Penelope's suitors: Administrative modernisation and party competition in Greece

West European Politics

Volumn 19, Issue 1, 1996, Pages 97-124

  Spanou, Calliope ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF ATHENS   (Greece)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ADMINISTRATIVE REFORM; DOMESTIC POLITICS; PARTY COMPETITION;

GREECE;

EID: 0030445147     PISSN: 01402382     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/01402389608425123     Document Type: Article

References (80)

1. As J.G. March and J.P. Olsen argue, 'administrative reorganisations are interesting in their own right. (. . .) Because of their generality, visibility, and frequency, administrative reorganisations provide useful insights into the nature of politics more broadly conceived'. Rediscovering Institutions (NY: Free Press 1989) p.69.
2. The emergence of a pluralist parliamentary system was made possible by the legalisation of the Communist Party in 1974. See N. Diamandouros, 'Transition to, and Consolidation of, Democratic Politics in Greece, 1974-1983: A Tentative Assessment', West European Politics 7/2 (April 1984) pp.50-7.
3. G. Pridham and S. Verney, 'The Coalitions of 1989-90 in Greece: Inter-Party Relations and Democratic Consolidation', ibid. 14/4 (Oct. 1991) pp.45-7.
4. Y. Papadopoulos, 'Parties, the State and Society in Greece: Continuity Within Change', ibid. 12/2 (April 1989) p.62. See also N. Mouzelis, 'Continuities and Discontinuities in Greek Politics: From E. Venizelos to A. Papandreou', in K. Featherstone and D. Katsoudas (eds) Political Change in Greece: Before and After the Colonels (London: Croom Helm 1987) pp.271-87.
5. Y. Papadopoulos, 'Parties, the State and Society in Greece: Continuity Within Change', ibid. 12/2 (April 1989) p.62. See also N. Mouzelis, 'Continuities and Discontinuities in Greek Politics: From E. Venizelos to A. Papandreou', in K. Featherstone and D. Katsoudas (eds) Political Change in Greece: Before and After the Colonels (London: Croom Helm 1987) pp.271-87.
6. On the clientelistic practices and public employment after the war within the context of exclusivism see C. Tsoukalas, State, Society and Labour in Post-war Greece (Athens: Themelio 1987), especially p.91. See also N. Mouzelis, 'Class and Clientelistic Politics. The Case of Greece', The Sociological Review 26/3 (Aug. 1978) pp.471-97.
7. On the clientelistic practices and public employment after the war within the context of exclusivism see C. Tsoukalas, State, Society and Labour in Post-war Greece (Athens: Themelio 1987), especially p.91. See also N. Mouzelis, 'Class and Clientelistic Politics. The Case of Greece', The Sociological Review 26/3 (Aug. 1978) pp.471-97.
8. C. Lyrintzis, 'Political Parties in Post-Junta Greece: A Case of "Bureaucratic Clientelism"?', West European Politics 7/2 (April 1984) pp.99-118. This form of clientelism 'consists of a systematic infiltration of the state machine b0y party devotees and the allocation of favours through it. (. . .) Such a party becomes a collective patron (. . .). The public bureaucracy is orientated less towards the effective performance of public service than towards the provision of parasitic jobs for the political clientele of the ruling sectors, in exchange for their political support' (pp. 103-4).
9. The case of the Supreme Council of the Civil Service is extremely eloquent. Clientelistic forces proved to be much more resistant than initially thought. They succeeded in marginalising this administrative body entrusted with the implementation and monitoring of the system.
10. G. Langrod, Rapport sur l'Organisation de la Fonction Publique en Grèce (Athens: OCDE 1964).
11. The major measures taken concerned the rehabilitation of public employees dismissed by the Junta, the status of public employees, the (re-)organisation of public services and the training of civil servants.
12. The increasing cost of patronage for the political personnel as well as for the economic actors has been in other countries - like Britain and the USA-one of the factors leading to bureaucratic rationalisation during the last century.
13. The constant disagreement on these topics has also been one of the reasons for the successive failures in comprehensively revising the Civil Service Code, though every government has created a committee to elaborate a draft.
