The disintegration of the catholic church of Rwanda: A study of the fragmentation of political and religious authority

African Affairs

Volumn 95, Issue 380, 1996, Pages 379-400

  Van Hoyweghen, Saskia ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

CATHOLIC CHURCH; GENOCIDE; INSTITUTIONAL WEAKNESS; POLITICAL CRISIS; RELIGION;

RWANDA;

EID: 0030446049     PISSN: 00019909     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.afraf.a007739     Document Type: Article

References (107)

1. F. Kaplan. 'The Coming Anarchy', Atlantic Monthly, 273 (1994).
2. I. Linden, Church and Revolution in Rwanda (Manchester University Press, Manchester, 1977), p. 8.
3. Material is mainly based on interviews conducted in June, July and August 1995 with Catholic relief workers, White Fathers and Rwandese refugees. In a second instance, sparse, original documentary sources have been used.
4. The definitive book on the Catholic Church in colonial Rwanda has been written and the historical background of this article owes a lot to it: Linden, Church and Revolution.
5. G. Balandier, The Sociology of Black Africa (Andre Deutsch, London, 1970).
6. Bayart argues that in African societies access to wealth or, in other words, control over the economy is determined by one's position within the state apparatus, rather than the other way around. While inequality has always existed, the colonial bureaucracy has handed over to local elites an instrument, namely the state, that enabled them to facilitate their access to wealth. Colonialism introduced the 'element of scale' as so many authors have called it. A position of extraversion is therefore a position in which one is able to 'capitalise' one's power position. J. F. Bayart, The State in Africa: the politics of the belly (Longman, London, 1993), pp. 60-86.
7. C. Newbury, The Cohesion of Oppression: Clientship and ethnicity in Rwanda 1860-1960 (Columbia University Press, New York, 1988). Chrétien's opinion that ethnicity is a pure colonial invention should therefore be approached with care; J.-P. Chrétien, 'L'alibi ethnique dans les politiques africaines', Esprit, 7-8 (1981), pp. 109-115.
8. C. Newbury, The Cohesion of Oppression: Clientship and ethnicity in Rwanda 1860-1960 (Columbia University Press, New York, 1988). Chrétien's opinion that ethnicity is a pure colonial invention should therefore be approached with care; J.-P. Chrétien, 'L'alibi ethnique dans les politiques africaines', Esprit, 7-8 (1981), pp. 109-115.
9. Linden, Church and Revolution, p. 8.
10. Most post-colonial political landscapes originated out of what Bayart calls the reciprocal assimilation of elites. While the colonial state introduced a new instrument to guarantee the acquisition of wealth by traditional elites (cf. note 8), the school system made way to the rise of a new elite, the so-called évolués. In most countries, the contemporary political class is constituted out of a coalition of both old and new elites. In Rwanda, this is not the case. Elites spring up along ethnic lines and the 'new' elites wiped out the 'old'. See Bayart, The State in Africa, pp. 122-123.
11. It is crucial to understand the importance of these international Christian networks, because they have always exerted a great influence on Rwandese politics. Rearguard actions within Christian trade unions or parties in Belgium, for instance, have often had an impact on Rwanda, cf. R. Lemarchand, Rwanda and Burundi (Pall Mall, London, 1970), pp. 258-262.
12. Lemarchand, Rwanda and Burundi, p. 262.
13. The idea of sacred nationalism was first developed by Balandier in The Sociology of Black Africa.
14. F. Reyntjens, L'Afrique des Grands Lacs en crise, Rwanda Burundi 1988-1994 (Karthala, Paris, 1994), p. 29.
15. Reyntjens, L'Afrique des Grands Lacs en crise, p. 122.
16. G. Theunis, 'Le role de l'église catholique dans les événements récents', in A. Guichaoua (ed.), Les crises politiques au Burundi et au Rwanda (1993-1994) (L'Harmattan, Paris, 1995), p. 293.
17. C. Braeckman, Rwanda. Histoire d'un genocide (Karthala, Paris, 1994), pp. 81-111.
18. In support of national stability, leaders of African post-colonial states foster alliances with the elites of the 'centre', in order to establish, what Bayart calls, a post-colonial historic bloc. This is not typically African but African leaders of the state are more heavily dependent on these relationships to guarantee their position of extraversion (cf. note 5). Examples are plenty. French presidents have, for instance, always maintained privileged relationships with African heads of state. According to Bayart, access to wealth, means control over international (cashflow) relationships. Habyarimana was very good at fostering financially beneficial relationships, especially in Christian democratic circles. To give just one example with respect to Rwanda, it was only after the death of the very Catholic Belgian King Baudouin in 1993 that a re-orientation of Belgian policy towards Rwanda could be discussed. President Habyarimana was a personal friend of the King and could count on his unconditional support. Bayart, The Stale in Africa, pp. 105, 180.
