Native Affairs for 1887', 14 January 1888, RM Tsolo (E. Monroe) to CMK.
110. There was one notable exception to this conclusion in the person of Major Henry Elliot who for many years was Chief Magistrate of the Transkei. He did on several occasions suggest that Africans had legitimate grievances and that non-payment of taxes might be linked to a feeling of being governed 'like a flock of sheep'. See CMT 1/82. 'Annual Report 1884', 6 January 1885, CMT to (USNA) Rose Innes.
111. Again, because of the different circumstances under which the various chiefs came under colonial rule, enforcement varied from district to district. In East Griqualand. Fingoland and Gcalekaland districts magistrates could imprison defaulters under vagrancy laws, in Thembuland districts they could not. CMT 3/86. Letter 27 June 1892, RM Engcobo (A. H. Stanford) to CMT.
112. CMK 1/98, Letter 14 May 1883, RM Tsolo (Welsh) to CMK; CMK 1/99, Annual Report dated 2 January 1886, RM Tsolo (Capt. Hook) to CMK; CMK 1/100, Letter 3 September 1886, Assistant RM Tsolo (J. Cumming) to CMK; CMK 1/139. Letter 11 January 1887, enclosing 'Annual Report for Blue Book', 10 January 1887, RM Tsolo (J. Monroe) to CMK; CMK 1/139, 'Report for Annual Blue Book on Native Affairs', 7 January 1890, J. Cumming, RM Tsolo to CMK; Cape of Good Hope, Native Affairs Department, Blue Book on Native Affairs 1891 (Cape Town, 1891), p. 46; Cape of Good Hope Native Affairs Department, Blue Book on Native Affairs 1892 (Cape Town, 1892), p.46; CMK 1/139. 'Annual Blue Book Report', 10 January 1899, J. Cumming, RM Tsolo to CMK; CMK 1/139, 'Blue Book Report', 18 January 1901, RM Tsolo (Simpson) to CMK; CMK 1/139, 'Blue Book on Native Affairs 1902, District of Tsolo', 23 February 1902. Assistant RM Tsolo (W. M. Carlisle) to CMK; Cape of Good Hope Native Affairs Department, Blue Book on Native Affairs 1903 (Cape Town, 1904), p. 80; Cape of Good Hope Native Affairs Department, Blue Book on Native Affairs 1904 (Cape Town, 1905), p. 89.
113. CMK 1/98, Letter 14 May 1883, RM Tsolo (Welsh) to CMK; CMK 1/99, Annual Report dated 2 January 1886, RM Tsolo (Capt. Hook) to CMK; CMK 1/100, Letter 3 September 1886, Assistant RM Tsolo (J. Cumming) to CMK; CMK 1/139. Letter 11 January 1887, enclosing 'Annual Report for Blue Book', 10 January 1887, RM Tsolo (J. Monroe) to CMK; CMK 1/139, 'Report for Annual Blue Book on Native Affairs', 7 January 1890, J. Cumming, RM Tsolo to CMK; Cape of Good Hope, Native Affairs Department, Blue Book on Native Affairs 1891 (Cape Town, 1891), p. 46; Cape of Good Hope Native Affairs Department, Blue Book on Native Affairs 1892 (Cape Town, 1892), p.46; CMK 1/139. 'Annual Blue Book Report', 10 January 1899, J. Cumming, RM Tsolo to CMK; CMK 1/139, 'Blue Book Report', 18 January 1901, RM Tsolo (Simpson) to CMK; CMK 1/139, 'Blue Book on Native Affairs 1902, District of Tsolo', 23 February 1902. Assistant RM Tsolo (W. M. Carlisle) to CMK; Cape of Good Hope Native Affairs Department, Blue Book on Native Affairs 1903 (Cape Town, 1904), p. 80; Cape of Good Hope Native Affairs Department, Blue Book on Native Affairs 1904 (Cape Town, 1905), p. 89.
