Geographical practice and its significance in Peter the Great's Russia

Journal of Historical Geography

Volumn 22, Issue 2, 1996, Pages 160-176

  Shaw, Denis J B ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF BIRMINGHAM   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

GEOGRAPHICAL PRACTICE; HISTORICAL STUDY; HISTORY OF GEOGRAPHY; PETER THE GREAT; SOCIOPOLITICAL IMPACT;

RUSSIAN FEDERATION;

EID: 0030460232     PISSN: 03057488     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1006/jhge.1996.0011     Document Type: Article

References (136)

1. Much of the recent material is to be found in the periodical literature, but there is a useful bibliography in David N. Livingstone, The Geographical Tradition (Oxford 1992). A recent history of Russian geographical ideas is contained in: Ludwik Mazurkiewicz, Human Geography in Eastern Europe and the Former Soviet Union (London 1992)
2. Much of the recent material is to be found in the periodical literature, but there is a useful bibliography in David N. Livingstone, The Geographical Tradition (Oxford 1992). A recent history of Russian geographical ideas is contained in: Ludwik Mazurkiewicz, Human Geography in Eastern Europe and the Former Soviet Union (London 1992)
3. For example: Neil Smith and Anne Godlewska (Eds), Geography and Empire (Oxford 1994); G. Parker, Western Geopolitical Thought in the Twentieth Century (London 1985); J. M. Blaut, The National Question (London 1987); Mark Bassin, Race contra space: the conflict between German Geopolitik and National Socialism Political Geography Quarterly 6 (1987) 115-34; David Livingstone, The moral discourse of climate: historical considerations on race, place and virtue Journal of Historical Geography 17 (1991) 413-34
4. For example: Neil Smith and Anne Godlewska (Eds), Geography and Empire (Oxford 1994); G. Parker, Western Geopolitical Thought in the Twentieth Century (London 1985); J. M. Blaut, The National Question (London 1987); Mark Bassin, Race contra space: the conflict between German Geopolitik and National Socialism Political Geography Quarterly 6 (1987) 115-34; David Livingstone, The moral discourse of climate: historical considerations on race, place and virtue Journal of Historical Geography 17 (1991) 413-34
5. For example: Neil Smith and Anne Godlewska (Eds), Geography and Empire (Oxford 1994); G. Parker, Western Geopolitical Thought in the Twentieth Century (London 1985); J. M. Blaut, The National Question (London 1987); Mark Bassin, Race contra space: the conflict between German Geopolitik and National Socialism Political Geography Quarterly 6 (1987) 115-34; David Livingstone, The moral discourse of climate: historical considerations on race, place and virtue Journal of Historical Geography 17 (1991) 413-34
6. For example: Neil Smith and Anne Godlewska (Eds), Geography and Empire (Oxford 1994); G. Parker, Western Geopolitical Thought in the Twentieth Century (London 1985); J. M. Blaut, The National Question (London 1987); Mark Bassin, Race contra space: the conflict between German Geopolitik and National Socialism Political Geography Quarterly 6 (1987) 115-34; David Livingstone, The moral discourse of climate: historical considerations on race, place and virtue Journal of Historical Geography 17 (1991) 413-34
7. For example: Neil Smith and Anne Godlewska (Eds), Geography and Empire (Oxford 1994); G. Parker, Western Geopolitical Thought in the Twentieth Century (London 1985); J. M. Blaut, The National Question (London 1987); Mark Bassin, Race contra space: the conflict between German Geopolitik and National Socialism Political Geography Quarterly 6 (1987) 115-34; David Livingstone, The moral discourse of climate: historical considerations on race, place and virtue Journal of Historical Geography 17 (1991) 413-34
8. For broader work on European state building, see for example: J. Anderson, The Rise of the Modern State (Brighton 1986); J. H. Shennan, The Origins of the Modern European State 1450-1725 (London 1974); J. H. Strayer, On the Medieval Origins of the Modern State (Princeton 1970); C. Tilly (Ed.), The Formation of Nation States in Western Europe (Princeton 1975); G. Poggi, The Development of the Modern State (London 1978)
9. For broader work on European state building, see for example: J. Anderson, The Rise of the Modern State (Brighton 1986); J. H. Shennan, The Origins of the Modern European State 1450-1725 (London 1974); J. H. Strayer, On the Medieval Origins of the Modern State (Princeton 1970); C. Tilly (Ed.), The Formation of Nation States in Western Europe (Princeton 1975); G. Poggi, The Development of the Modern State (London 1978)
10. For broader work on European state building, see for example: J. Anderson, The Rise of the Modern State (Brighton 1986); J. H. Shennan, The Origins of the Modern European State 1450-1725 (London 1974); J. H. Strayer, On the Medieval Origins of the Modern State (Princeton 1970); C. Tilly (Ed.), The Formation of Nation States in Western Europe (Princeton 1975); G. Poggi, The Development of the Modern State (London 1978)
11. For broader work on European state building, see for example: J. Anderson, The Rise of the Modern State (Brighton 1986); J. H. Shennan, The Origins of the Modern European State 1450-1725 (London 1974); J. H. Strayer, On the Medieval Origins of the Modern State (Princeton 1970); C. Tilly (Ed.), The Formation of Nation States in Western Europe (Princeton 1975); G. Poggi, The Development of the Modern State (London 1978)
12. For broader work on European state building, see for example: J. Anderson, The Rise of the Modern State (Brighton 1986); J. H. Shennan, The Origins of the Modern European State 1450-1725 (London 1974); J. H. Strayer, On the Medieval Origins of the Modern State (Princeton 1970); C. Tilly (Ed.), The Formation of Nation States in Western Europe (Princeton 1975); G. Poggi, The Development of the Modern State (London 1978)
13. e.g. Lesley B. Cormack, "Good fences make good neighbours": geography as self-definition in early modern England Isis 82 (1991) 639-661;
14. idem., The fashioning of an empire: geography and the state in Elizabethan England, in Smith and Godlewska (Eds), op. cit. 15-30;
15. Richard Helgerson, Forms of Nationhood: The Elizabethan Writing of England (Chicago 1992);