14. See OECD, Examen des évolutions dans la gestion publique? (Paris: OECD 1988, 1989 1990). For a critical approach to these reforms and the 'New Public Management', see e.g. G. W. Jones and J. Burnham, Modernising the British Civil Service, Discussion Paper 19 (Oxford: Centre for European Studies, Nuffield College, Oct. 1992). P Aucoin 'Administrative Reform in Public Management: Paradigms, Principles, Paradoxes and Pendulums', Governance 3/2 (April 1990) pp. 115-37. J.-L. Bodiguel and L. Rouban, Le fonctionnaire déthrôné? (Paris: Presses de la FNSP 1991). V. Wright, 'Reshaping the State: The Implications for Public Administration', West European Politics 17/3 (July 1994) pp. 102-37; C. Painter. 'Public Service Reform: Reinventing or Abandoning Government?', Political Quarterly 65/3 (July-Sept. 1994) pp.242-62.
15. See OECD, Examen des évolutions dans la gestion publique? (Paris: OECD 1988, 1989 1990). For a critical approach to these reforms and the 'New Public Management', see e.g. G. W. Jones and J. Burnham, Modernising the British Civil Service, Discussion Paper 19 (Oxford: Centre for European Studies, Nuffield College, Oct. 1992). P Aucoin 'Administrative Reform in Public Management: Paradigms, Principles, Paradoxes and Pendulums', Governance 3/2 (April 1990) pp. 115-37. J.-L. Bodiguel and L. Rouban, Le fonctionnaire déthrôné? (Paris: Presses de la FNSP 1991). V. Wright, 'Reshaping the State: The Implications for Public Administration', West European Politics 17/3 (July 1994) pp. 102-37; C. Painter. 'Public Service Reform: Reinventing or Abandoning Government?', Political Quarterly 65/3 (July-Sept. 1994) pp.242-62.
16. See OECD, Examen des évolutions dans la gestion publique? (Paris: OECD 1988, 1989 1990). For a critical approach to these reforms and the 'New Public Management', see e.g. G. W. Jones and J. Burnham, Modernising the British Civil Service, Discussion Paper 19 (Oxford: Centre for European Studies, Nuffield College, Oct. 1992). P Aucoin 'Administrative Reform in Public Management: Paradigms, Principles, Paradoxes and Pendulums', Governance 3/2 (April 1990) pp. 115-37. J.-L. Bodiguel and L. Rouban, Le fonctionnaire déthrôné? (Paris: Presses de la FNSP 1991). V. Wright, 'Reshaping the State: The Implications for Public Administration', West European Politics 17/3 (July 1994) pp. 102-37; C. Painter. 'Public Service Reform: Reinventing or Abandoning Government?', Political Quarterly 65/3 (July-Sept. 1994) pp.242-62.
17. See OECD, Examen des évolutions dans la gestion publique? (Paris: OECD 1988, 1989 1990). For a critical approach to these reforms and the 'New Public Management', see e.g. G. W. Jones and J. Burnham, Modernising the British Civil Service, Discussion Paper 19 (Oxford: Centre for European Studies, Nuffield College, Oct. 1992). P Aucoin 'Administrative Reform in Public Management: Paradigms, Principles, Paradoxes and Pendulums', Governance 3/2 (April 1990) pp. 115-37. J.-L. Bodiguel and L. Rouban, Le fonctionnaire déthrôné? (Paris: Presses de la FNSP 1991). V. Wright, 'Reshaping the State: The Implications for Public Administration', West European Politics 17/3 (July 1994) pp. 102-37; C. Painter. 'Public Service Reform: Reinventing or Abandoning Government?', Political Quarterly 65/3 (July-Sept. 1994) pp.242-62.
18. See OECD, Examen des évolutions dans la gestion publique? (Paris: OECD 1988, 1989 1990). For a critical approach to these reforms and the 'New Public Management', see e.g. G. W. Jones and J. Burnham, Modernising the British Civil Service, Discussion Paper 19 (Oxford: Centre for European Studies, Nuffield College, Oct. 1992). P Aucoin 'Administrative Reform in Public Management: Paradigms, Principles, Paradoxes and Pendulums', Governance 3/2 (April 1990) pp. 115-37. J.-L. Bodiguel and L. Rouban, Le fonctionnaire déthrôné? (Paris: Presses de la FNSP 1991). V. Wright, 'Reshaping the State: The Implications for Public Administration', West European Politics 17/3 (July 1994) pp. 102-37; C. Painter. 'Public Service Reform: Reinventing or Abandoning Government?', Political Quarterly 65/3 (July-Sept. 1994) pp.242-62.
