From technocracy to participation? Positivist, realist and pragmatist paradigms applied to traffic and environmental policy futures research in Finland

Futures

Volumn 28, Issue 5, 1996, Pages 453-470

  Tapio, Petri ^a  

^a Dept Limnology Environ Protect ^*  (Finland)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY; FUTURES RESEARCH; LOCAL PARTICIPATION; METHODOLOGICAL EVALUATION; PLANNING TECHNIQUE; RESEARCH APPROACH; TRANSPORT POLICY;

FINLAND;

EID: 0030455466     PISSN: 00163287     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/0016-3287(96)00019-5     Document Type: Article

References (70)

1. Eg R Amara, 'The futures field. Which directions now?', The Futurist, 15(3), 1981, page 44; B Schwarz, U Svedin and B Wittrock, Methods in Futures Studies. Problems and Applications (Boulder, CO, Westview Press, 1982), pages 116-129; P-A Julien, P Lamonde and D Latouche, La méthode des scénarios [Finnish translation: Skenaariomenetelmä tulevaisuuden tutkimuksessa], (transl P Hynynen, eds J Puikkonen, T Leppo and K Alsta, Valtioneuvoston kanslian julkaisuja 1979: 1, Helsinki, 1979, originally 1975), pages 68-72; Mika Mannermaa, 'Futures research and social decision making. Alternative futures as a case study', Futures, 18(5), October 1986, pages 662-665.
2. Eg R Amara, 'The futures field. Which directions now?', The Futurist, 15(3), 1981, page 44; B Schwarz, U Svedin and B Wittrock, Methods in Futures Studies. Problems and Applications (Boulder, CO, Westview Press, 1982), pages 116-129; P-A Julien, P Lamonde and D Latouche, La méthode des scénarios [Finnish translation: Skenaariomenetelmä tulevaisuuden tutkimuksessa], (transl P Hynynen, eds J Puikkonen, T Leppo and K Alsta, Valtioneuvoston kanslian julkaisuja 1979: 1, Helsinki, 1979, originally 1975), pages 68-72; Mika Mannermaa, 'Futures research and social decision making. Alternative futures as a case study', Futures, 18(5), October 1986, pages 662-665.
3. Eg R Amara, 'The futures field. Which directions now?', The Futurist, 15(3), 1981, page 44; B Schwarz, U Svedin and B Wittrock, Methods in Futures Studies. Problems and Applications (Boulder, CO, Westview Press, 1982), pages 116-129; P-A Julien, P Lamonde and D Latouche, La méthode des scénarios [Finnish translation: Skenaariomenetelmä tulevaisuuden tutkimuksessa], (transl P Hynynen, eds J Puikkonen, T Leppo and K Alsta, Valtioneuvoston kanslian julkaisuja 1979: 1, Helsinki, 1979, originally 1975), pages 68-72; Mika Mannermaa, 'Futures research and social decision making. Alternative futures as a case study', Futures, 18(5), October 1986, pages 662-665.
4. Eg R Amara, 'The futures field. Which directions now?', The Futurist, 15(3), 1981, page 44; B Schwarz, U Svedin and B Wittrock, Methods in Futures Studies. Problems and Applications (Boulder, CO, Westview Press, 1982), pages 116-129; P-A Julien, P Lamonde and D Latouche, La méthode des scénarios [Finnish translation: Skenaariomenetelmä tulevaisuuden tutkimuksessa], (transl P Hynynen, eds J Puikkonen, T Leppo and K Alsta, Valtioneuvoston kanslian julkaisuja 1979: 1, Helsinki, 1979, originally 1975), pages 68-72; Mika Mannermaa, 'Futures research and social decision making. Alternative futures as a case study', Futures, 18(5), October 1986, pages 662-665.