16. see also Charles J. W. Withers, Geography, science and national identity in early modern Britain: the case of Scotland and the work of Sir Robert Sibbald (1641-1722) Annals of Science (forthcoming)
17. Helgerson op. cit.; idem., The land speaks: cartography, chorography and subversion in Renaissance England Representations 16 (1986) 50-85; Stan Mendyck, Early British chorography The Sixteenth Century Journal XVII no. 4 459-81; idem., Speculum Britanniae: Regional Study, Antiquarianism and Science in Britain to 1700 (Toronto 1989)
18. Helgerson op. cit.; idem., The land speaks: cartography, chorography and subversion in Renaissance England Representations 16 (1986) 50-85; Stan Mendyck, Early British chorography The Sixteenth Century Journal XVII no. 4 459-81; idem., Speculum Britanniae: Regional Study, Antiquarianism and Science in Britain to 1700 (Toronto 1989)
19. Helgerson op. cit.; idem., The land speaks: cartography, chorography and subversion in Renaissance England Representations 16 (1986) 50-85; Stan Mendyck, Early British chorography The Sixteenth Century Journal XVII no. 4 459-81; idem., Speculum Britanniae: Regional Study, Antiquarianism and Science in Britain to 1700 (Toronto 1989)
20. Helgerson op. cit.; idem., The land speaks: cartography, chorography and subversion in Renaissance England Representations 16 (1986) 50-85; Stan Mendyck, Early British chorography The Sixteenth Century Journal XVII no. 4 459-81; idem., Speculum Britanniae: Regional Study, Antiquarianism and Science in Britain to 1700 (Toronto 1989)
21. Smith and Godlewska (Eds) op. cit.; Livingstone op. cit., 32-62, 88-97, 142-9; Peter Buck, Seventeenth century political arithmetic: civil strife and vital statistics Isis 68 (1977) 67-84; Tony Aspromourgos, Political economy and the social division of labour: the economics of Sir William Petty Scottish Journal of Political Economy 33 no. 1 (1986) 28-45; Juri Mykkanen, "To methodize and regulate them": William Petty's governmental science of statistics History of the Human Sciences 7 no. 3 (1994) 65-88
22. Smith and Godlewska (Eds) op. cit.; Livingstone op. cit., 32-62, 88-97, 142-9; Peter Buck, Seventeenth century political arithmetic: civil strife and vital statistics Isis 68 (1977) 67-84; Tony Aspromourgos, Political economy and the social division of labour: the economics of Sir William Petty Scottish Journal of Political Economy 33 no. 1 (1986) 28-45; Juri Mykkanen, "To methodize and regulate them": William Petty's governmental science of statistics History of the Human Sciences 7 no. 3 (1994) 65-88
23. Smith and Godlewska (Eds) op. cit.; Livingstone op. cit., 32-62, 88-97, 142-9; Peter Buck, Seventeenth century political arithmetic: civil strife and vital statistics Isis 68 (1977) 67-84; Tony Aspromourgos, Political economy and the social division of labour: the economics of Sir William Petty Scottish Journal of Political Economy 33 no. 1 (1986) 28-45; Juri Mykkanen, "To methodize and regulate them": William Petty's governmental science of statistics History of the Human Sciences 7 no. 3 (1994) 65-88
24. Smith and Godlewska (Eds) op. cit.; Livingstone op. cit., 32-62, 88-97, 142-9; Peter Buck, Seventeenth century political arithmetic: civil strife and vital statistics Isis 68 (1977) 67-84; Tony Aspromourgos, Political economy and the social division of labour: the economics of Sir William Petty Scottish Journal of Political Economy 33 no. 1 (1986) 28-45; Juri Mykkanen, "To methodize and regulate them": William Petty's governmental science of statistics History of the Human Sciences 7 no. 3 (1994) 65-88
25. Smith and Godlewska (Eds) op. cit.; Livingstone op. cit., 32-62, 88-97, 142-9; Peter Buck, Seventeenth century political arithmetic: civil strife and vital statistics Isis 68 (1977) 67-84; Tony Aspromourgos, Political economy and the social division of labour: the economics of Sir William Petty Scottish Journal of Political Economy 33 no. 1 (1986) 28-45; Juri Mykkanen, "To methodize and regulate them": William Petty's governmental science of statistics History of the Human Sciences 7 no. 3 (1994) 65-88
26. For the European continent, see: Numa Broc, La Géographie des Philosophes: Géographes et Voyageurs Français au XVIII Siècle (Strasburg 1974); Numa Broc, La Géographie de la Renaissance (Paris 1980); Josef W. Konvitz, Cartography in France, 1660-1848: Science, Engineering and Statecraft (Chicago 1987); Gabriele Schwarz, Die Entwicklung der geographischen Wissenschaft seit dem 18 Jahrhundert, (Berlin 1948); Hanno Beck, Geographie: Europaische Entwicklung in Texten und Erläuterungen (Munich 1973); Mannfred Buttner (Ed.), Zur Entwicklung der Geographie vom Mittelalter bis zu Carl Ritter (Paderborn 1982); Gerald Strauss, Sixteenth Century Germany: Its Topography and Topographers (Madison 1959). For suggestive comments on the perceived differences between Britain and continental countries in the first half of the nineteenth century, see: B. Porter, Britain, Europe and the World, 1850-1986 (London 1987) 5-8; D. Cannadine, The context, performance and meaning of ritual: the British monarchy and the "Invention of Tradition", c. 1820-1977 in E. Hobsbawm and T. Ranger (Eds), The Invention of Tradition (Cambridge 1983) 113-14; Marc Raeff, The Well-ordered Police State: Social and Institutional Change Through Law in the Germanies and Russia (New Haven 1983) 255
27. For the European continent, see: Numa Broc, La Géographie des Philosophes: Géographes et Voyageurs Français au XVIII Siècle (Strasburg 1974); Numa Broc, La Géographie de la Renaissance (Paris 1980); Josef W. Konvitz, Cartography in France, 1660-1848: Science, Engineering and Statecraft (Chicago 1987); Gabriele Schwarz, Die Entwicklung der geographischen Wissenschaft seit dem 18 Jahrhundert, (Berlin 1948); Hanno Beck, Geographie: Europaische Entwicklung in Texten und Erläuterungen (Munich 1973); Mannfred Buttner (Ed.), Zur Entwicklung der Geographie vom Mittelalter bis zu Carl Ritter (Paderborn 1982); Gerald Strauss, Sixteenth Century Germany: Its Topography and Topographers (Madison 1959). For suggestive comments on the perceived differences between Britain and continental countries in the first half of the nineteenth century, see: B. Porter, Britain, Europe and the World, 1850-1986 (London 1987) 5-8; D. Cannadine, The context, performance and meaning of ritual: the British monarchy and the "Invention of Tradition", c. 1820-1977 in E. Hobsbawm and T. Ranger (Eds), The Invention of Tradition (Cambridge 1983) 113-14; Marc Raeff, The Well-ordered Police State: Social and Institutional Change Through Law in the Germanies and Russia (New Haven 1983) 255