19. The majority of the secondary schools were in the hands of the Catholic Church and in principle free to anyone who passed the entry exam. In reality the state (read the MRND committee) set up the examinations and it was the circles around the power centre that approved these and that benefited from secondary education. This story is confirmed by several Belgian missionaries.
20. Reyntjens, L'Afrique des Grands Lacs en crise, p. 167.
21. Braeckman, Rwanda, pp. 85-89. For some figures understating this cf. Reyntjens, L'Afrique des Grands Lacs en crise, pp. 33-34.
22. Braeckman, Rwanda, pp. 85-89. For some figures understating this cf. Reyntjens, L'Afrique des Grands Lacs en crise, pp. 33-34.
23. Reyntjens, L'Afrique des Grands Lacs en crise, pp. 133-135.
24. Reyntjens, L'Afrique des Grands Lacs en crise, p. 304.
25. Reyntjens, L'Afrique des Grands Lacs en crise, p. 104.
26. D. Nsengiyaremye, 'La transition démocratique au Rwanda (1989-1993)', in Guichaoua, Les crises politiques au Burundi et au Rwanda, p. 248.
27. J. Gasana, 'La guerre, la paix et la démocratie au Rwanda', in Guichaoua (ed.), Les crisis politiques au Burundi et au Rwanda, p. 219.
28. Reyntjens, L'Afrique des Grands Lacs en crise, pp. 94-95.
29. P. Erny, Rwanda 1994. Clés pour comprends le calvaire d'un peuple (Karthala, Paris, 1995), p. 124.
30. Theunis, 'Le rôle de l'église catholique', pp. 291-292.
31. Vatican II was the victory of the modernist strand within Catholicism, the choice for a Church which has an open mind to the world and chooses to be a servant of the poor and docile. Social justice is at the centre of this vision.
32. T. P. Longman, 'Christianity and Democratization in Rwanda: Assessing church responses to political crisis in the 1990's, in P. Gifford (ed.), The Christian Churches and the Democratisation of Africa (Brill, Leiden, 1995), p. 202.
33. This argument is developed by: M. Bratton, 'Beyond the State: Civil society and associational life in Africa', World Politics, 41, (1989), pp. 407-430.
34. Theunis, 'Le role de l'église catholique' in Longman, 'Christianity and Democratization in Rwanda'.
35. R. Kassimir, 'Catholics and Political Identity in Toro', in H. B. Hansen and M. Twaddle (eds.), Religion and Politics in East Africa (Routledge, London, 1995).
36. Gifford has written extensively on what he calls the 'Pentecostal explosion', and he underlines how demanding these new Christian movements often are on the members' time. They can easily become surrogate clans or families. P. Gifford, 'Some Recent Developments in African Christianity', African Affairs, 93 (1994), pp. 513-534.
37. Longman, 'Christianity and Democratization in Rwanda', p. 202.
38. Reyntjens, L'Afrique des Grands Lacs en crise, pp. 104-105.
39. Nsengiyaremye, 'La transition démocratique au Rwanda', pp. 249-250.
40. Reyntjens, L'Afrique des Grands Lacs en crise, pp. 108-113.
41. Convertissons - nous pour vivre ensemble dans la paix (Diocèse de Kabgayi, Gitarama), 1 December 1991.
42. Theunis, 'Le role de l'église catholique, p. 293.
43. Theunis, 'Le role de l'église catholique.
44. J. De Barrin, 'L'Eglise, maîtresse au Rwanda, servante au Burundi', Le Monde, 13/14 January 1985.
45. A. Mbembe, Afriques indociles (Karthala, Paris, 1988).
46. R. De Gendt, 'De Kerk die zweeg', Knack, 14 June 1990. Erny, Rwanda 1994, p. 125. W. Schonecke, La tragédie du Rwanda et les églises d'Afrique de L'Est (AMECA, Nairobi, 1994).
47. R. De Gendt, 'De Kerk die zweeg', Knack, 14 June 1990. Erny, Rwanda 1994, p. 125. W. Schonecke, La tragédie du Rwanda et les églises d'Afrique de L'Est (AMECA, Nairobi, 1994).