5. Eg R Amara, 'The futures field. Which directions now?', The Futurist, 15(3), 1981, page 44; B Schwarz, U Svedin and B Wittrock, Methods in Futures Studies. Problems and Applications (Boulder, CO, Westview Press, 1982), pages 116-129; P-A Julien, P Lamonde and D Latouche, La méthode des scénarios [Finnish translation: Skenaariomenetelmä tulevaisuuden tutkimuksessa], (transl P Hynynen, eds J Puikkonen, T Leppo and K Alsta, Valtioneuvoston kanslian julkaisuja 1979: 1, Helsinki, 1979, originally 1975), pages 68-72; Mika Mannermaa, 'Futures research and social decision making. Alternative futures as a case study', Futures, 18(5), October 1986, pages 662-665.
6. E Quade, Analysis for Public Decisions (New York, Elsevier, 1975), page 314. As a matter of fact, Quade suggests that in major decisions, a unique decision maker does not exist even in private enterprise nor in military forces.
7. Schwarz et al, op cit, reference 1, pages 1, 138.
8. Julien et al, op cit, reference 1, pages 124-125; Schwarz et al, op cit, reference 1, page 134.
9. Julien et al, op cit, reference 1, pages 124-125; Schwarz et al, op cit, reference 1, page 134.
10. Schwarz et al, op cit, reference 1, pages 147-148.
11. Ibid.
12. Ibid, pages 117, 147.
13. R Amara, 'The futures field. How to tell good work from bad', The Futurist, 15(2), April 1981, page 68; Schwarz et al, op cit, reference 1, pages 148, 154-155.
14. R Amara, 'The futures field. How to tell good work from bad', The Futurist, 15(2), April 1981, page 68; Schwarz et al, op cit, reference 1, pages 148, 154-155.
15. Eg R Jungk and N R Müllert, Zukunftswerkstätte (Finnish translation, Tulevaisuusverstaat, (transl) K Vaara, Keskinäisen sivistyksen seura - Suomen lataamo, Karkkila, 1987); see also Amara, op cit, reference 1, page 28.
16. Eg R Jungk and N R Müllert, Zukunftswerkstätte (Finnish translation, Tulevaisuusverstaat, (transl) K Vaara, Keskinäisen sivistyksen seura - Suomen lataamo, Karkkila, 1987); see also Amara, op cit, reference 1, page 28.
17. Futures research literature has several implications about this question, and environmental problems seem to have an established status in this issue after the Club of Rome reports. But in my opinion the question has been stated most clearly by planning theorists V Leskinen and H Valve, Liikenneinvestoinneista päättäminen - Arvio suunnittelunäkemyksestä (Helsinki, Tiehallitus, Kehittämiskeskus, 15/1991), page 19 [Decision-making of traffic investments - an assessment of the planning theory, FinnRA reports 15/1991, in Finnish].
18. The question and the first two attitudes are stated by Schwarz et al, op cit, reference 1, pages 124-125. The third answer is trying to overcome the myth of 'the decision maker'.
19. The first two answers are proposed by Amara, op cit, reference 8, page 67.
20. M Sintonen, 'Posītivismi', in I Niiniluoto and E Saarinen (editors), Vuosisatamme filosofia (2nd edition, WSOY, Juva, 1987), [Philosophy of our Century, in Finnish], pages 1-39;
21. See also W Bell, 'The futurist as social scientist: from positivism to critical realism', Futurics, 4(3/4), 1980, pages 303-312. Maybe a philosophically more accurate concept would be 'naturalism', but it usually connotes a certain fundamental ethical attitude towards nature which has little to do with the positivism meant here. The concept originates from Claude-Henry de Saint-Simon, but Comte brought it into the scientific vocabulary in the early nineteenth century (with a different meaning).
22. Amara, op cit, reference 1, page 26.
23. Mannermaa, op cit, reference 1, pages 660-661.
24. Sohail Inayatullah, 'Deconstructing and reconstructing the future. Predictive, cultural and critical epistemologies', Futures, 22(2), March 1990, pages 117-119.