114. CMK 1/98, Letter 14 May 1883, RM Tsolo (Welsh) to CMK; CMK 1/99, Annual Report dated 2 January 1886, RM Tsolo (Capt. Hook) to CMK; CMK 1/100, Letter 3 September 1886, Assistant RM Tsolo (J. Cumming) to CMK; CMK 1/139. Letter 11 January 1887, enclosing 'Annual Report for Blue Book', 10 January 1887, RM Tsolo (J. Monroe) to CMK; CMK 1/139, 'Report for Annual Blue Book on Native Affairs', 7 January 1890, J. Cumming, RM Tsolo to CMK; Cape of Good Hope, Native Affairs Department, Blue Book on Native Affairs 1891 (Cape Town, 1891), p. 46; Cape of Good Hope Native Affairs Department, Blue Book on Native Affairs 1892 (Cape Town, 1892), p.46; CMK 1/139. 'Annual Blue Book Report', 10 January 1899, J. Cumming, RM Tsolo to CMK; CMK 1/139, 'Blue Book Report', 18 January 1901, RM Tsolo (Simpson) to CMK; CMK 1/139, 'Blue Book on Native Affairs 1902, District of Tsolo', 23 February 1902. Assistant RM Tsolo (W. M. Carlisle) to CMK; Cape of Good Hope Native Affairs Department, Blue Book on Native Affairs 1903 (Cape Town, 1904), p. 80; Cape of Good Hope Native Affairs Department, Blue Book on Native Affairs 1904 (Cape Town, 1905), p. 89.
115. CMK 1/98, Letter 14 May 1883, RM Tsolo (Welsh) to CMK; CMK 1/99, Annual Report dated 2 January 1886, RM Tsolo (Capt. Hook) to CMK; CMK 1/100, Letter 3 September 1886, Assistant RM Tsolo (J. Cumming) to CMK; CMK 1/139. Letter 11 January 1887, enclosing 'Annual Report for Blue Book', 10 January 1887, RM Tsolo (J. Monroe) to CMK; CMK 1/139, 'Report for Annual Blue Book on Native Affairs', 7 January 1890, J. Cumming, RM Tsolo to CMK; Cape of Good Hope, Native Affairs Department, Blue Book on Native Affairs 1891 (Cape Town, 1891), p. 46; Cape of Good Hope Native Affairs Department, Blue Book on Native Affairs 1892 (Cape Town, 1892), p.46; CMK 1/139. 'Annual Blue Book Report', 10 January 1899, J. Cumming, RM Tsolo to CMK; CMK 1/139, 'Blue Book Report', 18 January 1901, RM Tsolo (Simpson) to CMK; CMK 1/139, 'Blue Book on Native Affairs 1902, District of Tsolo', 23 February 1902. Assistant RM Tsolo (W. M. Carlisle) to CMK; Cape of Good Hope Native Affairs Department, Blue Book on Native Affairs 1903 (Cape Town, 1904), p. 80; Cape of Good Hope Native Affairs Department, Blue Book on Native Affairs 1904 (Cape Town, 1905), p. 89.
116. CMK 1/98, Letter 14 May 1883, RM Tsolo (Welsh) to CMK; CMK 1/99, Annual Report dated 2 January 1886, RM Tsolo (Capt. Hook) to CMK; CMK 1/100, Letter 3 September 1886, Assistant RM Tsolo (J. Cumming) to CMK; CMK 1/139. Letter 11 January 1887, enclosing 'Annual Report for Blue Book', 10 January 1887, RM Tsolo (J. Monroe) to CMK; CMK 1/139, 'Report for Annual Blue Book on Native Affairs', 7 January 1890, J. Cumming, RM Tsolo to CMK; Cape of Good Hope, Native Affairs Department, Blue Book on Native Affairs 1891 (Cape Town, 1891), p. 46; Cape of Good Hope Native Affairs Department, Blue Book on Native Affairs 1892 (Cape Town, 1892), p.46; CMK 1/139. 'Annual Blue Book Report', 10 January 1899, J. Cumming, RM Tsolo to CMK; CMK 1/139, 'Blue Book Report', 18 January 1901, RM Tsolo (Simpson) to CMK; CMK 1/139, 'Blue Book on Native Affairs 1902, District of Tsolo', 23 February 1902. Assistant RM Tsolo (W. M. Carlisle) to CMK; Cape of Good Hope Native Affairs Department, Blue Book on Native Affairs 1903 (Cape Town, 1904), p. 80; Cape of Good Hope Native Affairs Department, Blue Book on Native Affairs 1904 (Cape Town, 1905), p. 89.