28. For the European continent, see: Numa Broc, La Géographie des Philosophes: Géographes et Voyageurs Français au XVIII Siècle (Strasburg 1974); Numa Broc, La Géographie de la Renaissance (Paris 1980); Josef W. Konvitz, Cartography in France, 1660-1848: Science, Engineering and Statecraft (Chicago 1987); Gabriele Schwarz, Die Entwicklung der geographischen Wissenschaft seit dem 18 Jahrhundert, (Berlin 1948); Hanno Beck, Geographie: Europaische Entwicklung in Texten und Erläuterungen (Munich 1973); Mannfred Buttner (Ed.), Zur Entwicklung der Geographie vom Mittelalter bis zu Carl Ritter (Paderborn 1982); Gerald Strauss, Sixteenth Century Germany: Its Topography and Topographers (Madison 1959). For suggestive comments on the perceived differences between Britain and continental countries in the first half of the nineteenth century, see: B. Porter, Britain, Europe and the World, 1850-1986 (London 1987) 5-8; D. Cannadine, The context, performance and meaning of ritual: the British monarchy and the "Invention of Tradition", c. 1820-1977 in E. Hobsbawm and T. Ranger (Eds), The Invention of Tradition (Cambridge 1983) 113-14; Marc Raeff, The Well-ordered Police State: Social and Institutional Change Through Law in the Germanies and Russia (New Haven 1983) 255
29. For the European continent, see: Numa Broc, La Géographie des Philosophes: Géographes et Voyageurs Français au XVIII Siècle (Strasburg 1974); Numa Broc, La Géographie de la Renaissance (Paris 1980); Josef W. Konvitz, Cartography in France, 1660-1848: Science, Engineering and Statecraft (Chicago 1987); Gabriele Schwarz, Die Entwicklung der geographischen Wissenschaft seit dem 18 Jahrhundert, (Berlin 1948); Hanno Beck, Geographie: Europaische Entwicklung in Texten und Erläuterungen (Munich 1973); Mannfred Buttner (Ed.), Zur Entwicklung der Geographie vom Mittelalter bis zu Carl Ritter (Paderborn 1982); Gerald Strauss, Sixteenth Century Germany: Its Topography and Topographers (Madison 1959). For suggestive comments on the perceived differences between Britain and continental countries in the first half of the nineteenth century, see: B. Porter, Britain, Europe and the World, 1850-1986 (London 1987) 5-8; D. Cannadine, The context, performance and meaning of ritual: the British monarchy and the "Invention of Tradition", c. 1820-1977 in E. Hobsbawm and T. Ranger (Eds), The Invention of Tradition (Cambridge 1983) 113-14; Marc Raeff, The Well-ordered Police State: Social and Institutional Change Through Law in the Germanies and Russia (New Haven 1983) 255
30. For the European continent, see: Numa Broc, La Géographie des Philosophes: Géographes et Voyageurs Français au XVIII Siècle (Strasburg 1974); Numa Broc, La Géographie de la Renaissance (Paris 1980); Josef W. Konvitz, Cartography in France, 1660-1848: Science, Engineering and Statecraft (Chicago 1987); Gabriele Schwarz, Die Entwicklung der geographischen Wissenschaft seit dem 18 Jahrhundert, (Berlin 1948); Hanno Beck, Geographie: Europaische Entwicklung in Texten und Erläuterungen (Munich 1973); Mannfred Buttner (Ed.), Zur Entwicklung der Geographie vom Mittelalter bis zu Carl Ritter (Paderborn 1982); Gerald Strauss, Sixteenth Century Germany: Its Topography and Topographers (Madison 1959). For suggestive comments on the perceived differences between Britain and continental countries in the first half of the nineteenth century, see: B. Porter, Britain, Europe and the World, 1850-1986 (London 1987) 5-8; D. Cannadine, The context, performance and meaning of ritual: the British monarchy and the "Invention of Tradition", c. 1820-1977 in E. Hobsbawm and T. Ranger (Eds), The Invention of Tradition (Cambridge 1983) 113-14; Marc Raeff, The Well-ordered Police State: Social and Institutional Change Through Law in the Germanies and Russia (New Haven 1983) 255
31. For the European continent, see: Numa Broc, La Géographie des Philosophes: Géographes et Voyageurs Français au XVIII Siècle (Strasburg 1974); Numa Broc, La Géographie de la Renaissance (Paris 1980); Josef W. Konvitz, Cartography in France, 1660-1848: Science, Engineering and Statecraft (Chicago 1987); Gabriele Schwarz, Die Entwicklung der geographischen Wissenschaft seit dem 18 Jahrhundert, (Berlin 1948); Hanno Beck, Geographie: Europaische Entwicklung in Texten und Erläuterungen (Munich 1973); Mannfred Buttner (Ed.), Zur Entwicklung der Geographie vom Mittelalter bis zu Carl Ritter (Paderborn 1982); Gerald Strauss, Sixteenth Century Germany: Its Topography and Topographers (Madison 1959). For suggestive comments on the perceived differences between Britain and continental countries in the first half of the nineteenth century, see: B. Porter, Britain, Europe and the World, 1850-1986 (London 1987) 5-8; D. Cannadine, The context, performance and meaning of ritual: the British monarchy and the "Invention of Tradition", c. 1820-1977 in E. Hobsbawm and T. Ranger (Eds), The Invention of Tradition (Cambridge 1983) 113-14; Marc Raeff, The Well-ordered Police State: Social and Institutional Change Through Law in the Germanies and Russia (New Haven 1983) 255
32. For the European continent, see: Numa Broc, La Géographie des Philosophes: Géographes et Voyageurs Français au XVIII Siècle (Strasburg 1974); Numa Broc, La Géographie de la Renaissance (Paris 1980); Josef W. Konvitz, Cartography in France, 1660-1848: Science, Engineering and Statecraft (Chicago 1987); Gabriele Schwarz, Die Entwicklung der geographischen Wissenschaft seit dem 18 Jahrhundert, (Berlin 1948); Hanno Beck, Geographie: Europaische Entwicklung in Texten und Erläuterungen (Munich 1973); Mannfred Buttner (Ed.), Zur Entwicklung der Geographie vom Mittelalter bis zu Carl Ritter (Paderborn 1982); Gerald Strauss, Sixteenth Century Germany: Its Topography and Topographers (Madison 1959). For suggestive comments on the perceived differences between Britain and continental countries in the first half of the nineteenth century, see: B. Porter, Britain, Europe and the World, 1850-1986 (London 1987) 5-8; D. Cannadine, The context, performance and meaning of ritual: the British monarchy and the "Invention of Tradition", c. 1820-1977 in E. Hobsbawm and T. Ranger (Eds), The Invention of Tradition (Cambridge 1983) 113-14; Marc Raeff, The Well-ordered Police State: Social and Institutional Change Through Law in the Germanies and Russia (New Haven 1983) 255
