Maternai effects in animal ecology

American Zoologist

Volumn 36, Issue 2, 1996, Pages 83-105

  Bernardo, Joseph ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS AT AUSTIN   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ANIMAL ECOLOGY; MATERNAL EFFECT; OFFSPRING; PERFORMANCE;

EID: 0030443129     PISSN: 00031569     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/icb/36.2.83     Document Type: Article

References (164)

1. Anderson, S. 1990. Paternal effects on seed size in a population of Crépis tectonun (Asteraceae). Oikos 59:3-8.
2. Arnold, S. J. 1992. Constraints on phenotypic evolution. Amer. Nat. 140:585-5107.
3. Arnold, S. J. 1994a. Multivariate inheritance and evolution: A review of concepts. In C. R. B. Boake (ed.), Quantitative genetic studies of behavioral evolution, pp. 17-48. University of Chicago Press.
4. Arnold, S. J. 1994b. Is there a unifying concept of sexual selection that applies to both plants and animals? Amer. Nat. 144:S1-S12.
5. Barker, J. S. F., W. T. Starmer, and J. C. Fogleman. 1994. Genotype-specific habitat selection for oviposition sites in the cactophilic species Drosophila buzzatii. Heredity 72:384-395.
6. Beeman, R. W., K. S. Friesen, and R. E. Denell. 1992. Maternal-effect selfish genes in flour beetles. Science 256:89-92.
7. Bernardo, J. 1991. Manipulating egg size to study maternal effects on offspring traits. Trends Ecol. Evol. 6:1-2.
8. Bernardo, J. 1993. Determinants of maturation in animals. Trends Ecol. Evol. 8:166-173.
9. Bernardo, J. 1994a. Experimental analysis of allocation in two divergent, natural salamander populations. Amer. Nat. 143:14-38.
10. Bernardo, J. 1994t. Life history déjà vu. Syst. Biol. 43:139-148.
11. Bernardo, J. 1996. The particular maternal effect of propagule size, especially egg size: Patterns, models, quality of evidence and interpretations. Amer. Zool. 36:216-236.
12. Berven, K. A. 1982. The genetic basis of altitudinal variation in the wood frog Rana sylvatica. II. An experimental analysis of larval development. Oecologia 52:360-369.
13. Blackburn, D. G. 1982. Evolutionary origins of viviparity in the Reptilia. I. Sauria. Amphibia-Reptilia 3:185-205.
14. Blackburn, D. G. 1985. Evolutionary origins of viviparity in the Reptilia. H. Serpentes, Amphisbaenia, and Ichthyosauria. Amphibia-Reptilia 5: 259-291.
15. Blackburn, D. G. 1992. Convergent evolution of viviparity, matrotrophy, and specializations for fetal nutrition in reptiles and other vertebrates. Amer. Zool. 32:313-321.
16. Blackburn, D. G. 1993. Standardized criteria for the recognition of reproductive modes in squamate reptiles. Herpetologica 49:118-132.
17. Blackburn, D. G. 1994. Standardized criteria for the recognition of embryonic nutritional patterns in squamate reptiles. Copeia 1994:925-935.
18. Blackburn, D. G., L. J. Vitt, and C. A. Beuchat. 1984. Eutherian-like reproductive specializations in a vi-viparous reptile. Proc. Natl. Acad Sei USA RL 4860-4863. ' Bowen, W. D., O. T. Oftedal, D. J. Boness and S } Iverson. 1994. The effect of maternal age and other factors in birth mass in the harbor seal P J. Zool. 72:8-14.
19. Bradford, D. E 1984. Physiological features of embryonic development in terrestrially-breeding plethodontid salamanders. In R. S. Seymour (ed ) Respiration and metabolism of embryonic verie brates, pp. 87-98. D. W. Junk, London. Bradford, D. F. 1990. Incubation time and rate of embryonic development in amphibians: The influence of ovum size, temperature, and reproductive mode. Phy'siol. Zool. 63:1157-1180. Bridges, T. S. and S. Heppell. 1996. Fitness consequences of maternal effects in Streblospio benedicti (Annelida: Polychaeta). Amer. Zool. 36:132146.