48. R. De Gendt, 'De Kerk die zweeg', Knack, 14 June 1990. Erny, Rwanda 1994, p. 125. W. Schonecke, La tragédie du Rwanda et les églises d'Afrique de L'Est (AMECA, Nairobi, 1994).
49. Schonecke, La tragédie du Rwanda et les églises d'Afrique de L'Est.
50. A. Louis, La démocratisation au Rwanda: la situation au début de l'année 1992 (IDC, Brussels), 8 January 1992, p. 4.
51. Louis, La démocratisation au Rwanda, p. 102.
52. Braeckman has evidence pointing towards the possibility of the French military shooting down the presidential plane in April 1994. C. Braeckman, 'L'avion ruiandais abattu par deux Français?', in Guichaoua, Les crises politiques au Burundi et au Rwanda, pp. 683-684. The first detailed and serious investigation to establish responsibility for shooting down the presidential plane has been published only recently. And again France has been implicated. F. Reyntjens, 'Rwanda Trois jours qui ont fait basculer l'histoire', Cahiers Africaines, 16 (1995).
53. Braeckman has evidence pointing towards the possibility of the French military shooting down the presidential plane in April 1994. C. Braeckman, 'L'avion ruiandais abattu par deux Français?', in Guichaoua, Les crises politiques au Burundi et au Rwanda, pp. 683-684. The first detailed and serious investigation to establish responsibility for shooting down the presidential plane has been published only recently. And again France has been implicated. F. Reyntjens, 'Rwanda Trois jours qui ont fait basculer l'histoire', Cahiers Africaines, 16 (1995).
54. Tutsi refugees enjoyed varying positions under the different regimes in Uganda: appreciated under Idi Amin and repressed under Obote, which made several of them join Yoweri Museveni's National Resistance Army in the bush. They made up 20 per cent of the NRA. In Uganda the dream to retake Kigali was fostered after continued refusal of the MRND to consider their right to return. The idea 'FPR=NRA and Habyarimana=Obote' was very strong. G. Prunier, 'Elements pour une histoire du Front patriote rwandais', Politique Africaine, 4 (1993), pp. 28-36.
55. Reyntjens, L'Afrique des Grands Lacs en crise, p. 155.
56. Gasana, 'La guerre, la paix et la démocratie au Rwanda', p. 221.
57. The following text by Reyntjens is essential reading for anyone who is not yet convinced of the fact that violence in Rwanda was of a very well planned nature. F. Reyntjens, 'Akazu, "escadrons de la mort" et autres "réseau zéro: un historique des résistances au changement politique depuis 1990', in Guichaoua, Les crises politiques au Burundi et au Rwanda, pp. 265-273.
58. G. Balandier, Problématique des classes sociales en Afrique noire', Cahiers Internationaux de Sociologie, 12, (1965), pp. 131-142. R. Sklar, 'The Nature of Class Domination in Africa', The Journal of Modern African Studies, 17, (1979), pp. 531-552.
59. G. Balandier, Problématique des classes sociales en Afrique noire', Cahiers Internationaux de Sociologie, 12, (1965), pp. 131-142. R. Sklar, 'The Nature of Class Domination in Africa', The Journal of Modern African Studies, 17, (1979), pp. 531-552.
60. Balandier, The Sociology of Black Africa. Bayart, The State in Africa.
61. Balandier, The Sociology of Black Africa. Bayart, The State in Africa.
62. R. Lemarchand, 'The Apocaplypse in Rwanda', Cultural Survival Quarterly, 3 (1994), pp. 29-33.
63. F. Misser, 'La Radio gui tue. Rwanda: médias et génocide', Le Monde Dilpomatique, 41, 485 (1994), p. 12. J.-P. Chrétien, 'Presse libre et propaganda raciste au Rwanda. Appel à la conscience des Bahutu', Politique Africaine, 42 (1991), pp. 109-115. Reyntjens, 'Akazu, p. 271.
64. F. Misser, 'La Radio gui tue. Rwanda: médias et génocide', Le Monde Dilpomatique, 41, 485 (1994), p. 12. J.-P. Chrétien, 'Presse libre et propaganda raciste au Rwanda. Appel à la conscience des Bahutu', Politique Africaine, 42 (1991), pp. 109-115. Reyntjens, 'Akazu, p. 271.
65. F. Misser, 'La Radio gui tue. Rwanda: médias et génocide', Le Monde Dilpomatique, 41, 485 (1994), p. 12. J.-P. Chrétien, 'Presse libre et propaganda raciste au Rwanda. Appel à la conscience des Bahutu', Politique Africaine, 42 (1991), pp. 109-115. Reyntjens, 'Akazu, p. 271.