19. See OECD, Examen des évolutions dans la gestion publique? (Paris: OECD 1988, 1989 1990). For a critical approach to these reforms and the 'New Public Management', see e.g. G. W. Jones and J. Burnham, Modernising the British Civil Service, Discussion Paper 19 (Oxford: Centre for European Studies, Nuffield College, Oct. 1992). P Aucoin 'Administrative Reform in Public Management: Paradigms, Principles, Paradoxes and Pendulums', Governance 3/2 (April 1990) pp. 115-37. J.-L. Bodiguel and L. Rouban, Le fonctionnaire déthrôné? (Paris: Presses de la FNSP 1991). V. Wright, 'Reshaping the State: The Implications for Public Administration', West European Politics 17/3 (July 1994) pp. 102-37; C. Painter. 'Public Service Reform: Reinventing or Abandoning Government?', Political Quarterly 65/3 (July-Sept. 1994) pp.242-62.
20. The term rationalisation seems specifically to characterise reform attempts within the Greek context. It summarises the perceived inadequacies of the Greek bureaucracy, namely fragmentation, disorder and lack of coordination and uniformity, contrary to the 'rationality' of the Weberian definition of bureaucracy.
21. 'Decentralisation will be the principal weapon for the conversion of the public administration from oppressor to servant of the citizen . . . We shall decisively eradicate party favouritism, political favours and corruption. The democratisation of public administration implies that there will be an end to the treatment of citizens and discrimination among civil servants according to their political convictions or their social origins. ' Greek Government Programme, Presented by the Prime Minister A.G. Papandreou (Athens: Gen. Secretariat for Press and Info. 1981) pp.23-4.
22. 'Democratisation will decisively contribute to operational improvement in public administration'. 'Democratisation means restoration of uniformity in public administration' which will allow 'greater flexibility and adaptability and more open procedures for recruitment, appointments, transfers, promotions', Government Programme. Contract with the People (Athens: PASOK 1981) pp. 104-5. Democratisation was sometimes considered as wider than modernisation and at the same time in need of being complemented by decentralisation and 'social control' upon public administration. See Enimerotiko Deltio, PASOK, sp. issue No.4 (Sept. 1983) pp.57-8.
23. 'Democratisation will decisively contribute to operational improvement in public administration'. 'Democratisation means restoration of uniformity in public administration' which will allow 'greater flexibility and adaptability and more open procedures for recruitment, appointments, transfers, promotions', Government Programme. Contract with the People (Athens: PASOK 1981) pp. 104-5. Democratisation was sometimes considered as wider than modernisation and at the same time in need of being complemented by decentralisation and 'social control' upon public administration. See Enimerotiko Deltio, PASOK, sp. issue No.4 (Sept. 1983) pp.57-8.
24. Expressions in quotation marks come from The Laws of 'Change', 1981-85, (Athens: Gen. Secretariat for Press and Information, no date) pp.29-38. 'The breaks introduced aim at modernisation and democratisation of public administration', The Achievements of'Change'(Athens: PASOK 1985) p. 15.
25. Expressions in quotation marks come from The Laws of 'Change', 1981-85, (Athens: Gen. Secretariat for Press and Information, no date) pp.29-38. 'The breaks introduced aim at modernisation and democratisation of public administration', The Achievements of'Change'(Athens: PASOK 1985) p. 15.
26. The content of democratisation is broad and all-encompassing. It has an important symbolic dimension and its major meaning is, according to C. Tsoukalas, a demand for consolidation and further extension of mechanisms providing protection, security and employment, e.g. the democratisation of distribution of resources. Reforms were thus trapped in the context of the dominant values of social justice and equality. C. Tsoukalas, 'Free-riders in Wonderland', Hellenic Political Science Review No.1 (Jan. 1993) p.46.
27. The latter were defined as a broad social bloc encompassing 'farmers, workers, employees, craftsmen and artisans , the youth and all the people who are subject to odious exploitation by modern monopoly capital, local as well as foreign'. C. Lyrintzis ('Political Parties, note 6, p.111). M. Spourdalakis, 'A Petty Bourgeois Party with a Populist Ideology and Catch-all Party Structure', in W. Merkel et al., Socialist Parties in Europe: II (Barcelona: Institut de Ciences Politiques i Socials 1992) pp.97-123.