20. Brockelman, W. Y. 1975. Competition, the fitness of offspring, and optimal clutch size. Amer. Nat 109677-699.
21. Bronson, M. T. 1979. Altitudinal variation in the life history of the golden-mantled ground squirrel (Spremophilus laleralis). Ecology 60:272-279. Bruce, R. C. 1990. An explanation for differences in body size between two desmognathine salamanders. Copeia 1990:1-9.
22. Butlin, R. K., C. W. Woodhatch, and G. M. Hewitt. 1987. Male spermatophore investment increases female fecundity in a grasshopper. Evolution 41221-225.
23. Carrière, Y. 1994. Evolution of phenotypic variance: non-Mendelian parental influences on phenotypic and genotypic components of life-history traits in a generalist herbivore. Heredity 72:420-430. Chambers, R. C. and W. C. Leggett. 1996. Maternal influences on variation in egg sizes, in temperate marine fishes. Amer. Zool. 36:180-196. Cheverud, J. M. 1984. Evolution by kin selection: A quantitative genetic model illustrated by maternal performance in mice. Evolution 38:766-777. Cheverud, J. M. and A. J. Moore. 1994. Quantitative genetics and the role of the environment provided by relatives in behavioral evolution. In C. R. B. Boake (ed.), Quantitative genetic studies of behavioral evolution, pp. 67-100. University of Chicago Press.
24. Clark, M. M. and B. G. Galef. 1995. Prenatal influences on reproductive life history strategies Trends Ecol. Evol. 10:151-152. Glutton-Brock, T. H. 1991. The evolution of parental care. Princeton University Press. Cohen, J. 1979. Maternal constraints in development. In D. R. Newth and M. Balls (eds.). Maternal effects in development, pp. 1-28. Cambridge University Press.
25. Collazo, A. 1996. Evolutionary correlations between early development and life history in plethodontid salamanders and teleost fishes. Amer. Zool 36 116-131.
26. Congdon, J. D. and J. W. Gibbons. 1987. Morphological constraint on egg size: A challenge to optimal egg size theory? Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 84: 4145-4147.
27. Congdon, J. D. and J. W. Gibbons. 1990. Turtle eggs: Their ecology and evolution. In J. W. Gibbons (ed.), Life history and ecology of the slider turtle, pp. 109-123. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C.
28. Conover, D. O. and E. T. Schultz. 1995. Phenotypic similarity and the evolutionary significance of countergradient variation. Trends Ecol. Evol. 10: 248-252.
29. Cowley, D. E. 1991a. Prenatal effects on mammalian growth: embryo transfer results. 4th ICSEB Proceedings, Vol. II., pp. 762-779, Dioscorides Press Portland, Oregon.
30. Cowley, D. E. 19916. Genetic prenatal maternal effects on organ size in mice and their potential contribution to evolution. J. Evol. Biol. 3:363-381.
31. Cowley, D. E. and W. R. Atchley. 1992. Quantitative genetic models for development, epigenetic selection, and phenotypic evolution. Evolution 46:495518.
32. Deeming, D. C. and M. W. J. Ferguson. 1991a. Egg incubation: Its effects on embryonic development in birds and reptiles. Cambridge Univ. Press.
33. Deeming, D. C. and M. W. J. Ferguson. 1991fr. Physiological effects of incubation temperature on embryonic development in reptiles and birds. In D. C. Deeming and M. W. J. Ferguson (eds.), Egg incubation: Its effects on embryonic development in birds and reptiles, pp. 147-171. Cambridge University Press.
34. Dobson, F. S. and J. O. Mûrie. 1987. Interpretation of intraspecific life history patterns: Evidence from Columbian ground squirrels. Amer. Nat. 129:382397.
35. Dobson, F. S. and G. R. Michener. 1995. Maternal traits and reproduction in Richardson's ground squirrels. Ecology 76:851-862.
36. Ebert, D. 1993. The effect of size at birth, maturation threshold, and genetic differences on the life-history of Daphnia magna. Oecologia 86:243-250.
37. Elinson, R. P. 1987. Change in developmental patterns: Embryos of amphibians with large eggs. In R. A. Raff and E. C. Raff (eds.), Development as an evolutionary process, pp. 1-21. Alan R. Liss, Inc., New York.
38. Falconer, D. 1965. Maternal effects and selection response. In S. J. Geerts (ed.), Proc. XI Internat Congr. Genetics, pp. 763-774, Vol. 3. Pergamon, Oxford.
