The evolutionary ecology of attachment organization

Human Nature

Volumn 7, Issue 1, 1996, Pages 1-37

  Chisholm, James S ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF WESTERN AUSTRALIA   (Australia)

Author keywords

Attachment theory; Environment of evolutionary adaptedness; Individual differences; Life history theory; Reproductive strategies

Indexed keywords

EID: 0030442509     PISSN: 10456767     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article

References (176)

1. Ainsworth, M. 1969 Infancy in Uganda: Infant Care and the Growth of Love. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
2. 1979a Infant-Mother Attachment. American Psychologist 34:932-937.
3. 1979b Attachment as Related to Mother-Infant Interaction. In Advances in the Study of Behavior, Vol. 9, J. Rosenblatt, R. Hinde, C. Beer, and M. Busnel, eds. Pp. 1-51. New York: Academic Press.
4. Ainsworth, M., S. Bell, and D. Stayton 1971 Individual Differences in Strange Situation Behavior of One-year-olds. In The Origins of Human Social Relations, H. Schaffer, ed. Pp. 17-57. London: Academic.
5. Ainsworth, M., M. Blehar, E. Waters, and S. Wall 1978 Patterns of Attachment. Hillsdale, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum.
6. Alexander, R., and G. Borgia 1979 On the Origin and Basis of the Male-Female Phenomenon. In Sexual Selection and Reproductive Competition in Insects, M. Blum and N. Blum, eds. Pp. 413-440. New York: Academic Press.
7. Andrews, M., and L. Rosenblum 1991 Attachment in Monkey Infants Raised in Variable- and Low-Demand Environments. Child Development 62:686-693.
8. Apter, D., M. Reinilla, and R. Vihko 1989 Some Endocrine Characteristics of Early Menarche, a Risk Factor for Breast Cancer, Are Preserved into Adulthood. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 57:82-86.
9. Barkow, J., L. Cosmides, and J. Tooby, eds. 1992 The Adapted Mind: Evolutionary Psychology and the Generation of Culture. New York: Oxford University Press.
10. Bates, J., C. Maslin, and K. Frankel 1985 Attachment Security, Mother-Child Interaction, and Temperament as Predictors of Behavior-Problem Ratings at Three Years of Age. In Growing Points in Attachment Theory and Research, I. Bretherton and E. Waters, eds. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development (Serial No. 309), 50(1-2):167-193.
11. Bateson, P. 1976 Rules and Reciprocity in Behavioral Development. In Growing Points in Ethology, P. Bateson and R. Hinde, eds. Pp. 401-421. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
12. 1982 Behavioural Development and Evolutionary Processes. In Current Problems in Sociobiology, King's College Sociobiology Study Group, eds. Pp. 133-151. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
13. 1994 The Dynamics of Parent-Offspring Conflict in Mammals. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 9(10):399-403.
14. Bateson, P., M. Mendl, and J. Feaver 1990 Play in the Domestic Cat Is Enhanced by Rationing of the Mother during Lactation. Animal Behaviour 40:514-525.
15. Belsky, J., and J. Cassidy 1994 Attachment: Theory and Evidence. In Development through Life: A Handbook for Clinicians, M. Rutter and D. Hay, eds. Pp. 373-402. Oxford: Blackwell.
16. Belsky, J., L. Steinberg, and P. Draper 1991 Childhood Experience, Interpersonal Development, and Reproductive Strategy: An Evolutionary Theory of Socialization. Child Development 62:647-670.
17. Bernardo, J. 1993 Determinants of Maturation in Animals. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 8(5):166-173.
18. Blurton Jones, N. 1993 The Lives of Hunter-gatherer Children: Effects of Parental Behavior and Parental Reproductive Strategy. In Juvenile Primates: Life History, Development and Behavior, M. Pereira and L. Fairbanks, eds. Pp. 309-326. New York: Oxford University Press.
19. Bogin, B. 1994 Adolescence in Evolutionary Perspective. Acta Pediatrica, Supplement 406:29-35.