66. Rwanda - Les évêques prennent position', ANB-BIA, 254 (1994), p. 8.
67. 'Heeft de Klerk in Rwanda gezwegen? CIM-CMI Informissi, 144 (1994).
68. Longman, 'Christianity and Democratization in Rwanda', p. 196.
69. Braeckman, Rwanda, p. 171.
70. Nsengiyaremye, 'La transition démocratique au Rwanda', pp. 257-262.
71. Braeckman, Rwanda, p. 258.
72. Including organizations such as the Internationale Démocrate Chrétienne (IDC), several Catholic and Vatican linked NGO's. The importance of these relationships has been stressed in notes 10 and 17 above.
73. 'Belly polities' has become a generally accepted term to characterize a political system where public office is used to one's economic advance and to pay off the rank and file. Reyntjens lists Rwandese journals who have used Bayart's term to describe the political scene. Reyntjens, L'Afrique des Grands Lacs en crise, p. 125.
74. Nsengiyaremye, 'La transition démocratique au Rwanda', p. 260.
75. Although organizational life in Rwanda nourished, most organizations only date back to the late 1980's. There was no single human rights organization active until after October 1990. N. Nsegimana, 'Qu'en est-il de la société civile rwandaise?', in Guichaoua, Les crises politiques au Burundi et au Rwanda, pp. 309-317.
76. Longman, 'Christianity and Democratization in Rwanda'.
77. 'Rwanda: un appel des évêques catholiques', CIP, 14 April 1994, pp. 15-16.
78. Braeckman, Rwanda, p. 226.
79. K. B. Kabamba, 'Une deuxième génération de réfugiés? La fuite des populations Hutu aprés le génocide d'avril-mai 1994', in Guichaoua, Les crisis politiques au Burundi et au Rwanda, pp. 349-357. CIDSE-CARITAS Internationalis. Atelier sur le Rwanda (rapport final), Louvain, 4-7 January 1995.
80. R. Omaar and A. de Waal (eds.), Rwanda: Death Despair and Defiance (African Rights, London, 1994), p. 288 ff.
81. Mgr. V. Nsengiyumva, Message de Mgr. Vincent Nsengiyumva, Archevèque de Kigali, Kigali, 17 October 1994.
82. Omaar and de Waal, Rwanda: Death, Despair and Defiance, p. 304. Rwanda: Killings of Religious Figures an Outrage. Amnesty International News Service, 10 June 1994. 'Rwanda: trois évêques et dix prêtres assassinés', CIP, 16 June 1994, p. 12-14. N. Donnet, 'Le massacre des religieux au rwanda', in Guichaoua, Les crises politiques au Burundi et au Rwanda, pp. 702-704.
83. Omaar and de Waal, Rwanda: Death, Despair and Defiance, p. 304. Rwanda: Killings of Religious Figures an Outrage. Amnesty International News Service, 10 June 1994. 'Rwanda: trois évêques et dix prêtres assassinés', CIP, 16 June 1994, p. 12-14. N. Donnet, 'Le massacre des religieux au rwanda', in Guichaoua, Les crises politiques au Burundi et au Rwanda, pp. 702-704.
84. Omaar and de Waal, Rwanda: Death, Despair and Defiance, p. 304. Rwanda: Killings of Religious Figures an Outrage. Amnesty International News Service, 10 June 1994. 'Rwanda: trois évêques et dix prêtres assassinés', CIP, 16 June 1994, p. 12-14. N. Donnet, 'Le massacre des religieux au rwanda', in Guichaoua, Les crises politiques au Burundi et au Rwanda, pp. 702-704.
85. Omaar and de Waal, Rwanda: Death, Despair and Defiance, p. 304. Rwanda: Killings of Religious Figures an Outrage. Amnesty International News Service, 10 June 1994. 'Rwanda: trois évêques et dix prêtres assassinés', CIP, 16 June 1994, p. 12-14. N. Donnet, 'Le massacre des religieux au rwanda', in Guichaoua, Les crises politiques au Burundi et au Rwanda, pp. 702-704.
86. 'Rwanda: Battling for Reconciliation', Africa Confidential, 35, 17 (1994).
87. This was the reaction of the redaction of the Rwandese Christian critical journal Dialogue, currently printed 'in exile' in Brussels. Dialogue, 181 (1995), p. 53.
88. CIDSE-CARITAS Intemationalis. Atelier sur le Rwanda (rapport final).
89. Lettre des prêtres des diocèses du Rwanda réfugiés à Goma (Zaire) adressée au très Saint Père, le Pape Jean Paul II. Les prêtres diocésains du Rwanda Rëfgugiés à Goma - Zaire, 2 August 1994.