25. M Mannermaa, 'In search of an evolutionary paradigm for futures research', Futures, 23(4), May 1991, pages 350-353.
26. Bell, op cit, reference 13.
27. Amara, op cit, reference 1, page 26.
28. Mannermaa, op cit, reference 17, pages 353-356.
29. Eg Julien et al, op cit, reference 1; M Godet, 'Introduction to la prospective', Futures, 18(2), 1986, pages 134-157.
30. Eg Julien et al, op cit, reference 1; M Godet, 'Introduction to la prospective', Futures, 18(2), 1986, pages 134-157.
31. R Rorty, Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature (Oxford, Basil Blackwell, 1980), pages 357-394; R Rorty, Consequences of Pragmatism (Minneapolis, MN, University of Minnesota Press, 1982), pages xiii-xlvii, 160-175. The concept originates from Charles Saunders Peirce and was made more public by William James in 1897. Even the first two pragmatists gave different meanings to the concept, so it is no wonder that the word pragmatism has thereafter meant almost anything that has something to do with 'pragma', ie human action.
32. R Rorty, Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature (Oxford, Basil Blackwell, 1980), pages 357-394; R Rorty, Consequences of Pragmatism (Minneapolis, MN, University of Minnesota Press, 1982), pages xiii-xlvii, 160-175. The concept originates from Charles Saunders Peirce and was made more public by William James in 1897. Even the first two pragmatists gave different meanings to the concept, so it is no wonder that the word pragmatism has thereafter meant almost anything that has something to do with 'pragma', ie human action.
33. Amara op cit, reference 1, page 26.
34. W Bell and J K Olick, 'An epistemology for the futures field. Problems and possibilities of prediction', Futures, 21(2), April 1989, pages 122-125.
35. Ibid, page 132.
36. K Hahtola, 'Pragmatic-hermeneutical human action model for environmental planning', Administrative studies, 9(4), 1990, pages 277-278.
37. J Habermas, Vorstudien und Ergänzungen zur Theorie des kommunikativen Handelns (Frankfurt am Main, Suhrkamp Verlag, 1984), pages 353-363; Rorty op cit, reference 22, pages 170-174. Habermas believes that consensus can be achieved; Rorty does not. In that case, Rorty's idea is adopted here. Moreover, Habermas thinks that a systematic communication is better than a non-systematic one; Rorty does not. In that case, Habermas' idea is adopted here.
38. J Habermas, Vorstudien und Ergänzungen zur Theorie des kommunikativen Handelns (Frankfurt am Main, Suhrkamp Verlag, 1984), pages 353-363; Rorty op cit, reference 22, pages 170-174. Habermas believes that consensus can be achieved; Rorty does not. In that case, Rorty's idea is adopted here. Moreover, Habermas thinks that a systematic communication is better than a non-systematic one; Rorty does not. In that case, Habermas' idea is adopted here.
39. See also J Habermas, Technik und Wissenschaft als 'Ideologie' (Frankfurt am Main, Edition Suhrkamp, 11 Auflage, 1981, orig 1968), pages 48-73, 81-84, 88-91; Bell op cit, reference 13; Amara, op cit, reference 1, page 25; U Beck, Risikogesellschaft. Auf dem Weg in eine andere Moderne (Frankfurt am Main, Suhrkamp, 1986), [Also in English: Risk Society, Towards a New Modernity, 1991]; Godet, op cit, reference 21; F A van Vught, 'Pitfalls of forecasting. Fundamental problems for the methodology of forecasting from the philosophy of science', Futures, 19(2), April 1987, pages 192-194; Bell and Olick, op cit, reference 24, pages 125-126.