20. 1995 Growth and Development: Recent Evolutionary and Biocultural Research. In Biological Anthropology: The State of the Science, N. Boaz and L. Wolfe, eds. Pp. 49-70. New York: Wiley-Liss.
21. Bonner, J. 1965 Size and Cycle. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
22. Borgerhoff Mulder, M. 1992 Reproductive Decisions. In Evolutionary Ecology and Human Behavior, E. Smith and B. Winterhalder, eds. Pp. 339-374. New York: Aldine de Gruyter.
23. Boswell, J. 1988 The Kindness of Strangers: The Abandonment of Children in Western Europe from Late Antiquity to the Renaissance. New York: Pantheon.
24. Bowlby, J. 1965 Child Care and the Growth of Love. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books.
25. 1969 Attachment. Attachment and Loss, Vol. 1. New York: Basic Books. (second edition published in 1982)
26. 1973 Separation: Anxiety and Anger. Attachment and Loss, Vol. 2. New York: Basic Books.
27. 1980 Loss: Sadness and Depression. Attachment and Loss, Vol. 3. New York: Basic Books.
28. Boyd, R., and P. Richerson 1985 Culture and the Evolutionary Process. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
29. Brazelton, T., B. Kozlowski, and M. Main 1974 The Origins of Reciprocity: The Early Mother-Infant Interaction. In The Effect of the Infant on Its Caregiver, M. Lewis and L. Rosenblum, eds. Pp. 49-76. New York: Wiley.
30. Brenner, M. 1973 Mental Illness and the Economy. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press.
31. Bretherton, I. 1985 Attachment Theory: Retrospect and Prospect. In Growing Points in Attachment Theory and Research, I. Bretherton and E. Waters, eds. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development (Serial No. 309), 50(1-2):3-35.
32. Bretherton, I., and M. Ainsworth 1974 Responses of One-year-olds to a Stranger in a Strange Situation. In The Origins of Fear, M. Lewis and L. Rosenblum, eds. Pp. 131-164. New York: Wiley.
33. Bretherton, I., and E. Waters, eds. 1985 Growing Points in Attachment Theory and Research. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development (Serial No. 309), 50(1-2).
34. Campos, J., K. Barrett, M. Lamb, H. Goldsmith, and C. Stenberg 1983 Socioemotional Development. In Infancy and Developmental Psychobiology, M. Haith and J. Campos, eds. Handbook of Child Psychology, Vol. 2, fourth ed. Pp. 783-915. New York: Wiley.
35. Caro, T., and P. Bateson 1986 Organization and Ontogeny of Alternative Tactics. Animal Behaviour 4:1482-1499.
36. Cassidy, J., and J. Berlin 1994 The Insecure-Ambivalent Pattern of Attachment: Theory and Research. Child Development 65:971-991.
37. Charnov, E. 1993 Life History Invariants. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
38. Charnov, E., and D. Berrigan 1993 Why Do Female Primates Have Such Long Lifespans and So Few Babies? or Life in the Slow Lane. Evolutionary Anthropology 2:191-194.
39. Chisholm, J. 1993 Death, Hope, and Sex: Life History Theory and the Development of Reproductive Strategies. Current Anthropology 34(1):1-24.
40. 1995a Love's Contingencies: The Developmental Socioecology of Romantic Passion. In Romantic Passion: A Universal Experience, W. Jankowiak, ed. New York: Columbia University Press.
41. 1995b Life History Theory and Life Style Choice: Implications for Darwinian Medicine. Perspectives in Human Biology 1:19-28.
42. Cohn, J., and E. Tronick 1983 Three-month-old Infants' Reactions to Simulated Depression. Child Development 54:185-193.
43. Cole, L. 1954 The Population Consequences of Life History Phenomena. Quarterly Review of Biology 29:103-137.
44. Conger, R., J. McCarty, R. Yang, et al. 1984 Perception of Child, Child-rearing Values, and Emotional Distress as Mediating Links between Environmental Stressors and Observed Maternal Behavior. Child Development 54:2234-2247.
45. Crockenberg, S. 1981 Infant Irritability, Mother Responsiveness, and Social Support Influences on the Security of Infant-Mother Attachment. Child Development 52:857-869.