33. For the European continent, see: Numa Broc, La Géographie des Philosophes: Géographes et Voyageurs Français au XVIII Siècle (Strasburg 1974); Numa Broc, La Géographie de la Renaissance (Paris 1980); Josef W. Konvitz, Cartography in France, 1660-1848: Science, Engineering and Statecraft (Chicago 1987); Gabriele Schwarz, Die Entwicklung der geographischen Wissenschaft seit dem 18 Jahrhundert, (Berlin 1948); Hanno Beck, Geographie: Europaische Entwicklung in Texten und Erläuterungen (Munich 1973); Mannfred Buttner (Ed.), Zur Entwicklung der Geographie vom Mittelalter bis zu Carl Ritter (Paderborn 1982); Gerald Strauss, Sixteenth Century Germany: Its Topography and Topographers (Madison 1959). For suggestive comments on the perceived differences between Britain and continental countries in the first half of the nineteenth century, see: B. Porter, Britain, Europe and the World, 1850-1986 (London 1987) 5-8; D. Cannadine, The context, performance and meaning of ritual: the British monarchy and the "Invention of Tradition", c. 1820-1977 in E. Hobsbawm and T. Ranger (Eds), The Invention of Tradition (Cambridge 1983) 113-14; Marc Raeff, The Well-ordered Police State: Social and Institutional Change Through Law in the Germanies and Russia (New Haven 1983) 255
34. For the European continent, see: Numa Broc, La Géographie des Philosophes: Géographes et Voyageurs Français au XVIII Siècle (Strasburg 1974); Numa Broc, La Géographie de la Renaissance (Paris 1980); Josef W. Konvitz, Cartography in France, 1660-1848: Science, Engineering and Statecraft (Chicago 1987); Gabriele Schwarz, Die Entwicklung der geographischen Wissenschaft seit dem 18 Jahrhundert, (Berlin 1948); Hanno Beck, Geographie: Europaische Entwicklung in Texten und Erläuterungen (Munich 1973); Mannfred Buttner (Ed.), Zur Entwicklung der Geographie vom Mittelalter bis zu Carl Ritter (Paderborn 1982); Gerald Strauss, Sixteenth Century Germany: Its Topography and Topographers (Madison 1959). For suggestive comments on the perceived differences between Britain and continental countries in the first half of the nineteenth century, see: B. Porter, Britain, Europe and the World, 1850-1986 (London 1987) 5-8; D. Cannadine, The context, performance and meaning of ritual: the British monarchy and the "Invention of Tradition", c. 1820-1977 in E. Hobsbawm and T. Ranger (Eds), The Invention of Tradition (Cambridge 1983) 113-14; Marc Raeff, The Well-ordered Police State: Social and Institutional Change Through Law in the Germanies and Russia (New Haven 1983) 255
35. For the European continent, see: Numa Broc, La Géographie des Philosophes: Géographes et Voyageurs Français au XVIII Siècle (Strasburg 1974); Numa Broc, La Géographie de la Renaissance (Paris 1980); Josef W. Konvitz, Cartography in France, 1660-1848: Science, Engineering and Statecraft (Chicago 1987); Gabriele Schwarz, Die Entwicklung der geographischen Wissenschaft seit dem 18 Jahrhundert, (Berlin 1948); Hanno Beck, Geographie: Europaische Entwicklung in Texten und Erläuterungen (Munich 1973); Mannfred Buttner (Ed.), Zur Entwicklung der Geographie vom Mittelalter bis zu Carl Ritter (Paderborn 1982); Gerald Strauss, Sixteenth Century Germany: Its Topography and Topographers (Madison 1959). For suggestive comments on the perceived differences between Britain and continental countries in the first half of the nineteenth century, see: B. Porter, Britain, Europe and the World, 1850-1986 (London 1987) 5-8; D. Cannadine, The context, performance and meaning of ritual: the British monarchy and the "Invention of Tradition", c. 1820-1977 in E. Hobsbawm and T. Ranger (Eds), The Invention of Tradition (Cambridge 1983) 113-14; Marc Raeff, The Well-ordered Police State: Social and Institutional Change Through Law in the Germanies and Russia (New Haven 1983) 255
36. See for example: D. M. Lebedev, Geografiva v Rossii petrovskogo vremeni (Moscow-Leningrad 1950); Leo Bagrow, in Henry W. Castner (Ed.) A History of Russian Cartography up to 1800, (Wolfe Island 1975); O. A. Aleksandrovskaya, Stanovlenive geograficheskoy nauki v Rossii v XVIII Veke (Moscow 1989); V. F. Gnucheva, Geograficheskiy department Akademii nauk XVIII Veka (Moscow-Leningrad 1946); Yu. G. Saushkin, Geograficheskaya nauka v proshlom, nastoyashchem i budushchem (Moscow 1977); N. P. Nikitin, Zarozhdeniye ekonomicheskoy geografii v Rossii. Obzor materialov XVIIIv Voprosy Geografii 17 (1950) 43-104; K. E. von Baer, Peters des Grossen Verdienste um die Erweiterung der geografischen Kentnisse (St Petersburg 1872); M. I. Belov (Ed.), Voprosy geografii petrovskogo vremeni (Leningrad 1975); I. P. Gerasimov (Ed.), A Short History of Geographical Science in the Soviet Union (Moscow 1976)
37. See for example: D. M. Lebedev, Geografiva v Rossii petrovskogo vremeni (Moscow-Leningrad 1950); Leo Bagrow, in Henry W. Castner (Ed.) A History of Russian Cartography up to 1800, (Wolfe Island 1975); O. A. Aleksandrovskaya, Stanovlenive geograficheskoy nauki v Rossii v XVIII Veke (Moscow 1989); V. F. Gnucheva, Geograficheskiy department Akademii nauk XVIII Veka (Moscow-Leningrad 1946); Yu. G. Saushkin, Geograficheskaya nauka v proshlom, nastoyashchem i budushchem (Moscow 1977); N. P. Nikitin, Zarozhdeniye ekonomicheskoy geografii v Rossii. Obzor materialov XVIIIv Voprosy Geografii 17 (1950) 43-104; K. E. von Baer, Peters des Grossen Verdienste um die Erweiterung der geografischen Kentnisse (St Petersburg 1872); M. I. Belov (Ed.), Voprosy geografii petrovskogo vremeni (Leningrad 1975); I. P. Gerasimov (Ed.), A Short History of Geographical Science in the Soviet Union (Moscow 1976)