39. Falconer, D. S. 1989. Introduction to quantitative genetics, 3rd ed. Wiley and Sons, New York.
40. Feeny, P., L. Rosenberry, and M. Carter. 1983. Chemical aspects of oviposition behavior in butterflies. In S. Ahmad (ed.), Herbivorous insects: Hostseeking behavior and mechanisms, pp. 27-76. Academic Press, New York.
41. Forester, D. C. 1979. The adaptiveness of parental care in Desmognathus ochrophaeus (Urodela: Plethodontidae). Copeia 1979:332-341.
42. Forester, D. C. 1981. Parental care in the salamander Desmognathus ochrophaeus: Female activity pattern and trophic behavior. J. Herpetol. 15:29-34.
43. Forester, D. C. 1983. Duration of the brooding period in the mountain dusky salamander (Desmognathus ochrophaeus) and its influence on agression toward conspecifics. Copeia 1983:1098-1101.
44. Forester, D. C. 1984. Brooding behavior by the mountain dusky salamander: Can the female's presence reduce desiccation? Herpetologica 40:105-109.
45. Fuchs, S. 1982. Optimality of parental investment: The influence of nursing on reproductive success of mother and female young house mice. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 10:39-51.
46. Giesel, J. T. 1988. Effects of parental photoperiod on development time and density sensitivity of progeny in Drosophila melanogaster. Evolution 42: 1348-1350.
47. Guillette, L. J., Jr. 1989. The evolution of vertebrate viviparity: Morphological modifications and endocrine control. In D. B. Wake and G. Roth (eds.), Complex organismal functions: Integration and evolution in vertebrates, pp. 219-233. Wiley and Sons, New York.
48. Guillette, L. J., Jr. 1993. The evolution of vivparity in lizards. Bioscience 43:742-751.
49. Gutzke, W. H. N. and G. C. Packard. 1987. Influence of the hydric and thermal environments on eggs and hatchlings of bull snakes Pituophis melanoleucus. Physiol. Zool. 60:9-17.
50. Gwynne, D. T. 1984. Courtship feeding increases female reproductive success in bushcrickets. Nature 307:361-363.
51. Haig, D. and M. Westoby. 1988. Inclusive fitness, seed resources, and maternal care. In J. L. Doust and L. L. Doust (eds.). Plant reproductive ecology: Patterns and strategies, pp. 60-79. Oxford University Press, New York.
52. Higgins, L. E. and M. A. Rankin. 1996. Different pathways in arthropod post-embryonic development. Evolution. 50:573-582.
53. Horn, C. L. 1987. Reproductive ecology of female dusky salamander, Desmognathus fuscus (Plethodontidae) in the southern Appalachians. Copeia 1987:768-777.
54. Horn, C. L., N. H. Willets, and C. W. Clark. 1990. Fitness consequences of nest defense in plethodontid salamanders: Predictions of a dynamic optimization model. Herpetologica 46:304-319.
55. Horton, T. H. and M. H. Stetson. 1992. Maternal transfer of photoperiodic information in rodents. Anim. Reprod. Sci. 30:29-44.
56. Howard, R. D. 1978. The influence of male-defended oviposition sites on early embryo mortality in bullfrogs. Ecology 59:789-798.
57. Janssen, G. M., G. De Jong, E. N. G. Joosse, and W. Scharloo. 1988. A negative maternal effect in springtails. Evolution 42:828-834.
58. Janzen, F. J. 1993. An experimental analysis of natural selection on body size of hatchling turtles. Ecology 74:332-341.
59. Janzen, F. J. and G. L. Paukstis. 1991. Environmental sex determination in reptiles: Ecology, evolution and experimental design. Quart. Rev. Biol. 66: 149-179.
60. Jorgenson, J. T., M. Festa-Bianchet, M. Lucherini, and W. D. Wishart. 1993. Effects of body size, pop-ulation density, and maternal characteristics on a C at first reproduction in bighorn ewes. Can. J. Zoo!. 71:2509-2517.
61. Kirkpatrick, M. and R. Lande. 1989. The evolution of maternal characters. Evolution 43:485-503.
62. Kirkpatrick, M. and R. Lande. 1992. The evolution of maternal characters: errata. Evolution 46:284.
63. Kohn, A. J. and E E. Perron. 1994. Life history and biogeography: Patterns in Conus. Oxford University Press, New York.