40. See also J Habermas, Technik und Wissenschaft als 'Ideologie' (Frankfurt am Main, Edition Suhrkamp, 11 Auflage, 1981, orig 1968), pages 48-73, 81-84, 88-91; Bell op cit, reference 13; Amara, op cit, reference 1, page 25; U Beck, Risikogesellschaft. Auf dem Weg in eine andere Moderne (Frankfurt am Main, Suhrkamp, 1986), [Also in English: Risk Society, Towards a New Modernity, 1991]; Godet, op cit, reference 21; F A van Vught, 'Pitfalls of forecasting. Fundamental problems for the methodology of forecasting from the philosophy of science', Futures, 19(2), April 1987, pages 192-194; Bell and Olick, op cit, reference 24, pages 125-126.
41. See also J Habermas, Technik und Wissenschaft als 'Ideologie' (Frankfurt am Main, Edition Suhrkamp, 11 Auflage, 1981, orig 1968), pages 48-73, 81-84, 88-91; Bell op cit, reference 13; Amara, op cit, reference 1, page 25; U Beck, Risikogesellschaft. Auf dem Weg in eine andere Moderne (Frankfurt am Main, Suhrkamp, 1986), [Also in English: Risk Society, Towards a New Modernity, 1991]; Godet, op cit, reference 21; F A van Vught, 'Pitfalls of forecasting. Fundamental problems for the methodology of forecasting from the philosophy of science', Futures, 19(2), April 1987, pages 192-194; Bell and Olick, op cit, reference 24, pages 125-126.
42. See also J Habermas, Technik und Wissenschaft als 'Ideologie' (Frankfurt am Main, Edition Suhrkamp, 11 Auflage, 1981, orig 1968), pages 48-73, 81-84, 88-91; Bell op cit, reference 13; Amara, op cit, reference 1, page 25; U Beck, Risikogesellschaft. Auf dem Weg in eine andere Moderne (Frankfurt am Main, Suhrkamp, 1986), [Also in English: Risk Society, Towards a New Modernity, 1991]; Godet, op cit, reference 21; F A van Vught, 'Pitfalls of forecasting. Fundamental problems for the methodology of forecasting from the philosophy of science', Futures, 19(2), April 1987, pages 192-194; Bell and Olick, op cit, reference 24, pages 125-126.
43. See also J Habermas, Technik und Wissenschaft als 'Ideologie' (Frankfurt am Main, Edition Suhrkamp, 11 Auflage, 1981, orig 1968), pages 48-73, 81-84, 88-91; Bell op cit, reference 13; Amara, op cit, reference 1, page 25; U Beck, Risikogesellschaft. Auf dem Weg in eine andere Moderne (Frankfurt am Main, Suhrkamp, 1986), [Also in English: Risk Society, Towards a New Modernity, 1991]; Godet, op cit, reference 21; F A van Vught, 'Pitfalls of forecasting. Fundamental problems for the methodology of forecasting from the philosophy of science', Futures, 19(2), April 1987, pages 192-194; Bell and Olick, op cit, reference 24, pages 125-126.
44. See also J Habermas, Technik und Wissenschaft als 'Ideologie' (Frankfurt am Main, Edition Suhrkamp, 11 Auflage, 1981, orig 1968), pages 48-73, 81-84, 88-91; Bell op cit, reference 13; Amara, op cit, reference 1, page 25; U Beck, Risikogesellschaft. Auf dem Weg in eine andere Moderne (Frankfurt am Main, Suhrkamp, 1986), [Also in English: Risk Society, Towards a New Modernity, 1991]; Godet, op cit, reference 21; F A van Vught, 'Pitfalls of forecasting. Fundamental problems for the methodology of forecasting from the philosophy of science', Futures, 19(2), April 1987, pages 192-194; Bell and Olick, op cit, reference 24, pages 125-126.
45. See also J Habermas, Technik und Wissenschaft als 'Ideologie' (Frankfurt am Main, Edition Suhrkamp, 11 Auflage, 1981, orig 1968), pages 48-73, 81-84, 88-91; Bell op cit, reference 13; Amara, op cit, reference 1, page 25; U Beck, Risikogesellschaft. Auf dem Weg in eine andere Moderne (Frankfurt am Main, Suhrkamp, 1986), [Also in English: Risk Society, Towards a New Modernity, 1991]; Godet, op cit, reference 21; F A van Vught, 'Pitfalls of forecasting. Fundamental problems for the methodology of forecasting from the philosophy of science', Futures, 19(2), April 1987, pages 192-194; Bell and Olick, op cit, reference 24, pages 125-126.