117. CMK 1/98, Letter 14 May 1883, RM Tsolo (Welsh) to CMK; CMK 1/99, Annual Report dated 2 January 1886, RM Tsolo (Capt. Hook) to CMK; CMK 1/100, Letter 3 September 1886, Assistant RM Tsolo (J. Cumming) to CMK; CMK 1/139. Letter 11 January 1887, enclosing 'Annual Report for Blue Book', 10 January 1887, RM Tsolo (J. Monroe) to CMK; CMK 1/139, 'Report for Annual Blue Book on Native Affairs', 7 January 1890, J. Cumming, RM Tsolo to CMK; Cape of Good Hope, Native Affairs Department, Blue Book on Native Affairs 1891 (Cape Town, 1891), p. 46; Cape of Good Hope Native Affairs Department, Blue Book on Native Affairs 1892 (Cape Town, 1892), p.46; CMK 1/139. 'Annual Blue Book Report', 10 January 1899, J. Cumming, RM Tsolo to CMK; CMK 1/139, 'Blue Book Report', 18 January 1901, RM Tsolo (Simpson) to CMK; CMK 1/139, 'Blue Book on Native Affairs 1902, District of Tsolo', 23 February 1902. Assistant RM Tsolo (W. M. Carlisle) to CMK; Cape of Good Hope Native Affairs Department, Blue Book on Native Affairs 1903 (Cape Town, 1904), p. 80; Cape of Good Hope Native Affairs Department, Blue Book on Native Affairs 1904 (Cape Town, 1905), p. 89.
118. CMK 1/98, Letter 14 May 1883, RM Tsolo (Welsh) to CMK; CMK 1/99, Annual Report dated 2 January 1886, RM Tsolo (Capt. Hook) to CMK; CMK 1/100, Letter 3 September 1886, Assistant RM Tsolo (J. Cumming) to CMK; CMK 1/139. Letter 11 January 1887, enclosing 'Annual Report for Blue Book', 10 January 1887, RM Tsolo (J. Monroe) to CMK; CMK 1/139, 'Report for Annual Blue Book on Native Affairs', 7 January 1890, J. Cumming, RM Tsolo to CMK; Cape of Good Hope, Native Affairs Department, Blue Book on Native Affairs 1891 (Cape Town, 1891), p. 46; Cape of Good Hope Native Affairs Department, Blue Book on Native Affairs 1892 (Cape Town, 1892), p.46; CMK 1/139. 'Annual Blue Book Report', 10 January 1899, J. Cumming, RM Tsolo to CMK; CMK 1/139, 'Blue Book Report', 18 January 1901, RM Tsolo (Simpson) to CMK; CMK 1/139, 'Blue Book on Native Affairs 1902, District of Tsolo', 23 February 1902. Assistant RM Tsolo (W. M. Carlisle) to CMK; Cape of Good Hope Native Affairs Department, Blue Book on Native Affairs 1903 (Cape Town, 1904), p. 80; Cape of Good Hope Native Affairs Department, Blue Book on Native Affairs 1904 (Cape Town, 1905), p. 89.
119. CMK 1/98, Letter 14 May 1883, RM Tsolo (Welsh) to CMK; CMK 1/99, Annual Report dated 2 January 1886, RM Tsolo (Capt. Hook) to CMK; CMK 1/100, Letter 3 September 1886, Assistant RM Tsolo (J. Cumming) to CMK; CMK 1/139. Letter 11 January 1887, enclosing 'Annual Report for Blue Book', 10 January 1887, RM Tsolo (J. Monroe) to CMK; CMK 1/139, 'Report for Annual Blue Book on Native Affairs', 7 January 1890, J. Cumming, RM Tsolo to CMK; Cape of Good Hope, Native Affairs Department, Blue Book on Native Affairs 1891 (Cape Town, 1891), p. 46; Cape of Good Hope Native Affairs Department, Blue Book on Native Affairs 1892 (Cape Town, 1892), p.46; CMK 1/139. 'Annual Blue Book Report', 10 January 1899, J. Cumming, RM Tsolo to CMK; CMK 1/139, 'Blue Book Report', 18 January 1901, RM Tsolo (Simpson) to CMK; CMK 1/139, 'Blue Book on Native Affairs 1902, District of Tsolo', 23 February 1902. Assistant RM Tsolo (W. M. Carlisle) to CMK; Cape of Good Hope Native Affairs Department, Blue Book on Native Affairs 1903 (Cape Town, 1904), p. 80; Cape of Good Hope Native Affairs Department, Blue Book on Native Affairs 1904 (Cape Town, 1905), p. 89.