64. Kormanik, G. A. 1992. Ion and osmoregulation in prenatal elasmobranchs: Evolutionary implications. Amer. Zool. 32:294-302.
65. Lacey, E. P. 1991. Parental effects on life-history traits in plants. 4lh ICSEB Proceedings, Vol. II, pp. 735-744. Dioscorides Press, Portland, Oregon.
66. Lande, R. and M. Kirkpatrick. 1990. Selection response in traits with maternal inheritance. Genet. Res. 55:189-197.
67. Lande, R. and T. Price. 1989. Genetic correlations and maternal effects coefficients obtained from offspring-parent regression. Genetics 122:915-922.
68. Lees, A. D. 1979. The maternal environment and the control of morphogenesis in insects. In D. R. Newth and M. Balls (eds.), Maternal effects in development, pp. 1-28. Cambridge Univ. Press.
69. Letterio, J. J., A. G. Geiser, A. B. Kulkarni, N. S. Roche, M. B. Sporn, and A. B. Roberts. 1994. Matemal rescue of transforming growth factor-l null mice. Science 264:1936-1938.
70. Levitan, D. R. 1993. The importance of sperm limitation to the evolution of egg size in marine invertebrates. Amer. Nat. 141:517-536.
71. Lombardi, J. 1996. Postzygotic maternal influences and the maternal-embryonic relationship of viviparous fishes. Amer. Zool. 36:106-115.
72. Lynch, C. B. 1992. Clinal variation in cold adaptation in Mus domesticiis: Verification of predictions from laboratory populations. Amer. Nat. 139: 1219-1236.
73. Markow, T. A. and P. F. Ankney. 1984. Drosophila males contribute to oogenesis in a multiple mating species. Science 224:302-303.
74. Marsh, E. 1986. Effects of egg size on offspring fitness and maternal fecundity in the orangethroat darter, Etheostoma specatabile (Pisces: Percidae). Copeia 1986:18-30.
75. Mather, K. and J. L. Jinks. 1971. Diametrical genetics. Chapman and Hall, New York.
76. McEdward, L. R. 1996. Experimental mainpulation of parental investment in echinoid echinoderms. Amer. Zool. 36:169-179.
77. McEdward, L. R. and L. K. Coulter. 1987. Egg volume and energetic content are not correlated among sibling offspring of starfish: implications for life-history theory. Evolution 41:914-917.
78. McEdward, L. R. and D. A. Janies. 1993. Life cycle evlution in asteroids: What is a larva? Biol. Bull. 184:255-268.
79. McGinley, M. A., D. H. Temme, and M. A. Geber. 1987. Parental investment in offspring in variable environments: theoretical and empirical considerations. Amer. Natur. 130:370-398.
80. Miao, S. L., F. A. Bazzaz, and R. B. Primack. 1991. Persistence of maternal nutrient effects in Plantago major. The third generation. Ecology 72: 1634-1642.
81. Miller, K., G. C. Packard, and M. J. Packard. 1987. Hydric conditions during incubation influence locomotor performance of hatchling snapping turtles. J. Exp. Biol. 127:401-412.
82. Mitchell, R. 1975. The evolution of oviposition tactics in the bean weevil, Callosobnmchus maciilatus (F.). Ecology 56:696-702.
83. Mousseau, T. A. and H. Dingle. 199la. Matemal effects in insects: Examples, constraints and geographic variation. 4th ICSEB Proceedings, Vol. II, pp. 745-761. Dioscorides Press, Portland, Oregon.
84. Mousseau, T. A. and H. Dingle. 19916. Maternal effects in insect life histories. Annu. Rev. Entomol. 36:511-534.
85. Newman, R. 1992. Adaptive plasticity in amphibian metamorphosis. Bioscience 42:671-678.
86. Newth, D. R. and M. Balls. 1979. Malemal effects in development. Cambridge University Press, New York.
87. Ng, D. 1988. A novel level of interactions in plantinsect systems. Nature 334:611-612.
88. Nisbet, I. C. T. 1973. Courtship-feeding, egg-size and breeding success in common terns. Nature 241: 141-142.
89. Nussbaum, R. A. 1985. The evolution of parental care in salamanders. Misc. Publ. Mus. Zool., Univ. Michigan 169:1-50.