46. See also J Habermas, Technik und Wissenschaft als 'Ideologie' (Frankfurt am Main, Edition Suhrkamp, 11 Auflage, 1981, orig 1968), pages 48-73, 81-84, 88-91; Bell op cit, reference 13; Amara, op cit, reference 1, page 25; U Beck, Risikogesellschaft. Auf dem Weg in eine andere Moderne (Frankfurt am Main, Suhrkamp, 1986), [Also in English: Risk Society, Towards a New Modernity, 1991]; Godet, op cit, reference 21; F A van Vught, 'Pitfalls of forecasting. Fundamental problems for the methodology of forecasting from the philosophy of science', Futures, 19(2), April 1987, pages 192-194; Bell and Olick, op cit, reference 24, pages 125-126.
47. D H Meadows, D L Meadows, J Randers and W W Behrens III, The Limits to Growth. A Report for the Club of Rome's Project on the Predicament of Mankind (London, Earth Island Ltd, 1972), pages 22-24; M Mesarovic and E Pestel, Mankind at the Turning Point. The Second Report to the Club of Rome (London, Hutchinson, 1975), pages vii-viii; D H Meadows, D L Meadows and J Randers, Beyond the Limits. Confronting Global Collapse, Envisioning a Sustainable Future (Vermont, McLelland and Stewart, 1992), pages xiii-xvii, 190-193.
48. D H Meadows, D L Meadows, J Randers and W W Behrens III, The Limits to Growth. A Report for the Club of Rome's Project on the Predicament of Mankind (London, Earth Island Ltd, 1972), pages 22-24; M Mesarovic and E Pestel, Mankind at the Turning Point. The Second Report to the Club of Rome (London, Hutchinson, 1975), pages vii-viii; D H Meadows, D L Meadows and J Randers, Beyond the Limits. Confronting Global Collapse, Envisioning a Sustainable Future (Vermont, McLelland and Stewart, 1992), pages xiii-xvii, 190-193.
49. D H Meadows, D L Meadows, J Randers and W W Behrens III, The Limits to Growth. A Report for the Club of Rome's Project on the Predicament of Mankind (London, Earth Island Ltd, 1972), pages 22-24; M Mesarovic and E Pestel, Mankind at the Turning Point. The Second Report to the Club of Rome (London, Hutchinson, 1975), pages vii-viii; D H Meadows, D L Meadows and J Randers, Beyond the Limits. Confronting Global Collapse, Envisioning a Sustainable Future (Vermont, McLelland and Stewart, 1992), pages xiii-xvii, 190-193.
50. This is my interpretation of the profound book by Y Haila and R Levins, Humanity and Nature. Ecology, Science and Society (London, Pluto Press, 1992), pages 64-72, 91-103, 238-239.
51. P Tapio, Tulevaisuuden ennustamista vai tulevaisuuden tekemistä? Ympäristöongelmien haasteet tielaitoksen tulevaisuudentukimukselle liikenne-ja ympäristöpolitiikan näkökulmasta (Tielaitoksen selvityksiä 63/1992, Tiehallitus, tutkimuskeskus, Helsinki) [Prediction or Participation? Challenges That Environmental Problems Pose to the Road Administration's Futures Research from Traffic and Environmental Policy Points of View, FinnRA Reports 63/1992, in Finnish, Abstract in English]; M Tolonen, Osallistuminen politiikkatason Ympäristövaikutusten arvioinnissa, (Liikenneministeriön julkaisuja 43/93, Liikenneministeriö, Helsinki, 1993) [Participation in environmental impact assessment of policies, Publications of the Ministry of Transport 43/93, in Finnish].