38. See for example: D. M. Lebedev, Geografiva v Rossii petrovskogo vremeni (Moscow-Leningrad 1950); Leo Bagrow, in Henry W. Castner (Ed.) A History of Russian Cartography up to 1800, (Wolfe Island 1975); O. A. Aleksandrovskaya, Stanovlenive geograficheskoy nauki v Rossii v XVIII Veke (Moscow 1989); V. F. Gnucheva, Geograficheskiy department Akademii nauk XVIII Veka (Moscow-Leningrad 1946); Yu. G. Saushkin, Geograficheskaya nauka v proshlom, nastoyashchem i budushchem (Moscow 1977); N. P. Nikitin, Zarozhdeniye ekonomicheskoy geografii v Rossii. Obzor materialov XVIIIv Voprosy Geografii 17 (1950) 43-104; K. E. von Baer, Peters des Grossen Verdienste um die Erweiterung der geografischen Kentnisse (St Petersburg 1872); M. I. Belov (Ed.), Voprosy geografii petrovskogo vremeni (Leningrad 1975); I. P. Gerasimov (Ed.), A Short History of Geographical Science in the Soviet Union (Moscow 1976)
39. See for example: D. M. Lebedev, Geografiva v Rossii petrovskogo vremeni (Moscow-Leningrad 1950); Leo Bagrow, in Henry W. Castner (Ed.) A History of Russian Cartography up to 1800, (Wolfe Island 1975); O. A. Aleksandrovskaya, Stanovlenive geograficheskoy nauki v Rossii v XVIII Veke (Moscow 1989); V. F. Gnucheva, Geograficheskiy department Akademii nauk XVIII Veka (Moscow-Leningrad 1946); Yu. G. Saushkin, Geograficheskaya nauka v proshlom, nastoyashchem i budushchem (Moscow 1977); N. P. Nikitin, Zarozhdeniye ekonomicheskoy geografii v Rossii. Obzor materialov XVIIIv Voprosy Geografii 17 (1950) 43-104; K. E. von Baer, Peters des Grossen Verdienste um die Erweiterung der geografischen Kentnisse (St Petersburg 1872); M. I. Belov (Ed.), Voprosy geografii petrovskogo vremeni (Leningrad 1975); I. P. Gerasimov (Ed.), A Short History of Geographical Science in the Soviet Union (Moscow 1976)
40. See for example: D. M. Lebedev, Geografiva v Rossii petrovskogo vremeni (Moscow-Leningrad 1950); Leo Bagrow, in Henry W. Castner (Ed.) A History of Russian Cartography up to 1800, (Wolfe Island 1975); O. A. Aleksandrovskaya, Stanovlenive geograficheskoy nauki v Rossii v XVIII Veke (Moscow 1989); V. F. Gnucheva, Geograficheskiy department Akademii nauk XVIII Veka (Moscow-Leningrad 1946); Yu. G. Saushkin, Geograficheskaya nauka v proshlom, nastoyashchem i budushchem (Moscow 1977); N. P. Nikitin, Zarozhdeniye ekonomicheskoy geografii v Rossii. Obzor materialov XVIIIv Voprosy Geografii 17 (1950) 43-104; K. E. von Baer, Peters des Grossen Verdienste um die Erweiterung der geografischen Kentnisse (St Petersburg 1872); M. I. Belov (Ed.), Voprosy geografii petrovskogo vremeni (Leningrad 1975); I. P. Gerasimov (Ed.), A Short History of Geographical Science in the Soviet Union (Moscow 1976)
41. See for example: D. M. Lebedev, Geografiva v Rossii petrovskogo vremeni (Moscow-Leningrad 1950); Leo Bagrow, in Henry W. Castner (Ed.) A History of Russian Cartography up to 1800, (Wolfe Island 1975); O. A. Aleksandrovskaya, Stanovlenive geograficheskoy nauki v Rossii v XVIII Veke (Moscow 1989); V. F. Gnucheva, Geograficheskiy department Akademii nauk XVIII Veka (Moscow-Leningrad 1946); Yu. G. Saushkin, Geograficheskaya nauka v proshlom, nastoyashchem i budushchem (Moscow 1977); N. P. Nikitin, Zarozhdeniye ekonomicheskoy geografii v Rossii. Obzor materialov XVIIIv Voprosy Geografii 17 (1950) 43-104; K. E. von Baer, Peters des Grossen Verdienste um die Erweiterung der geografischen Kentnisse (St Petersburg 1872); M. I. Belov (Ed.), Voprosy geografii petrovskogo vremeni (Leningrad 1975); I. P. Gerasimov (Ed.), A Short History of Geographical Science in the Soviet Union (Moscow 1976)
42. See for example: D. M. Lebedev, Geografiva v Rossii petrovskogo vremeni (Moscow-Leningrad 1950); Leo Bagrow, in Henry W. Castner (Ed.) A History of Russian Cartography up to 1800, (Wolfe Island 1975); O. A. Aleksandrovskaya, Stanovlenive geograficheskoy nauki v Rossii v XVIII Veke (Moscow 1989); V. F. Gnucheva, Geograficheskiy department Akademii nauk XVIII Veka (Moscow-Leningrad 1946); Yu. G. Saushkin, Geograficheskaya nauka v proshlom, nastoyashchem i budushchem (Moscow 1977); N. P. Nikitin, Zarozhdeniye ekonomicheskoy geografii v Rossii. Obzor materialov XVIIIv Voprosy Geografii 17 (1950) 43-104; K. E. von Baer, Peters des Grossen Verdienste um die Erweiterung der geografischen Kentnisse (St Petersburg 1872); M. I. Belov (Ed.), Voprosy geografii petrovskogo vremeni (Leningrad 1975); I. P. Gerasimov (Ed.), A Short History of Geographical Science in the Soviet Union (Moscow 1976)
43. See for example: D. M. Lebedev, Geografiva v Rossii petrovskogo vremeni (Moscow-Leningrad 1950); Leo Bagrow, in Henry W. Castner (Ed.) A History of Russian Cartography up to 1800, (Wolfe Island 1975); O. A. Aleksandrovskaya, Stanovlenive geograficheskoy nauki v Rossii v XVIII Veke (Moscow 1989); V. F. Gnucheva, Geograficheskiy department Akademii nauk XVIII Veka (Moscow-Leningrad 1946); Yu. G. Saushkin, Geograficheskaya nauka v proshlom, nastoyashchem i budushchem (Moscow 1977); N. P. Nikitin, Zarozhdeniye ekonomicheskoy geografii v Rossii. Obzor materialov XVIIIv Voprosy Geografii 17 (1950) 43-104; K. E. von Baer, Peters des Grossen Verdienste um die Erweiterung der geografischen Kentnisse (St Petersburg 1872); M. I. Belov (Ed.), Voprosy geografii petrovskogo vremeni (Leningrad 1975); I. P. Gerasimov (Ed.), A Short History of Geographical Science in the Soviet Union (Moscow 1976)
44. See for example: D. M. Lebedev, Geografiva v Rossii petrovskogo vremeni (Moscow-Leningrad 1950); Leo Bagrow, in Henry W. Castner (Ed.) A History of Russian Cartography up to 1800, (Wolfe Island 1975); O. A. Aleksandrovskaya, Stanovlenive geograficheskoy nauki v Rossii v XVIII Veke (Moscow 1989); V. F. Gnucheva, Geograficheskiy department Akademii nauk XVIII Veka (Moscow-Leningrad 1946); Yu. G. Saushkin, Geograficheskaya nauka v proshlom, nastoyashchem i budushchem (Moscow 1977); N. P. Nikitin, Zarozhdeniye ekonomicheskoy geografii v Rossii. Obzor materialov XVIIIv Voprosy Geografii 17 (1950) 43-104; K. E. von Baer, Peters des Grossen Verdienste um die Erweiterung der geografischen Kentnisse (St Petersburg 1872); M. I. Belov (Ed.), Voprosy geografii petrovskogo vremeni (Leningrad 1975); I. P. Gerasimov (Ed.), A Short History of Geographical Science in the Soviet Union (Moscow 1976)
45. This was especially true of the Stalin era. Recent writers have been more inclined to pay some heed to the international context, but detailed discussion of the interrelationships between geographical activity and broader currents is still lacking.