90. Overall, K. L. 1994. Lizard egg environments. In L. J. Vitt and E. R. Pianka (eds.), Lizard ecology: Historical and experimental perspectives, pp. SI72. Princeton University Press.
91. Packard, G. C. and M. J. Packard. 1984. Coupling of physiology of embryonic turtles to the hydric environment. In R. S. Seymour (ed.), Respiration and metabolism of embryonic vertebrates, pp. 99119. D. W. Junk Publishers, Boston.
92. Packard, G. C., R. P. Elinson, J. Gavaud, L. J. Guillette, Jr., J. Lombard!, J. Schindler, R. Shine, H. C. Tyndale-Biscoe, M. H. Wake, F. D. J. Xavier, and Z. Yaron. 1989. Group report. How are reproductive systems integrated and how has viviparity evolved. In D. B. Wake and G. Roth (eds.), Complex organismal functions: Integration and evolution in vertebrates, pp. 281-293. Wiley and Sons, New York.
93. Papaj, D. R. and M. D. Rausher. 1983. Individual variation in host location by phytophagous insects. In S. Ahmad (ed.), Herbivorous insects: Hostseeking behavior and niechanaisms, pp. 77-124. Academic Press, Inc., New York.
94. Papaj, D. R. and M. D. Rausher. 1987. Components of conspecific host discrimination behavior in the butterfly Battus philenor. Ecology 68:245-253.
95. Papaj, D. R. and M. D. Rausher. 19876. Genetic differences and phenotypic plasticity as causes of variation in oviposition preference in Battus philenor. Oecologia 74:24-30.
96. Parichy, D. M. and R. H. Kaplan. 1992. Maternal effects on offspring growth and development depend on environmental quality in the frog Bombina orientalis. Oecologia 91:579-586.
97. Pétrins, C. M. and D. Moss. 1974. Survival of young great tits in relation to age of female parent. Ibis 116:220-224.
98. Pontier, D., J.-M. Gaillard, and D. Allainé. 1993. Maternal investment per offspring and demographic tactics in placental mammals. Oikos 66:424-430.
99. Rausher, M. D. 1978. Search image for leaf shape in a butterfly. Science 200:1071-1073.
100. Rausher, M. D. 1979o. Egg recognition: its advantage to a butterfly. Anim. Behav. 27:1034-1040.
101. Rausher, M. D. 19796. Larval habitat suitability and oviposition preference in three related butterflies. Ecology 60:503-511.
102. Rausher, M. D. 1980. Host abundance, juvenile survival and oviposition in Battus philenor. Evolution 34:342-355.
103. Rausher, M. D. 1981a. Host plant selection by Battus philenor butterflies: The roles of prédation, nutrition, and plant chemistry. Ecol. Monogr. 51:1-20.
104. Rausher, M. D. 19816. Host plant selection by Battus philenor butterflies: Evidence for individual differences in foraging behavior. Anim. Behav. 31: 341-347.
105. Rausher, M. D. 1983a. Ecology of host-selection behavior in phytophagous insects. In R. E Denno and M. S. McClure (eds.). Variable plants and herbivores in natural and managed systems, pp. 223-257. Academic Press, Inc., New York.
106. Rausher, M. D. 19836. Alteration of oviposition behavior by Battus philenor butterflies in response to variation in host-plant density. Ecology 64: 1028-1034.
107. Rausher, M. D. 1983c. Conditioning and genetic variation as causes of individual variation in the oviposition behavior of the tortoise beetle, Deloyala guttata. Anim. Behav. 31:743-747.
108. Rausher, M. D. and D. R. Papaj. 1983. Demographic consequences of discrimination among conspecific host plants by Battus philenor butterflies. Ecology 64:1402-1410.
109. Reid, W. V. and P. D. Boersma. 1990. Parental quality and selection on egg size in the Magellanic penguin. Evolution 44:1780-1786.
110. Resitarits, W. J. 1996. Oviposition site choice and life history evolution. Amer. Zool. 36:205-215.
111. Resetarits, W. J. and H. M. Wilbur. 1989. Choice of oviposition site by Hyla chrysoscelis: Role of predators and competitors. Ecology 70:220-228.
112. Resetarits, W. J. and H. M. Wilbur. 1991. Calling site choice by Hyla chrysoscelis: Effect of predators, competitors, and oviposition sites. Ecology 72: 778-786.