52. P Tapio, Tulevaisuuden ennustamista vai tulevaisuuden tekemistä? Ympäristöongelmien haasteet tielaitoksen tulevaisuudentukimukselle liikenne-ja ympäristöpolitiikan näkökulmasta (Tielaitoksen selvityksiä 63/1992, Tiehallitus, tutkimuskeskus, Helsinki) [Prediction or Participation? Challenges That Environmental Problems Pose to the Road Administration's Futures Research from Traffic and Environmental Policy Points of View, FinnRA Reports 63/1992, in Finnish, Abstract in English]; M Tolonen, Osallistuminen politiikkatason Ympäristövaikutusten arvioinnissa, (Liikenneministeriön julkaisuja 43/93, Liikenneministeriö, Helsinki, 1993) [Participation in environmental impact assessment of policies, Publications of the Ministry of Transport 43/93, in Finnish].
53. M Lehtonen, Kansalaisten osallistuminen tiensuunnitteluun. Muurla-Lohjanharju vaihtoehtoselvityksen arvioninti (Tielaitoksen selvityksiä 36/1991, Tiehallitus, Kehittämiskeskus, Helsinki, 1991). [Citizen participation in road planning. Assessment of the Muurla-Lohjanharju Case, FinnRA Reports 36/1991, in Finnish]; Tapio 1992, op cit, reference 31; H Ajomaa, T Kantola and T Simojoki, Kansalaisten osallistuminen liikennepolitiikassa. Pasilanväylän yleissuunnittelun arviointi (Helsingin kaupungin tietokeskuksen keskustelualoitteita 1993: 5, Helsinki, 1993) [Citizen participation in traffic policy. Assessment of the Pasilanväylä Case, Discussion Papers from the City of Helsinki Information Management Centre 1993: 5, in Finnish, Preface in English].
54. M Lehtonen, Kansalaisten osallistuminen tiensuunnitteluun. Muurla-Lohjanharju vaihtoehtoselvityksen arvioninti (Tielaitoksen selvityksiä 36/1991, Tiehallitus, Kehittämiskeskus, Helsinki, 1991). [Citizen participation in road planning. Assessment of the Muurla-Lohjanharju Case, FinnRA Reports 36/1991, in Finnish]; Tapio 1992, op cit, reference 31; H Ajomaa, T Kantola and T Simojoki, Kansalaisten osallistuminen liikennepolitiikassa. Pasilanväylän yleissuunnittelun arviointi (Helsingin kaupungin tietokeskuksen keskustelualoitteita 1993: 5, Helsinki, 1993) [Citizen participation in traffic policy. Assessment of the Pasilanväylä Case, Discussion Papers from the City of Helsinki Information Management Centre 1993: 5, in Finnish, Preface in English].
55. M Lehtonen, Kansalaisten osallistuminen tiensuunnitteluun. Muurla-Lohjanharju vaihtoehtoselvityksen arvioninti (Tielaitoksen selvityksiä 36/1991, Tiehallitus, Kehittämiskeskus, Helsinki, 1991). [Citizen participation in road planning. Assessment of the Muurla-Lohjanharju Case, FinnRA Reports 36/1991, in Finnish]; Tapio 1992, op cit, reference 31; H Ajomaa, T Kantola and T Simojoki, Kansalaisten osallistuminen liikennepolitiikassa. Pasilanväylän yleissuunnittelun arviointi (Helsingin kaupungin tietokeskuksen keskustelualoitteita 1993: 5, Helsinki, 1993) [Citizen participation in traffic policy. Assessment of the Pasilanväylä Case, Discussion Papers from the City of Helsinki Information Management Centre 1993: 5, in Finnish, Preface in English].