28. The latter were defined as a broad social bloc encompassing 'farmers, workers, employees, craftsmen and artisans , the youth and all the people who are subject to odious exploitation by modern monopoly capital, local as well as foreign'. C. Lyrintzis ('Political Parties, note 6, p.111). M. Spourdalakis, 'A Petty Bourgeois Party with a Populist Ideology and Catch-all Party Structure', in W. Merkel et al., Socialist Parties in Europe: II (Barcelona: Institut de Ciences Politiques i Socials 1992) pp.97-123.
29. See C. Lyrintzis, 'PASOK in Power: From "Change" to Disenchantment', in R. Clogg (ed.) Greece 1981-89. The Populist Decade (NY: St Martin's Press 1993) pp.26-46.
30. Tsoukalas, State, Society and Labour (note 5) p. 141.
31. For a more detailed account see C. Spanou, 'Les Politiques de Recrutement dans l' Administration Hellénique: Une Modernisation impossible?'. Revue Française d'Administration Publique No.62 (1992) pp.325-34.
32. See T. Tsekos, 'Changement Politique et Changement Administratif. La Haute Fonction Publique en Grèce avant et après 1981', in La Haute Administration et la Politique (Paris: CURAPP, PUF 1986) pp. 165-206.
33. See Tsoukalas, State, Society and Labour (note 5) pp.53-145.
34. 'The abolition of clientelism, . . . the establishment of social criteria for the evaluation of the candidates, materialises for PASOK a crucial social choice which expresses our ideology and our practice', Enimerotiko Deltio PASOK, sp. issue No.4 (Sept. 1983) p.58 (italics added).
35. Expressions in quotation marks come from The Laws of 'Change' (note 16).
36. See C. Spanou, 'Elections and Public Administration. The Electoral Mobilisation of Intra-administrative Patronage Mechanisms', in Elections and Political Parties in the 80s. Developments and Prospects of the Political System (Athens: Themelio 1990) pp. 165-99).
37. The reforms under the PASOK government selectively integrated - more or less indepth - a modern terminology and renewed the terms under which public administration was thought, viewed and organised - often under the influence of international co-operation (OECD programmes for example).
38. In the light of this, what may be considered as a relatively successful experiment encouraging democratic consolidation in the 1989-90 experience of coalition governments loses much of its charm when it comes to the 'limited policy achievements' (Pridham and Verney, note 3). Also, G. Th. Mavrogordatos, 'The Social Prerequisites of Coalition Governments', in Elections and Political Parties in the 80s (note 26) pp.121-5.
39. D. Sotiropoulos 'A Colossus with Feet of Clay: the State in Post-authoritarian Greece', in H. Psomiades and S. Thomadakis (eds.) Greece, the New Europe and the Changing International order (New York: Pella 1993) p.45 describes this imbalance between political parties and the state bureaucracy in terms of the organisational resources they respectively dispose of.
40. New Democracy has long suffered from ideological vagueness and lack of clarity. See D. Katsoudas, 'The Conservative Movement and New Democracy: From Past to Present', in Featherstone, and Katsoudas (note 4) pp.85-111. T.S. Pappas, The Making of Party Democracy in Greece, PhD. Diss. (Yale U. 1995) p.209. The relatively recent prevalence of the liberal-conservative ideology only expresses part of New Democracy. Reconciling it with traditional clientelistic - and statist forces within the party proved quite hard. In fact, liberalism served at that time for New Democracy as a concrete and 'modern' ideological reference to oppose the statist/clientelistic excesses of PASOK. However, whenever a clear policy option contradicted specific clientelistic interests, the outcome of the conflict tended to favour the latter.
41. New Democracy has long suffered from ideological vagueness and lack of clarity. See D. Katsoudas, 'The Conservative Movement and New Democracy: From Past to Present', in Featherstone, and Katsoudas (note 4) pp.85-111. T.S. Pappas, The Making of Party Democracy in Greece, PhD. Diss. (Yale U. 1995) p.209. The relatively recent prevalence of the liberal-conservative ideology only expresses part of New Democracy. Reconciling it with traditional clientelistic - and statist forces within the party proved quite hard. In fact, liberalism served at that time for New Democracy as a concrete and 'modern' ideological reference to oppose the statist/clientelistic excesses of PASOK. However, whenever a clear policy option contradicted specific clientelistic interests, the outcome of the conflict tended to favour the latter.