113. Reznick, D. 1981. Grandfather effects: The genetics of interpopulation differences in offspring size in the mosquito fish. Evolution 35:941-953.
114. Reznick, D. N. 1991. Maternal effects in fish life histories. 4th ICSEB Proceedings, Vol. II, pp. 780793. Dioscorides Press, Portland, Oregon.
115. Reznick, D., H. Callahan, and R. Llauredo. 1996. Maternal effects on offspring quality in poeciliid fishes. Amer. Zool. 36:000-000.
116. Riska, B. 1989. Composite traits, selection response, and evolution. Evolution 43:1172-1191.
117. Riska, B. 1991. Maternal effects in evolutionary bi-
118. ology: Introduction to the symposium. 4th ICSEB Proceedings, Vol. II, pp. 719-724. Dioscorides Press, Portland, Oregon.
119. Riska, B., J. J. Rutledge, and W. R. Atchley. 1985. Covariance between direct and maternal genetic effects in mice, with a model of persistent environmental influences. Genet. Res. 45:287-297.
120. Roach, D. A. and R. D. Wulff. I987. Maternal effects in plants. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 18:209-235.
121. Roff, D. A. 1992. The evolution of life histories: Theory and analysis. Chapman and Hall, New York.
122. Rogowitz, G. L. 1996. Trade-offs in energy allocation during lactation. Amer. Zool. 36:197-204.
123. Roosenburg, W. M. 1996. Maternal condition and nest site choice: An alternative for the maintenance of environmental sex determination. Am. Zool. 36: 157-168.
124. Rossiter, M. C. 1991a. Maternal effects generate variation in life history: Consequences of egg weight plasticity in the gypsy moth. Functional Ecology 5:386-393.
125. Rossiter, M. C. 19916. Environmentally-based maternal effects: A hidden force in insect population dynamics? Oecologia 87:288-294.
126. Roth, V. L. and M. S. Klein. 1986. Maternal effects on body size of large insular Peromyscus maniculatus'. Evidence from embryo transfer experiments. J. Mamm. 67:37-45.
127. Schaal, B. A. 1984. Life-history variation, natural selection, and maternal effects in plant populations. In R. Dirzo and J. Sarukhan (eds.), Perspectives on plant population ecology, pp. 188-206. Sinauer, Sunderland, Massachusetts.
128. Schluter, D. and L. Gustafsson. 1993. Maternal inheritance of condition and clutch size in the collared flycatcher. Evolution 47:658-667.
129. Schmitt, J. and J. Antonovics. 1986. Experimental studies of the evolutionary significance of sexual reproduction. III. Maternal and paternal effects during seedling establishment. Evolution 40:817829.
130. Semlitsch, R. D. and J. W. Gibbons. 1990. Effects of egg size on success of larval salamanders in complex aquatic environments. Ecology 71:17891795.
131. Seymour, R. S. 1984. Respiration and metabolism of embryonic vertebrates. D. W. Junk Publishers, Kluwer Academic Press, Boston.
132. Shine, R. 1983a. Reptilian reproductive modes: The oviparity-viviparity continuum. Herpetologica 39: 1-8.
133. Shine, R. 1983b. Reptilian viviparity in cold climates: Testing the assumptions of an evolutionary hypothesis. Oecologia 57:397-405.
134. Shine, R. 1989. Ecological influences on the evolution of vertebrate viviparity. In D. B. Wake and G. Roth (eds.). Complex organismal functions: Integration and evolution in vertebrates. Wiley and Sons, New York.
135. Shine, R. and J. J. Bull. 1979. The evolution of livebearing in lizards and snakes. Amer. Nat. 113: 905-923.
136. Sinervo, B. 1990. The evolution of maternal investment in lizards: An experimental and comparative analysis of egg size and its effects on offspring performance. Evolution 44:279-294.
137. Sinervo, B. and L. R. McEdward. 1988. Developmental consequences of an evolutionary change in egg size: An experimental test. Evolution 42:885899.
138. Sinervo, B. and R. B. Huey. 1990. Allometric engineering: An experimental test of the causes of interpopulational differences in performance. Science 248:1106-1109.
139. Singer, M. C. 1984. Butterfly-hostplant relationships: Host quality, adult choice, and larval success. Symp. R. Entomol. Soc. Lond. 11:81-88.