56. M Lehtonen, Kansalaisten osallistuminen tiensuunnitteluun. Muurla-Lohjanharju vaihtoehtoselvityksen arvioninti (Tielaitoksen selvityksiä 36/1991, Tiehallitus, Kehittämiskeskus, Helsinki, 1991). [Citizen participation in road planning. Assessment of the Muurla-Lohjanharju Case, FinnRA Reports 36/1991, in Finnish]; Tapio 1992, op cit, reference 31; H Ajomaa, T Kantola and T Simojoki, Kansalaisten osallistuminen liikennepolitiikassa. Pasilanväylän yleissuunnittelun arviointi (Helsingin kaupungin tietokeskuksen keskustelualoitteita 1993: 5, Helsinki, 1993) [Citizen participation in traffic policy. Assessment of the Pasilanväylä Case, Discussion Papers from the City of Helsinki Information Management Centre 1993: 5, in Finnish, Preface in English].
57. M Lehtonen, Kansalaisten osallistuminen tiensuunnitteluun. Muurla-Lohjanharju vaihtoehtoselvityksen arvioninti (Tielaitoksen selvityksiä 36/1991, Tiehallitus, Kehittämiskeskus, Helsinki, 1991). [Citizen participation in road planning. Assessment of the Muurla-Lohjanharju Case, FinnRA Reports 36/1991, in Finnish]; Tapio 1992, op cit, reference 31; H Ajomaa, T Kantola and T Simojoki, Kansalaisten osallistuminen liikennepolitiikassa. Pasilanväylän yleissuunnittelun arviointi (Helsingin kaupungin tietokeskuksen keskustelualoitteita 1993: 5, Helsinki, 1993) [Citizen participation in traffic policy. Assessment of the Pasilanväylä Case, Discussion Papers from the City of Helsinki Information Management Centre 1993: 5, in Finnish, Preface in English].
58. M Lehtonen, Kansalaisten osallistuminen tiensuunnitteluun. Muurla-Lohjanharju vaihtoehtoselvityksen arvioninti (Tielaitoksen selvityksiä 36/1991, Tiehallitus, Kehittämiskeskus, Helsinki, 1991). [Citizen participation in road planning. Assessment of the Muurla-Lohjanharju Case, FinnRA Reports 36/1991, in Finnish]; Tapio 1992, op cit, reference 31; H Ajomaa, T Kantola and T Simojoki, Kansalaisten osallistuminen liikennepolitiikassa. Pasilanväylän yleissuunnittelun arviointi (Helsingin kaupungin tietokeskuksen keskustelualoitteita 1993: 5, Helsinki, 1993) [Citizen participation in traffic policy. Assessment of the Pasilanväylä Case, Discussion Papers from the City of Helsinki Information Management Centre 1993: 5, in Finnish, Preface in English].
59. Ibid.
60. See P Söderbaum, Economics in Relation to Environment, Agriculture and Rural Development. A non-traditional approach to project evaluation (Swedish University of Agricultural Science, Department of Economics, Report 31, Uppsala, 1990), pages 44-61; in more detail in Söderbaum, Beslutsunderlag-Ensidiga eller allsidiga utredningar? (Lund, Doxa, 1986) [in Swedish]; further developed to 'Situational analysis' by Hahtola, op cit, reference 26; and Lehtonen, 'Situational analysis as a tool for environmental impact assessment: work case of the Brasilian alcohol fuel program', in Governing our Environment (Reports of a conference held in Copenhagen, 17-18 November 1994, CeSaM and SØM, Copenhagen, 1994), pages 333-349.
61. See P Söderbaum, Economics in Relation to Environment, Agriculture and Rural Development. A non-traditional approach to project evaluation (Swedish University of Agricultural Science, Department of Economics, Report 31, Uppsala, 1990), pages 44-61; in more detail in Söderbaum, Beslutsunderlag-Ensidiga eller allsidiga utredningar? (Lund, Doxa, 1986) [in Swedish]; further developed to 'Situational analysis' by Hahtola, op cit, reference 26; and Lehtonen, 'Situational analysis as a tool for environmental impact assessment: work case of the Brasilian alcohol fuel program', in Governing our Environment (Reports of a conference held in Copenhagen, 17-18 November 1994, CeSaM and SØM, Copenhagen, 1994), pages 333-349.