46. According to D. M. Lebedev, op. cit. 332, the term "geography" only came into use in Russia under Peter the Great. Before then, the term used was "land description" (zemleopisaniye)
47. Livingstone op. cit. (1992) 33
48. The author does not subscribe to any theory of modernization, nor does he wish to suggest that Peter was motivated by any clearly defined ideology. As L. R. Lewitter writes: "Leaving aside any precise definition of modernity, let us agree that a desire for improvement, a predilection for novelty, an attitude of mind that is proper to the avant-garde in any generation or epoch, were essential aspects of the mentalité of Peter the Great" [see L. R. Lewitter, Peter the Great and the modern world, in Paul Dukes (Ed.), Russia and Europe (London 1991) 92]
49. St. Basil, Hexaemeron, in J. P. Migne (Ed.), Patriologiae Cursus Completus - Series Graeca (1857-1912) vol. XXIX; Cosmas Indicopleustes, Christiana Topographia, 3 vols. (Paris 1968-74)
50. St. Basil, Hexaemeron, in J. P. Migne (Ed.), Patriologiae Cursus Completus - Series Graeca (1857-1912) vol. XXIX; Cosmas Indicopleustes, Christiana Topographia, 3 vols. (Paris 1968-74)
51. Philip Longworth, Tsar Alexis goes to war, in Dukes op. cit. 48-58
52. While the first indications of the existence of the New World may have come to Russia in the work of Maxim the Greek, who lived in Moscow from 1518, the expeditions of Columbus and Vespucci were described in Marcin Bielski's work (see note [18]) translated into Russian in 1584. Copernicus's heliocentric theory gained some influence via the Russian translation of Blaeu's Atlas Novus, dating from the 1650s, but it was not widely known until Peter's reign
53. Among the many sources for the history of the period, see: M. S. Anderson, Peter the Great (London 1978); B. H. Sumner, Peter the Great and the Emergence of Russia (London 1950); James Cacraft (Ed.), Peter the Great Transforms Russia (1991); R. Wittram, Peter I, Czar und Kaiser (Gottingen 1964); Evgenii Anisimov, The Reforms of Peter the Great (Armonk 1993)
54. Among the many sources for the history of the period, see: M. S. Anderson, Peter the Great (London 1978); B. H. Sumner, Peter the Great and the Emergence of Russia (London 1950); James Cacraft (Ed.), Peter the Great Transforms Russia (1991); R. Wittram, Peter I, Czar und Kaiser (Gottingen 1964); Evgenii Anisimov, The Reforms of Peter the Great (Armonk 1993)
55. Among the many sources for the history of the period, see: M. S. Anderson, Peter the Great (London 1978); B. H. Sumner, Peter the Great and the Emergence of Russia (London 1950); James Cacraft (Ed.), Peter the Great Transforms Russia (1991); R. Wittram, Peter I, Czar und Kaiser (Gottingen 1964); Evgenii Anisimov, The Reforms of Peter the Great (Armonk 1993)
56. Among the many sources for the history of the period, see: M. S. Anderson, Peter the Great (London 1978); B. H. Sumner, Peter the Great and the Emergence of Russia (London 1950); James Cacraft (Ed.), Peter the Great Transforms Russia (1991); R. Wittram, Peter I, Czar und Kaiser (Gottingen 1964); Evgenii Anisimov, The Reforms of Peter the Great (Armonk 1993)
57. Among the many sources for the history of the period, see: M. S. Anderson, Peter the Great (London 1978); B. H. Sumner, Peter the Great and the Emergence of Russia (London 1950); James Cacraft (Ed.), Peter the Great Transforms Russia (1991); R. Wittram, Peter I, Czar und Kaiser (Gottingen 1964); Evgenii Anisimov, The Reforms of Peter the Great (Armonk 1993)
58. Raeff op. cit. 199
59. See: D. M. Lebedev, Geografiva v Rossii XVII Veka (Moscow-Leningrad 1949) 208-16; A. I. Sobolevskiy, Perevodnaya literatura Moskovskoy Rusi XIV-XVII vekov (St Petersburg 1903) 47. Translated works included those of Mela and Bielski: Pomponius Mela, De Situ Orbis (Venice 1471; French edition: Paris 1883); Kronika Polska M. Bielskiego (Cracow 1597 and earlier)
60. See: D. M. Lebedev, Geografiva v Rossii XVII Veka (Moscow-Leningrad 1949) 208-16; A. I. Sobolevskiy, Perevodnaya literatura Moskovskoy Rusi XIV-XVII vekov (St Petersburg 1903) 47. Translated works included those of Mela and Bielski: Pomponius Mela, De Situ Orbis (Venice 1471; French edition: Paris 1883); Kronika Polska M. Bielskiego (Cracow 1597 and earlier)
61. See: D. M. Lebedev, Geografiva v Rossii XVII Veka (Moscow-Leningrad 1949) 208-16; A. I. Sobolevskiy, Perevodnaya literatura Moskovskoy Rusi XIV-XVII vekov (St Petersburg 1903) 47. Translated works included those of Mela and Bielski: Pomponius Mela, De Situ Orbis (Venice 1471; French edition: Paris 1883); Kronika Polska M. Bielskiego (Cracow 1597 and earlier)
62. See: D. M. Lebedev, Geografiva v Rossii XVII Veka (Moscow-Leningrad 1949) 208-16; A. I. Sobolevskiy, Perevodnaya literatura Moskovskoy Rusi XIV-XVII vekov (St Petersburg 1903) 47. Translated works included those of Mela and Bielski: Pomponius Mela, De Situ Orbis (Venice 1471; French edition: Paris 1883); Kronika Polska M. Bielskiego (Cracow 1597 and earlier)
63. Abraham Ortelius, Theatrum Orbis Terrarum (Antwerp edition 1570); Gerardus Mercator, Atlas sive Cosmographicae Meditationes de Fabrica Mundi et Fabricati Figura (Dusseldorf edition 1595); Willem and Jan Blaeu, Theatrum orbis Terrarum, sive Atlas Novus (Amsterdam edition 1641)
64. Abraham Ortelius, Theatrum Orbis Terrarum (Antwerp edition 1570); Gerardus Mercator, Atlas sive Cosmographicae Meditationes de Fabrica Mundi et Fabricati Figura (Dusseldorf edition 1595); Willem and Jan Blaeu, Theatrum orbis Terrarum, sive Atlas Novus (Amsterdam edition 1641)
65. Abraham Ortelius, Theatrum Orbis Terrarum (Antwerp edition 1570); Gerardus Mercator, Atlas sive Cosmographicae Meditationes de Fabrica Mundi et Fabricati Figura (Dusseldorf edition 1595); Willem and Jan Blaeu, Theatrum orbis Terrarum, sive Atlas Novus (Amsterdam edition 1641)
66. B. A. Rybakov, Russkive karty Moskovii (Moscow, 1974); K. N. Serbina (Ed.), Kniga Bol'shomu chertezhu (Moscow-Leningrad 1950); Bagrow op. cit.; B. P. Polevoi, Concerning the origins of the maps of Russia of 1613-14 of Hessel Gerritsz, in L. Hughes (Ed.), New Perspectives on M uscovite History. Selected Papers from the Fourth World Congress for Soviet and East European Studies, Harrogate 1990 (London 1993) 14-21; C. Urness, Rybakov on the Delisle map of 1706 ibid. 24-34
67. B. A. Rybakov, Russkive karty Moskovii (Moscow, 1974); K. N. Serbina (Ed.), Kniga Bol'shomu chertezhu (Moscow-Leningrad 1950); Bagrow op. cit.; B. P. Polevoi, Concerning the origins of the maps of Russia of 1613-14 of Hessel Gerritsz, in L. Hughes (Ed.), New Perspectives on M uscovite History. Selected Papers from the Fourth World Congress for Soviet and East European Studies, Harrogate 1990 (London 1993) 14-21; C. Urness, Rybakov on the Delisle map of 1706 ibid. 24-34
68. B. A. Rybakov, Russkive karty Moskovii (Moscow, 1974); K. N. Serbina (Ed.), Kniga Bol'shomu chertezhu (Moscow-Leningrad 1950); Bagrow op. cit.; B. P. Polevoi, Concerning the origins of the maps of Russia of 1613-14 of Hessel Gerritsz, in L. Hughes (Ed.), New Perspectives on M uscovite History. Selected Papers from the Fourth World Congress for Soviet and East European Studies, Harrogate 1990 (London 1993) 14-21; C. Urness, Rybakov on the Delisle map of 1706 ibid. 24-34