140. Singer, M. C., D. Ng, and C. D. Thomas. 1988. Heritability of oviposition preference and its relationship to offspring performance within a single insect population. Evolution 42:977-985.
141. Singer, M. C., C. D. Thomas, H. L. Billington, and C. Parmesan. 1994. Correlates of speed of evolution of host preference in a set of twelve populations of the butterfly Euphydryas editha. Ecoscience 1 : 107-114.
142. Stewart, J. R. 1992. Placental structure and nutritional provision to embryos in predominantly lecithotrophic viviparous reptiles. Amer. Zool. 32:303312.
143. Stewart, J. R. 1993. Yolk sac placentation in reptiles: Structural innovation in a fundamental vertebrate fetal nutritional system. J. Exper. Zool. 266:431449.
144. .Strathmann, R. R. 1977. Egg size, larval development, and juvenile size in benthic marine invertebrates. Amer. Nat. 111:373-376.
145. Stathmann, R. R. 1985. Feeding and nonfeeding larval development and life-history evolution in marine invertebrates. Ann. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 16:339361.
146. Stathmann, R. R. 1990. Why life histories evolve differently in the sea. Am. Zool. 30:197-207.
147. Stathmann, R. R. 1993. Hypotheses on the origin of marine larvae. Ann. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 24:89-117.
148. Thomas, C. S. 1983. The relationships between breeding experience, egg volume, and reproductive success of the kittiwake Rissa tridactyla. Ibis 125: 567-574.
149. Tilley, S. G. and J. Bernardo. 1993. Life history evolution in plethodontid salamanders. Herpetologica 49:154-163.
150. Tinkle, D. 1979. Long-term field studies. Bioscience 29:717.
151. Travis, J., S. B. Emerson, and M. Blouin. 1987. A quantitative-genetic analysis of larval life-history traits in Hyla crucifer. Evolution 41:145-156.
152. Van Damme, R., D. Bauwens, F. Brana, and R. F. Verheyen. 1992. Incubation temperature differentially affects hatching time, egg survival and hatchling performance in the lizard Podarcis muralis. Herpetologica 48:220-228.
153. Wake, M. H. 1982. Diversity within a framework of constraints. Amphibian reproductive modes. In D. Mossakowski and G. Roth (eds.), Environmental adaptation and evolution, pp. 87-106. Gustav Fischer, New York.
154. Wake, M. H. 1989. Phylogenesis of direct development and viviparity in vertebrates. In D. B. Wake and G. Roth (eds.), Complex organismal functions: Integration and evolution in vertebrates, pp. 235-250. Wiley and Sons, New York.
155. Wake, M. H. 1992. Evolutionary scenarios, homology, and convergence of structural specializations for vertebrate viviparity. Amer. Zool. 32:256-263.
156. Wake, M. H. 1993. Evolution of oviductal gestation in amphibians. J. Exp. Zool. 266:394-413.
157. Wilbur, H. M. 1977. Propagule size, number, and dispersion pattern in Ambystoma and Asclepias. Amer. Nat. 111:43-68.
158. Willham, R. L. 1963. The covariance between relatives for characters composed of components contributed by related individuals. Biometrics 19:1827.
159. Willham, R. L. 1972. The role of maternal effects in animal breeding: III. Biometrical aspects of maternal effects in animals. J. Anim. Sci. 35:12881293.
160. Woodward, B. D. 1986. Paternal effects on juvenile growth in Scaphiopus multiplicatus (the New Mexico Spadefoot Toad). Amer. Nat. 128:58-65.
161. Woodward, B. D. 1987. Paternal effects on offspring traits in Scaphiopus couchi (Anura: Pelobatidae). Oecologia 73:626-629.
162. Wourms, J. P. and J. Lombard!. 1992. Reflections on the evolution of piscine viviparity. Am. Zool. 32: 276-293.
163. Wourms, J. P., B. D. Grove, and J. Lombard!. 1988. The maternal-embryonic relationship in vivparous fishes. In W. S. Hoar and D. J. Randall (eds.), Fish Physiology, Vol. X, Pt. b, pp. 1-134. Academic Press, New York.
164. Zammuto, R. M. and J. S. Millar. 1985. Environmental predictability, variability, and Spennophilus columbianus life history over an elevational gradient. Ecology 66:1784-1794.