120. CMK 1/98, Letter 14 May 1883, RM Tsolo (Welsh) to CMK; CMK 1/99, Annual Report dated 2 January 1886, RM Tsolo (Capt. Hook) to CMK; CMK 1/100, Letter 3 September 1886, Assistant RM Tsolo (J. Cumming) to CMK; CMK 1/139. Letter 11 January 1887, enclosing 'Annual Report for Blue Book', 10 January 1887, RM Tsolo (J. Monroe) to CMK; CMK 1/139, 'Report for Annual Blue Book on Native Affairs', 7 January 1890, J. Cumming, RM Tsolo to CMK; Cape of Good Hope, Native Affairs Department, Blue Book on Native Affairs 1891 (Cape Town, 1891), p. 46; Cape of Good Hope Native Affairs Department, Blue Book on Native Affairs 1892 (Cape Town, 1892), p.46; CMK 1/139. 'Annual Blue Book Report', 10 January 1899, J. Cumming, RM Tsolo to CMK; CMK 1/139, 'Blue Book Report', 18 January 1901, RM Tsolo (Simpson) to CMK; CMK 1/139, 'Blue Book on Native Affairs 1902, District of Tsolo', 23 February 1902. Assistant RM Tsolo (W. M. Carlisle) to CMK; Cape of Good Hope Native Affairs Department, Blue Book on Native Affairs 1903 (Cape Town, 1904), p. 80; Cape of Good Hope Native Affairs Department, Blue Book on Native Affairs 1904 (Cape Town, 1905), p. 89.
121. 1/UTA 5/1/1/3. 'Annual Report for 1881', Letter 5/82, 4 January 1882, RM Umtata to CMT; CMT 1/37 Letter 422/86, 11 December 1886, RM Umtata (T. R. Merriman) to CMT; CMT 1/37, Letter 20/88, 19 January 1888 RM Umtata to CMT; CMT 1/84, 'Annual Report for 1889', 14 January 1890, CMT to USNA; CMT 3/170, Letter 12,7 January 1897, Acting RM Umtata (A. H. Stanford) to CMT; CMT 3/170, Letter 15 January 1898, RM Umtata to CMT; CMT 3/170, Letter 1153, 9 December 1898, Acting RM Umtata to CMT; CMT 3/171, Letter 88. 12 February 1900. RM Umtata to CMT; CMT 3/171, Letter 86, 4 February 1901,RM Umtata to CMT; Letter 12830 January 1902 RM Umtata to CMT; CMT 3/172, Letter 21, January 1903, RM Umtata to CMT; CMT 3/173, Letter 67, 6 January 1904, RM Umtata to CMT.
122. 1/UTA 5/1/1/3. 'Annual Report for 1881', Letter 5/82, 4 January 1882, RM Umtata to CMT; CMT 1/37 Letter 422/86, 11 December 1886, RM Umtata (T. R. Merriman) to CMT; CMT 1/37, Letter 20/88, 19 January 1888 RM Umtata to CMT; CMT 1/84, 'Annual Report for 1889', 14 January 1890, CMT to USNA; CMT 3/170, Letter 12,7 January 1897, Acting RM Umtata (A. H. Stanford) to CMT; CMT 3/170, Letter 15 January 1898, RM Umtata to CMT; CMT 3/170, Letter 1153, 9 December 1898, Acting RM Umtata to CMT; CMT 3/171, Letter 88. 12 February 1900. RM Umtata to CMT; CMT 3/171, Letter 86, 4 February 1901,RM Umtata to CMT; Letter 12830 January 1902 RM Umtata to CMT; CMT 3/172, Letter 21, January 1903, RM Umtata to CMT; CMT 3/173, Letter 67, 6 January 1904, RM Umtata to CMT.