42. It is always difficult to produce verified and exact data on clientelistic recruitments. Still it is worth mentioning that while over 20,000 temporary employees were dismissed in Sept. 1990, over 17,000 local government temporary employees had been integrated into the civil service (L. 1874/1990), a decision to which all parties contributed but which basically favoured New Democracy. See C. Spanou, 'The Award of Permanent Tenure to Temporary Local Government Employees', Epichirimata [Arguments], Nos 15 and 16/17 (1990) pp. 55-60 and 93-97 respectively. The PASOK minister to the Presidency announced that under the ND government 33,528 employees of different status were hired, see Kathimerini, 2. Feb. 1994.
43. It is always difficult to produce verified and exact data on clientelistic recruitments. Still it is worth mentioning that while over 20,000 temporary employees were dismissed in Sept. 1990, over 17,000 local government temporary employees had been integrated into the civil service (L. 1874/1990), a decision to which all parties contributed but which basically favoured New Democracy. See C. Spanou, 'The Award of Permanent Tenure to Temporary Local Government Employees', Epichirimata [Arguments], Nos 15 and 16/17 (1990) pp. 55-60 and 93-97 respectively. The PASOK minister to the Presidency announced that under the ND government 33,528 employees of different status were hired, see Kathimerini, 2. Feb. 1994.
44. Manipulation of the data concerning the number of civil servants and public employees in general seems to have been a way to show improvement of the situation. See To Vima, 15 Jan, 1995. It is not the first time this has happened. According to a reliable source, the production of statistical data was prevented by the minister to the Presidency during the early PASOK years in government.
45. Under the coalition governments of 1989-90, a Commission on Administrative Reform composed of about 100 members produced a Report for Administrative Reform and Modernisation (Athens 1990). By the composition and the work method used, the Report was more or less a collection of diverse and sometimes contradictory ideas. To the extent that it has been a point of reference, though not an important one, it served to legitimatise almost any possible option of the subsequent ND government.
46. The other two axes included the reorganisation of the central government services in view of delegating responsibilities to the periphery and the introduction of new methods and procedures establishing transparency and improving the service to the citizen. See the Introductory Report accompanying the bill.
47. See C. Spanou, 'Recruitment Policy for the Civil Service. Break or Continuity?', in Modernisation in Public Administration (Athens: Sakkoulas 1991) pp.31-54.
48. Even more, since the Council of Ministers determined annually the number of new civil servants and temporary employees to recruit.
49. The law also regularised short-term contracts for disabled persons, recruited under the provisions of law 1648/1986, that had given the opportunity of illegally recruiting employees with (doubtful) physical disabilities. Law 2026/1992 later completed this 'regularisation'.
50. See M. Edelman, Political Language. Words that Succeed and Policies that Fail (NY: Academic Press 1977).
51. The new minister, S. Kouvelas, reversed an important number of provisions introduced under his predecessor. On the conflict between the two, see Elefiheros Typos, 7 March 1992.
52. See also, A. Makridimitris, 'Collective Claims and Administrative Reforms', Hellenic Political Science Review No.3 (April 1994) p. 142-3.
53. The composition of the Councils of Service had already changed in 1990 (Law 1884/ 1990) to include a judge, two elected representatives of the civil servants and two higher civil servants. The new ones (1994) are composed of three civil servants (grade A), appointed by the minister, and two elected representatives.
54. Approximately 4,000 contract employees are concerned, whose contracts have been renewed a number of times. Their contracts are extended indefinitely, which almost corresponds to being awarded permanent tenure. See To Vima, 13 Nov. 1994.
55. See To Vima, 13 Nov. 1994 and 19 Feb. 1995.
56. Social criteria are still important, since totalling points through them enables a candidate to override someone with better results in the examinations or with post-graduate studies.
57. The implementation of Law 2190/1994 concerning sanctions for illegal appointments has already proved probematic, leading to a six-month postponement of its strict application. See To Vima 11 Dec. 1994. The minister, A. Peponis, resigned a few days later, denouncing the undermining of the law by part of the political personnel within the government and the party. See Eleftherotypia 13 Dec. 1994.
58. The implementation of Law 2190/1994 concerning sanctions for illegal appointments has already proved probematic, leading to a six-month postponement of its strict application. See To Vima 11 Dec. 1994. The minister, A. Peponis, resigned a few days later, denouncing the undermining of the law by part of the political personnel within the government and the party. See Eleftherotypia 13 Dec. 1994.