90. Lettre des prêtres des diocèses due Rwanda réfugiés à Goma (Zaire) adressée au très Saint Père.
91. Prêtres et réligieux Rwandais en éxil depuis 1994', (Diocèse de Butare, Publication de la Commission pour la relance des activités pastorales, Doc. No. 6), published in Dialogue, 181 (1995), pp. 52-56.
92. A. de Waal and R. Omaar, Witness to Genocide (African Rights, London, 1995), pp. 6-32.
93. De Waal and Omaar, Witness to Genocide, pp. 33-41.
94. F. Ngabu, Organisation pastorale au service des réfugiés Rwandais dans le diocèse de Goma. Goma, 12 August 1994.
95. R. De Gendt, 'L'église de Rwanda n'arrive pas à surmonter la crise. Le lien au regime rend sa vocation prophétique impossible', Dialogue, 186 (1995), pp. 67-70. CIDSE-CARITAS Internationalis. Atelier sur le Rwanda (rapport final). Mission au Burundi, au Rwanda et au Zaire de la délégation CCAC Concertation Chrétienne pour l'Afrique Centrale (Brussels, Rapport de Mission No. 4, 1995). Nothing has been published on the rise of sects or charismatic movements in the camps, and this information is entirely based on interviews with people who recently visited the camps.
96. R. De Gendt, 'L'église de Rwanda n'arrive pas à surmonter la crise. Le lien au regime rend sa vocation prophétique impossible', Dialogue, 186 (1995), pp. 67-70. CIDSE-CARITAS Internationalis. Atelier sur le Rwanda (rapport final). Mission au Burundi, au Rwanda et au Zaire de la délégation CCAC Concertation Chrétienne pour l'Afrique Centrale (Brussels, Rapport de Mission No. 4, 1995). Nothing has been published on the rise of sects or charismatic movements in the camps, and this information is entirely based on interviews with people who recently visited the camps.
97. S. Ellis, 'Liberia 1989-1994. A Study of Ethnic and Spiritual Violence', African Affairs, 94 (1995), pp. 165-197.
98. Omaar and de Waal, Rwanda: Death, Despair and Defiance, p. 305. Within Christianity confession and forgiveness are the basic steps towards reconciliation. They follow each other in this order in liturgy.
99. De Waal and Omaar, Witness to Genocide, p. 41.
100. Tentative de 'Constat loyal', (Diocèse de Buiare, Publication de la Commission pour le relance des activités pastorales, Doc. No. 1), 21 August 1994.
101. Mission au Burundi, au Rwanda et au Zaire de la délégation CCAC.
102. Préoccupations des membres de la Conférence des Evèques catholiques du Rwanda adressées aux autorités Rwandaises, (Conférence Episcopale du Rwanda, Kigali), 12 January 1995.
103. J. Nkusi, Communiqué de l'Assemblée Nationale du Rwanda, Kigali, 29 May 1995.
104. Reyntjens and Desouter recently compiled a report with examples gathered by human rights associations. The most well known example is the attack by the RPA on the camp of Kibeho, where about 4,000 people were killed. C. Braeckman, 'Kibeho compte et décompte ses morts', Le Soir, 25 April 1995. Ketelers, on his return from Rwanda in April mentioned 1,500 arrests per week and 30,000 people in overcrowded prisons, a lot on very shaky accusations. 'A son retour du Rwanda et du Zaïre, Johan Ketelers témoigne des efforts de Caritas pour recomposer un tissu social', CIP, 27 April 1995, pp. 6-8.
105. Reyntjens and Desouter recently compiled a report with examples gathered by human rights associations. The most well known example is the attack by the RPA on the camp of Kibeho, where about 4,000 people were killed. C. Braeckman, 'Kibeho compte et décompte ses morts', Le Soir, 25 April 1995. Ketelers, on his return from Rwanda in April mentioned 1,500 arrests per week and 30,000 people in overcrowded prisons, a lot on very shaky accusations. 'A son retour du Rwanda et du Zaïre, Johan Ketelers témoigne des efforts de Caritas pour recomposer un tissu social', CIP, 27 April 1995, pp. 6-8.
106. J.-P. Pabanel, 'A Kigali, un régime prissonier de sa victoire', Le Monde Diplomatique, 41, 488 (1994), p. 21.
107. C. Braeckman, 'Caritas "nourricier" due Hutupower?', Le Soir, 29 June 1995.