123. CMT 1/28, 'Report on Native Affairs District of Engcobo Tembuland 1882, 5 January 1882, RM Engcobo (W. E. Stanford) to CMT; CMT 1/28, Letter 1 July 1882, RM Engcobo (W. E. Stanford) to CMT; 1/ECO 5/1/1/1, 'Annual Report', December 1882, RM Engcobo; CMT 1/30, Letter 23 January 1885, RM Engcobo to CMT; CMT 1/31, Letter 8 October 1886, RM Engcobo (A. H. Stanford) to CMT, CMT 1/31, Letter 11 December 1886, RM Engcobo (A.M. Stanford) to CMT; CMT 3/86, Letter 14 December 1891, RM Engcobo (A. H. Stanford) to CMT; CMT 3/87. Letter 10 December 1894 RM Engcobo (Warner) to CMT; CMT 3/91 'Annual Report for 1900', 7 January 1901, RM Engcobo (J. G. Leary) to CMT.
124. CMT 1/28, 'Report on Native Affairs District of Engcobo Tembuland 1882, 5 January 1882, RM Engcobo (W. E. Stanford) to CMT; CMT 1/28, Letter 1 July 1882, RM Engcobo (W. E. Stanford) to CMT; 1/ECO 5/1/1/1, 'Annual Report', December 1882, RM Engcobo; CMT 1/30, Letter 23 January 1885, RM Engcobo to CMT; CMT 1/31, Letter 8 October 1886, RM Engcobo (A. H. Stanford) to CMT, CMT 1/31, Letter 11 December 1886, RM Engcobo (A.M. Stanford) to CMT; CMT 3/86, Letter 14 December 1891, RM Engcobo (A. H. Stanford) to CMT; CMT 3/87. Letter 10 December 1894 RM Engcobo (Warner) to CMT; CMT 3/91 'Annual Report for 1900', 7 January 1901, RM Engcobo (J. G. Leary) to CMT.
125. CMT 1/28, 'Report on Native Affairs District of Engcobo Tembuland 1882, 5 January 1882, RM Engcobo (W. E. Stanford) to CMT; CMT 1/28, Letter 1 July 1882, RM Engcobo (W. E. Stanford) to CMT; 1/ECO 5/1/1/1, 'Annual Report', December 1882, RM Engcobo; CMT 1/30, Letter 23 January 1885, RM Engcobo to CMT; CMT 1/31, Letter 8 October 1886, RM Engcobo (A. H. Stanford) to CMT, CMT 1/31, Letter 11 December 1886, RM Engcobo (A.M. Stanford) to CMT; CMT 3/86, Letter 14 December 1891, RM Engcobo (A. H. Stanford) to CMT; CMT 3/87. Letter 10 December 1894 RM Engcobo (Warner) to CMT; CMT 3/91 'Annual Report for 1900', 7 January 1901, RM Engcobo (J. G. Leary) to CMT.
126. See remarks by Tsolo magistrate, Welsh, in CMK 1/98, Letter 10 September 1883 to CMK.
127. Cape of Good Hope, Native Laws and Customs Commission 1883, Vol. 1, pp. 411-412, testimony of Major Henry Elliot, CMT; 1/UTA 5/1/1/3. 'Annual Report for 1880', Letter 142, 10 February 1881, RM Umtata (A. H. Stanford) to CMT. See also Sean Redding, 'African Women and Migration in Umtata District, Transkei, 1880-1935', in Kathleen Sheldon (ed), Courtyards. Markets. City Streets: Urban Women in Africa (Boulder, forthcoming).
128. Cape of Good Hope, Native Laws and Customs Commission 1883, Vol. 1, pp. 411-412, testimony of Major Henry Elliot, CMT; 1/UTA 5/1/1/3. 'Annual Report for 1880', Letter 142, 10 February 1881, RM Umtata (A. H. Stanford) to CMT. See also Sean Redding, 'African Women and Migration in Umtata District, Transkei, 1880-1935', in Kathleen Sheldon (ed), Courtyards. Markets. City Streets: Urban Women in Africa (Boulder, forthcoming).