62. See P Söderbaum, Economics in Relation to Environment, Agriculture and Rural Development. A non-traditional approach to project evaluation (Swedish University of Agricultural Science, Department of Economics, Report 31, Uppsala, 1990), pages 44-61; in more detail in Söderbaum, Beslutsunderlag-Ensidiga eller allsidiga utredningar? (Lund, Doxa, 1986) [in Swedish]; further developed to 'Situational analysis' by Hahtola, op cit, reference 26; and Lehtonen, 'Situational analysis as a tool for environmental impact assessment: work case of the Brasilian alcohol fuel program', in Governing our Environment (Reports of a conference held in Copenhagen, 17-18 November 1994, CeSaM and SØM, Copenhagen, 1994), pages 333-349.
63. See P Söderbaum, Economics in Relation to Environment, Agriculture and Rural Development. A non-traditional approach to project evaluation (Swedish University of Agricultural Science, Department of Economics, Report 31, Uppsala, 1990), pages 44-61; in more detail in Söderbaum, Beslutsunderlag-Ensidiga eller allsidiga utredningar? (Lund, Doxa, 1986) [in Swedish]; further developed to 'Situational analysis' by Hahtola, op cit, reference 26; and Lehtonen, 'Situational analysis as a tool for environmental impact assessment: work case of the Brasilian alcohol fuel program', in Governing our Environment (Reports of a conference held in Copenhagen, 17-18 November 1994, CeSaM and SØM, Copenhagen, 1994), pages 333-349.
64. Closer examination of the questionnaire is not possible here. However, it could be noted that the questions were very formal and theory-laden. Passengers were not asked why they had chosen their vehicle. Researchers decided what the reasons and the consequences were. For example, gender was eliminated as an explanatory factor only because it did not explain the deviation of traffic mode choice after the sample population was divided into car owners and non-car owners. It did not occur to the researchers that gender might be an explanation of car ownership via choice of lifestyle.
65. See Liikennemallit. Pääkaupunkiseudun liikennetutkimus 1988 (Pääkaupunkiseudun yhteistyövaltuuskunta YTV & Liikenneministeriö, Pääkaupunkiseudun julkaisusarja B 1990: 15, Helsinki, 1991), Appendixes for part A. [Traffic models, the traffic survey of the capital area, Helsinki Metropolitan Area Council YTV and the Ministry of Transport and Communication, publications of the Helsinki Metropolitan area B 1990:15, in Finnish.]
66. See Liikennemallit. Pääkaupunkiseudun liikennetutkimus 1988 (Pääkaupunkiseudun yhteistyövaltuuskunta YTV & Liikenneministeriö, Pääkaupunkiseudun julkaisusarja B 1990: 15, Helsinki, 1991), Appendixes for part A. [Traffic models, the traffic survey of the capital area, Helsinki Metropolitan Area Council YTV and the Ministry of Transport and Communication, publications of the Helsinki Metropolitan area B 1990:15, in Finnish.]
67. Our material does not provide us with information about how the alternatives were formulated. An interview was impossible because the person who did the formulation died before this research was done.
68. N Halla and V Kokkarinen, 'Uusi liikenne-ennuste tulossa', Tulevaisuuden näkymiä, 1995(1), pages 26-32 [A New Traffic Forecast Forthcoming, Views to Future, a publication of the FinnRA Research Centre; in Finnish.]
69. G H von Wright, Vetenskapen och förnuftet (Tryckeri och tidnings Ab, Borgä, 1986) [Science and reason, in Swedish], pages 83-86.
70. U Beck, Gegengifte. Die organisierte Unverantwortlichkeit (Frankfurt am Main, Suhrkamp Verlag, 1988).