59. That was one of the main points of controversy between the two parties during the discussion of the bill in Parliament. ND was explicitly against the bill, considering it to be superfluous. See To Ethnos, 2 Feb. 1994, Ta Nea, 2 Feb. 1994. The discussion extended to the clientelistic appointments by ND during its term in office and the electoral period.
60. That was one of the main points of controversy between the two parties during the discussion of the bill in Parliament. ND was explicitly against the bill, considering it to be superfluous. See To Ethnos, 2 Feb. 1994, Ta Nea, 2 Feb. 1994. The discussion extended to the clientelistic appointments by ND during its term in office and the electoral period.
61. Almost all administrative laws legalise some illegal situations and promise change. This is of course the necessary precondition under which the ex-post 'legalisation' is legitimised.
62. See Eleftherotypia, 19 Oct. 1994.
63. The grade system gives an excellent example. Under the four-grade or the ten-grade scale, the senior positions - where a vacancy is necessary and the grade is linked to the functions performed - remain the same. Hierarchy is thus artificially extended. The pay scale, a necessary complement to the grade scale, is constantly under discussion but systematically postponed, since its use as a means of inducement entails an important financial cost.
64. See N. Mouzelis, Facets of Underdevelopment (London: Macmillan 1978) Ch.8. For an example in the field of public administration, see Spanou, 'Politiques de Recrutement', (note 21).
65. See N. Mouzelis, Facets of Underdevelopment (London: Macmillan 1978) Ch.8. For an example in the field of public administration, see Spanou, 'Politiques de Recrutement', (note 21).
66. N. Diamandouros observes the 'cultural dualism that cuts across the major political parties'. See N. Diamandouros, 'Politics and Culture in Greece', in R. Clogg (ed.) Greece 1981-89. The Populist Decade, (NY: St Martin's Press 1993) pp. 11-12.
67. According to C. Tsoukalas, the high degree of resistance against rationalisation within the Greek society might be explained by dominant behaviour patterns lacking 'civil awareness', Tsoukalas, 'Free-riders' (note 17) pp.9-52.
68. See e.g. Law 2026/1992, Parliamentary Proceedings 26 Feb. 1992, p.4278.
69. See the parliamentary discussions, ibid., and esp. N. Konstantopoulos, p.4283.
70. Sotiropoulos concludes (note 29 p.47) that 'Greek public administration appears to be malleable and accommodating. The causes for this lie in the type of historical development of the state and the civil service in Greece and the imbalance of organisational strength that has privileged the political parties over the bureaucracy'. In fact, a feeling of precariousness may account for the passiveness and inertia displayed by the bureaucracy.
71. New Democracy, The Programme of New Democracy, 1990. Also see, New Democracy, Programme for Public Administration, 1987.
72. New Democracy, The Programme of New Democracy, 1990. Also see, New Democracy, Programme for Public Administration, 1987.
73. PASOK, Our Achievements, Our Perspective, 1990.
74. It is stated for example that 'the dilemma public or private sector is false'. 'A national policy for administrative modernisation is needed, far from party rivalries and based on scientific design, consensus, participation and initiative of the civil servants. ' Draft Programme in View of the Party Congress 1990. (Athens: PASOK, 1990) pp.53-4.
75. PASOK, The Programme of PASOK, 1993.
76. The presence of the term 'suitability' expresses a new rationale for this party. Suitability, though bearing multiple definitions, is generally appreciated with regard to job requirements. In this sense, it is difficult to reconcile with the 'social' criteria previously put forward by PASOK.
77. PASOK (note 59).
78. Paper discussed during the last Party Conference, 1994. See also the speech given by the ND leader M. Evert, at the Conference of the Hellenic-American Chamber, To Vima, 27 Nov. 1994.
79. For Tsoukalas ('Free-riders . . .' note 17 p.23), a cultural feature of Greek society is that law and rules are not considered as the materialisation in abstracto of individual freedom and equality, but as additional difficulties to circumvent and overcome by any possible means.
80. See Pappas, (note 30) pp.319, 338. The author observes 'the growing sameness of the parties' which 'suggests a shrinking arena for political competition (. . .) The current party system is in need of somehow reproducing its conflictual bipolar mechanisms if it is to continue its existence' (pp.359-61).