129. Cape of Good Hope, Native Laws and Customs Commission 1883, Vol. 1, pp. 411-412, testimony of Major Henry Elliot, CMT; 1/UTA 5/1/1/3. 'Annual Report for 1880', Letter 142, 10 February 1881, RM Umtata (A. H. Stanford) to CMT. See also Sean Redding, 'African Women and Migration in Umtata District, Transkei, 1880-1935', in Kathleen Sheldon (ed), Courtyards. Markets. City Streets: Urban Women in Africa (Boulder, forthcoming).
130. As the then Chief Magistrate A. H. Stanford wrote in 1910, 'The question of personal contact is one which weighs somewhat heavily upon me'. Quoted in Mears, 'A Study in Native Administration', p. 418.
131. In a meeting in Tsolo in 1885 one headman told the magistrate, 'Since the war no SNA has visited us. Three times the SNA has passed us but not called. Our hearts are sore. We receive no answers to our complaints of losses during the war', CMK 1/99, 'Native Affairs Blue Book for 1886', dated 2 January 1886, RM Tsolo (Captain Hook) to CMK; See also Cape of Good Hope, Native Laws and Customs Commission 1883, Vol. 1, p. 382, testimony of W.G. Cumming, RM Xalanga; CMT 1/30, 'Minutes of Meeting Held at Engcobo on the 19 February 1884, of the Native Chiefs, Headmen and Their Councillors'; CMT 1/30, 'Minutes of a Meeting with Major Elliot CMT and the Residents of the Engcobo District', 4 August 1885; CMT 1/9, Letter 2, 22 June 1885, USNA (Rose Innes) to CMT; CMT 1/82, 'Annual Report 1884', 6 January 1885, CMT (Elliot) to USNA (Rose Innes).
132. In a meeting in Tsolo in 1885 one headman told the magistrate, 'Since the war no SNA has visited us. Three times the SNA has passed us but not called. Our hearts are sore. We receive no answers to our complaints of losses during the war', CMK 1/99, 'Native Affairs Blue Book for 1886', dated 2 January 1886, RM Tsolo (Captain Hook) to CMK; See also Cape of Good Hope, Native Laws and Customs Commission 1883, Vol. 1, p. 382, testimony of W.G. Cumming, RM Xalanga; CMT 1/30, 'Minutes of Meeting Held at Engcobo on the 19 February 1884, of the Native Chiefs, Headmen and Their Councillors'; CMT 1/30, 'Minutes of a Meeting with Major Elliot CMT and the Residents of the Engcobo District', 4 August 1885; CMT 1/9, Letter 2, 22 June 1885, USNA (Rose Innes) to CMT; CMT 1/82, 'Annual Report 1884', 6 January 1885, CMT (Elliot) to USNA (Rose Innes).
133. In a meeting in Tsolo in 1885 one headman told the magistrate, 'Since the war no SNA has visited us. Three times the SNA has passed us but not called. Our hearts are sore. We receive no answers to our complaints of losses during the war', CMK 1/99, 'Native Affairs Blue Book for 1886', dated 2 January 1886, RM Tsolo (Captain Hook) to CMK; See also Cape of Good Hope, Native Laws and Customs Commission 1883, Vol. 1, p. 382, testimony of W.G. Cumming, RM Xalanga; CMT 1/30, 'Minutes of Meeting Held at Engcobo on the 19 February 1884, of the Native Chiefs, Headmen and Their Councillors'; CMT 1/30, 'Minutes of a Meeting with Major Elliot CMT and the Residents of the Engcobo District', 4 August 1885; CMT 1/9, Letter 2, 22 June 1885, USNA (Rose Innes) to CMT; CMT 1/82, 'Annual Report 1884', 6 January 1885, CMT (Elliot) to USNA (Rose Innes).