69. B. A. Rybakov, Russkive karty Moskovii (Moscow, 1974); K. N. Serbina (Ed.), Kniga Bol'shomu chertezhu (Moscow-Leningrad 1950); Bagrow op. cit.; B. P. Polevoi, Concerning the origins of the maps of Russia of 1613-14 of Hessel Gerritsz, in L. Hughes (Ed.), New Perspectives on M uscovite History. Selected Papers from the Fourth World Congress for Soviet and East European Studies, Harrogate 1990 (London 1993) 14-21; C. Urness, Rybakov on the Delisle map of 1706 ibid. 24-34
70. B. A. Rybakov, Russkive karty Moskovii (Moscow, 1974); K. N. Serbina (Ed.), Kniga Bol'shomu chertezhu (Moscow-Leningrad 1950); Bagrow op. cit.; B. P. Polevoi, Concerning the origins of the maps of Russia of 1613-14 of Hessel Gerritsz, in L. Hughes (Ed.), New Perspectives on M uscovite History. Selected Papers from the Fourth World Congress for Soviet and East European Studies, Harrogate 1990 (London 1993) 14-21; C. Urness, Rybakov on the Delisle map of 1706 ibid. 24-34
71. Lebedev, Geografiya v Rossii XVII Veka 196-216; Bagrow op. cit. 19-46. Achievements of the period included the Godunov map of Siberia (1667), the map and inventory of the Siberian land (1672), Yury Krizhanich's History of Siberia, and the cartographic work of the Remezovs. Krizhanich's work, however, seems not to have been known in Russia until much later
72. Lebedev, Geografiya v Rossii XVII Veka 196-216; Bagrow op. cit. 19-46. Achievements of the period included the Godunov map of Siberia (1667), the map and inventory of the Siberian land (1672), Yury Krizhanich's History of Siberia, and the cartographic work of the Remezovs. Krizhanich's work, however, seems not to have been known in Russia until much later
73. Lebedev, Geografiya v Rossii XVII Veka 196-216; Bagrow op. cit. 19-46. Achievements of the period included the Godunov map of Siberia (1667), the map and inventory of the Siberian land (1672), Yury Krizhanich's History of Siberia, and the cartographic work of the Remezovs. Krizhanich's work, however, seems not to have been known in Russia until much later
74. Lebedev, Geografiya v Rossii petrovskogo vremeni 183-9; Bagrow, op. cit. 98-100
75. Lebedev, Geografiya v Rossii petrovskogo vremeni 183-9; Bagrow, op. cit. 98-100
76. Lebedev, Geografiya v Rossii petrovskogo vremeni 24, 200-201; see also Bagrow, op. cit. 100
77. Lebedev, Geografiya v Rossii petrovskogo vremeni 24, 200-201; see also Bagrow, op. cit. 100
78. According to Bagrow, the atlas was printed by Doncker in Amsterdam in about 1705. The Russian title was: Novaya Chertezhnaya Kniga soderzhashchaya velikuyu reku Don ili Tanais. See Bagrow, op. cit. 102, 124 note 10
79. Lebedev, Geografiya Rossii petrovskogo vremeni 204
80. Many other European countries had already mapped their territories by this period, but in Peter's day the French were leading the way towards more accurate mapping through their national geodetic survey, pioneered by Cassini. See Konvitz, op. cit.
81. Nicholas Hans, The Moscow School of Mathematics and Navigation Slavonic and East European Review 29 (1950-1951) 532-6. According to this author, Peter modelled his school on the Royal Mathematical School at Christ's Hospital in London, with a virtually identical syllabus (including geography)
82. O. A. Aleksandrovskaya, op. cit. 142
83. Paul Dukes, The Making of Russian Absolutism 1613-1801 (London 1982) 93
84. Aleksandrovskaya, op. cit. 142. Different sources give variant dates for the founding of these schools, no doubt owing to the difficulties in organizing them
85. Max J. Okenfuss, Russian students in Europe in the age of Peter the Great in J. G. Garrard (Ed.), The Eighteenth Century in Russia (Oxford 1973) 133-45
86. Philip Claverius (Cluver), Introductio in Universam Geographiam (Amsterdam edition 1624)
87. Lebedev, Geografiya v Rossii petrovskogo vremeni 333-6
88. Geografiya, ili kratkoye zemnogo kruga opisaniye (St Petersburg 1710)
89. Christian Huygens, Cosmotheros, published as: Kniga mirovozzreniya, ili meniye o nebesnozemnykh globusakh (St Petersburg 1717); Bernhard Varenius, Geographia Generalis, published as: Geografiya general'naya (Moscow 1718); Johann Hubner, Kurze Fragen aus der neuen und alten Geographie (Leipzig edition 1696), published as Zemnevodnogo kruga kratkoye opisaniye (Moscow 1719)
90. Christian Huygens, Cosmotheros, published as: Kniga mirovozzreniya, ili meniye o nebesnozemnykh globusakh (St Petersburg 1717); Bernhard Varenius, Geographia Generalis, published as: Geografiya general'naya (Moscow 1718); Johann Hubner, Kurze Fragen aus der neuen und alten Geographie (Leipzig edition 1696), published as Zemnevodnogo kruga kratkoye opisaniye (Moscow 1719)
91. Christian Huygens, Cosmotheros, published as: Kniga mirovozzreniya, ili meniye o nebesnozemnykh globusakh (St Petersburg 1717); Bernhard Varenius, Geographia Generalis, published as: Geografiya general'naya (Moscow 1718); Johann Hubner, Kurze Fragen aus der neuen und alten Geographie (Leipzig edition 1696), published as Zemnevodnogo kruga kratkoye opisaniye (Moscow 1719)
92. Lebedev, Geografiya v Rossii petrovskogo vremeni 343. Other translations of the period included Thomas Burnet's The Theory of the Earth (London 1684)
93. Lebedev, Geografiya v Rossii petrovskogo vremeni 343. Other translations of the period included Thomas Burnet's The Theory of the Earth (London 1684)
94. M. Ptukha, Ocherki po istorii statistiki XVI-XVIII vekov (Moscow 1945)
95. Other European states had been engaged in such activities for some time. See for example Livingstone op. cit. 88-92; Mykkanen op. cit.; Raeff op. cit.; see also Anthony Giddens, The Nation State and Violence (Cambridge 1985) 83ff. and others
96. Other European states had been engaged in such activities for some time. See for example Livingstone op. cit. 88-92; Mykkanen op. cit.; Raeff op. cit.; see also Anthony Giddens, The Nation State and Violence (Cambridge 1985) 83ff. and others
97. Other European states had been engaged in such activities for some time. See for example Livingstone op. cit. 88-92; Mykkanen op. cit.; Raeff op. cit.; see also Anthony Giddens, The Nation State and Violence (Cambridge 1985) 83ff. and others
98. Other European states had been engaged in such activities for some time. See for example Livingstone op. cit. 88-92; Mykkanen op. cit.; Raeff op. cit.; see also Anthony Giddens, The Nation State and Violence (Cambridge 1985) 83ff. and others
99. D.-G. Messerschmidt, Forschungsreise durch Sibirien, 1720-1727 (Berlin 1962-1968) Ed. 1-4 (Quellen und Studien zur Geschichte Osteuropas, Bd. 8 Th. 1-4)
100. Some of the issues are explored in Raymond H. Fisher, Bering's Voyages: Whither and Why (London 1977)
101. V. M. Tatishchev, Izbrannyye trudy po geografii Rossii (Moscow 1950)
102. I. K. Kirilov, Tsvetushcheye sostoyaniye Vserossiyskogo gosudarstva (Moscow 1977)
103. A Source Book for Russian History from Early Times to 1917 (New Haven 1972) Vol. 2 314
104. Anderson, op. cit. 88