134. In a meeting in Tsolo in 1885 one headman told the magistrate, 'Since the war no SNA has visited us. Three times the SNA has passed us but not called. Our hearts are sore. We receive no answers to our complaints of losses during the war', CMK 1/99, 'Native Affairs Blue Book for 1886', dated 2 January 1886, RM Tsolo (Captain Hook) to CMK; See also Cape of Good Hope, Native Laws and Customs Commission 1883, Vol. 1, p. 382, testimony of W.G. Cumming, RM Xalanga; CMT 1/30, 'Minutes of Meeting Held at Engcobo on the 19 February 1884, of the Native Chiefs, Headmen and Their Councillors'; CMT 1/30, 'Minutes of a Meeting with Major Elliot CMT and the Residents of the Engcobo District', 4 August 1885; CMT 1/9, Letter 2, 22 June 1885, USNA (Rose Innes) to CMT; CMT 1/82, 'Annual Report 1884', 6 January 1885, CMT (Elliot) to USNA (Rose Innes).
135. In a meeting in Tsolo in 1885 one headman told the magistrate, 'Since the war no SNA has visited us. Three times the SNA has passed us but not called. Our hearts are sore. We receive no answers to our complaints of losses during the war', CMK 1/99, 'Native Affairs Blue Book for 1886', dated 2 January 1886, RM Tsolo (Captain Hook) to CMK; See also Cape of Good Hope, Native Laws and Customs Commission 1883, Vol. 1, p. 382, testimony of W.G. Cumming, RM Xalanga; CMT 1/30, 'Minutes of Meeting Held at Engcobo on the 19 February 1884, of the Native Chiefs, Headmen and Their Councillors'; CMT 1/30, 'Minutes of a Meeting with Major Elliot CMT and the Residents of the Engcobo District', 4 August 1885; CMT 1/9, Letter 2, 22 June 1885, USNA (Rose Innes) to CMT; CMT 1/82, 'Annual Report 1884', 6 January 1885, CMT (Elliot) to USNA (Rose Innes).
136. Kertzer, Ritual. Politics and Power, p. 54.
137. CMT 1/82. 'Annual Report 1884', 6 January 1885, CMT to USNA.
138. Ibid.
139. On what magistrates thought that Africans expected, see CMT 1/37, Letter 92, 21 May 1891, RM Umtata (A. H. Stanford) to CMT.
140. Wilson is quoting an unnamed African informant, Reaction to Conquest, p. 317. Lan notes a similar interpretation of white actions by Shona people in the 1970s in Guns and Rain. p. 142; Peires discusses the pervasiveness of witchcraft beliefs among the Xhosa with regard to warfare against Europeans in the mid-1800s in The Dead Will Arise, pp. 126-128.
141. Wilson is quoting an unnamed African informant, Reaction to Conquest, p. 317. Lan notes a similar interpretation of white actions by Shona people in the 1970s in Guns and Rain. p. 142; Peires discusses the pervasiveness of witchcraft beliefs among the Xhosa with regard to warfare against Europeans in the mid-1800s in The Dead Will Arise, pp. 126-128.
142. Wilson is quoting an unnamed African informant, Reaction to Conquest, p. 317. Lan notes a similar interpretation of white actions by Shona people in the 1970s in Guns and Rain. p. 142; Peires discusses the pervasiveness of witchcraft beliefs among the Xhosa with regard to warfare against Europeans in the mid-1800s in The Dead Will Arise, pp. 126-128.
143. J. Scott, Weapons of the Weak (New Haven, 1985), p. 29. On the point of long term peasant resistance in the Transkei see W. Beinart and C. Bundy, 'Introduction: Away in the Locations', in Beinart and Bundy (eds), Hidden Struggles, particularly pp. 32-33.
144. J. Scott, Weapons of the Weak (New Haven, 1985), p. 29. On the point of long term peasant resistance in the Transkei see W. Beinart and C. Bundy, 'Introduction: Away in the Locations', in Beinart and Bundy (eds), Hidden Struggles, particularly pp. 32-33.
145. The sociologist Karen Fields argues that in central Africa British officials were at least partially aware of the degree to which witchcraft beliefs assisted them in ruling. See Fields, 'Political Contingencies of Witchcraft', Canadian Journal of African Studies, 16 (1982), pp. 567-593.