105. S. P. Luppov, Kniga v Rossii v pervoy chetverti XVII veka (Leningrad 1973) 170
106. Lebedev, Geografiya v Rossii petrovskogo vremeni 354
107. Lewitter, op. cit. 95-6, 99
108. Lindsey Hughes, The West comes to Russian architecture, in Dukes, op. cit. 34
109. Anderson, op. cit. 147
110. See, for example, Anisimov, op. cit. 16, 45, 53, where the author cites with approval Bogoslovsky's reference to Peter's "elemental urge to the sea" and argues that Peter's aims included gaining access to the Sea of Azov and to the Black and Baltic Seas
111. Lebedev, Geografiya v Rossii petrovskogo vremeni 144
112. Ibid., 300-302
113. Gnucheva, op. cit., 20
114. A Source Book for Russian History, op. cit. 372
115. Raeff, op. cit. 204
116. Fisher, op. cit., challenges what he calls the traditional view of the purpose of Bering's voyage, namely that it was designed to establish whether or not Asia was linked by land to America, and argues that its main purpose was probably to reconnoitre the American coast, possibly with the ultimate aim of annexation. However, I see no contradiction between these two goals. Peter was certainly interested in enhancing Russia's reputation as a modern European power, which meant fostering science and publicizing achievement. And like other European rulers of the day, he sought opportunities to increase the wealth and power of his realm wherever possible. Both the view that Bering's voyage was purely "scientific", and the contrary view that science was merely a pretext for some more sinister purpose, seem to me anachronistic
117. Alexander Vucinich, Science in Russian Culture (London 1963) 60
118. Thus Schumacher's presentation of a map of the Caspian Sea to a meeting of the Paris Académie des Sciences, cited above, was obviously designed to enhance the reputation of Russian cartography. Vucinich (op. cit. 60) notes how the Messerschmidt and Bering expeditions served to promote European interest in Russia, especially after the publication of Philipp Strahlenberg's book, Das Nord- und Östliche Theil von Europe und Asia (Stockholm 1730). Strahlenberg was a Swedish prisoner of war who took some part in the Messerschmidt expedition and who used some of the expedition's material for his book and map, the book becoming known internationally as the first serious study of Siberia
119. See, for example G. Macdonald Ross, Leibnitz (Oxford 1984); A. J. Aiton, Leibnitz: A Biography (Bristol 1984); Rudolph Vierhaus, Germany in the Age of Absolutism (Cambridge 1988) 70; James E. McClellan, Science Reorganised: Scientific Societies in the Eighteenth Century (New York 1985) 55, 68-72, 75; Vucinich, op. cit. 43-8, 60
120. See, for example G. Macdonald Ross, Leibnitz (Oxford 1984); A. J. Aiton, Leibnitz: A Biography (Bristol 1984); Rudolph Vierhaus, Germany in the Age of Absolutism (Cambridge 1988) 70; James E. McClellan, Science Reorganised: Scientific Societies in the Eighteenth Century (New York 1985) 55, 68-72, 75; Vucinich, op. cit. 43-8, 60
121. See, for example G. Macdonald Ross, Leibnitz (Oxford 1984); A. J. Aiton, Leibnitz: A Biography (Bristol 1984); Rudolph Vierhaus, Germany in the Age of Absolutism (Cambridge 1988) 70; James E. McClellan, Science Reorganised: Scientific Societies in the Eighteenth Century (New York 1985) 55, 68-72, 75; Vucinich, op. cit. 43-8, 60
122. See, for example G. Macdonald Ross, Leibnitz (Oxford 1984); A. J. Aiton, Leibnitz: A Biography (Bristol 1984); Rudolph Vierhaus, Germany in the Age of Absolutism (Cambridge 1988) 70; James E. McClellan, Science Reorganised: Scientific Societies in the Eighteenth Century (New York 1985) 55, 68-72, 75; Vucinich, op. cit. 43-8, 60
123. See, for example G. Macdonald Ross, Leibnitz (Oxford 1984); A. J. Aiton, Leibnitz: A Biography (Bristol 1984); Rudolph Vierhaus, Germany in the Age of Absolutism (Cambridge 1988) 70; James E. McClellan, Science Reorganised: Scientific Societies in the Eighteenth Century (New York 1985) 55, 68-72, 75; Vucinich, op. cit. 43-8, 60
124. Ibid., 47
125. Aleksandrovskaya, op. cit. 131. The second class of sciences included theoretical and experimental physics, anatomy, chemistry and botany, and the third class was the humanities including history, rhetoric, law and ethics
126. Lewitter, op. cit. 95
127. Kirilov, op. cit. The editors of the 1977 edition of Kirilov's work suggest that the title may have been given by a copyist working a few years after the original text was completed (ibid. 18-19)
128. Kirilov, op. cit. The editors of the 1977 edition of Kirilov's work suggest that the title may have been given by a copyist working a few years after the original text was completed (ibid. 18-19)
129. Kirilov divides the empire into its provinces and subprovinces. Within each province and subprovince, information is provided systematically on such matters as the location of towns, their fortifications and administrative personnel, military forces and dispositions, institutions like monasteries, factories and schools, post stations, sources of government income, merchants and trade, mines and so on. The accent is thus on what might loosely be called the political and administrative geography and sources of wealth, though not including estates and rural life. Towards the end, lengthy statistical tables summarize data on provincial characteristics (total number of monasteries, factories etc.), government income and expenditure, and military dispositions. It has been claimed that such use and presentation of tabular statistical data was unusual for the period
130. Ibid., 23-4
131. Valentin Boss, Newton and Russia: The Early Influence 1698-1796 (Cambridge 1972) 5-6
132. See [64]
133. Vucinich (op. cit. 64-5) suggests that I. T. Pososhkov's Book on Poverty and Wealth, which was finished in 1724 but only published in censored form in 1842, attracted official disapproval because of his advocacy of social reforms, including protecting the serfs from abuse by their lords. For lengthier discussion of this work, see John M. Letiche ed. A History of Russian Economic Thought: Ninth Through Eighteenth Centuries (Berkeley 1964) 300-30, and L. R. Lewitter's introduction to the Stanford edition of Pososhkov's book (Stanford 1987)
134. Vucinich (op. cit. 64-5) suggests that I. T. Pososhkov's Book on Poverty and Wealth, which was finished in 1724 but only published in censored form in 1842, attracted official disapproval because of his advocacy of social reforms, including protecting the serfs from abuse by their lords. For lengthier discussion of this work, see John M. Letiche ed. A History of Russian Economic Thought: Ninth Through Eighteenth Centuries (Berkeley 1964) 300-30, and L. R. Lewitter's introduction to the Stanford edition of Pososhkov's book (Stanford 1987)
135. Vucinich (op. cit. 64-5) suggests that I. T. Pososhkov's Book on Poverty and Wealth, which was finished in 1724 but only published in censored form in 1842, attracted official disapproval because of his advocacy of social reforms,
136. The reference is to the work of Kirilov and Tatishchev, who were tireless propagandists for Peter's reforms