46. DeRousseau, C. 1990 Life-history Thinking in Perspective. In Primate Life History and Evolution, C. DeRousseau, ed. Pp. 1-13. New York: Wiley-Liss.
47. Draper, P., and H. Harpending 1982 Father Absence and Reproductive Strategy: An Evolutionary Perspective. Journal of Anthropological Research 38:255-273.
48. Drotar, D. 1991 The Family Context of Nonorganic Failure to Thrive. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 61:23-34.
49. Duncan, G., J. Brooks-Gunn, and P. Klebanov 1994 Economic Deprivation and Early Childhood Development. Child Development 65:296-318.
50. Dunn, J. 1976 How Far Do Early Differences in Mother-Child Relations Affect Later Development? In Growing Points in Ethology, P. Bateson and R. Hinde, eds. Pp. 481-496. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
51. Edgerton, R. 1992 Sick Societies: Challenging the Myth of Primitive Harmony. New York: Free Press.
52. Egeland, D., D. Jacobvitz, and K. Papatola 1987 Intergenerational Continuity of Abuse. In Child Abuse and Neglect: Biosocial Dimensions, R. Gelles and J. Lancaster, eds. Pp. 255-276. New York: Aldine de Gruyter.
53. Ellison, P. 1990 Human Ovarian Function and Reproductive Ecology: New Hypotheses. American Anthropologist 92:933-952.
54. Emlen, S. 1985 Evolutionary Ecology and the Optimality Assumption. In The Latest on the Best: Essays on Evolution and Optimality, J. Dupré, ed. Pp. 163-177. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press.
55. Erickson, M., L. Sroufe, and B. Egeland 1985 The Relationship between Quality of Attachment and Behavior Problems in Preschool in a High-Risk Sample. In Growing Points of Attachment Theory and Research, I. Bretherton and E. Waters, eds. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development (Serial No. 309), 50(1-2):147-166.
56. Eveleth, P., and J. Tanner 1990 Worldwide Variation in Human Growth, second ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
57. Fagen, R. 1982 Evolutionary Issues in the Development of Behavioral Flexibility. In Ontogeny, P. Bateson and P. Klopfer, eds. Perspectives in Ethology, Vol. 5. Pp. 365-383. New York: Plenum.
58. 1993 Primate Juveniles and Primate Play. In Juvenile Primates: Life History, Development and Behavior, M. Pereira and L. Fairbanks, eds. Pp. 182-196. New York: Oxford University Press.
59. Foley, R. 1992 Evolutionary Ecology of Fossil Hominids. In Evolutionary Ecology and Human Behavior, E. Smith and B. Winterhalder, eds. Pp. 131-164. New York: Aldine de Gruyter.
60. Fox, R. 1989 The Search for Society: Quest for a Biosocial Science and Morality. New Brunswick, New Jersey: Rutgers University Press.
61. Freedman, D., and J. Gorman 1993 Attachment and the Transmission of Culture: An Evolutionary Perspective. Journal of Social and Evolutionary Systems 16(3):297-329.
62. Freud, S. 1940 An Outline of Psychoanalysis. New York: Norton.
63. Gadgil, M., and W. Bossert 1970 Life History Consequences of Natural Selection. American Naturalist 104:1-24.
64. Gardner, W. 1993 A Life-Span Rational-Choice Theory of Risk-taking. In Adolescent Risk-Taking, N. Bell and R. Bell, eds. Pp. 66-83. Newbury Park, California: Sage Publications.
65. Gillespie, J. 1977 Natural Selection for Variances in Offspring Numbers: A New Evolutionary Principle. American Naturalist 111:1010-1014.
66. Gomendio, M. 1991 Parent-Offspring Conflict and Maternal Investment in Rhesus Macaques. Animal Behavior 42:993-1005.
67. Goldsmith, H., and C. Harman 1994 Temperament and Attachment: Individuals and Relationships. Current Directions in Psychological Science 3:53-57.
68. Gottlieb, G. 1991 Experiential Canalization of Behavioral Development: Theory. Developmental Psychology 27:4-13.
69. Gould, S. J. 1991 Exaptation: A Crucial Tool for an Evolutionary Psychology. Journal of Social Issues 47(3):43-65.
70. Gould, S. J., and R. Lewontin 1979 The Spandrels of San Marcos and the Panglossian Paradigm: A Critique of the Adaptationist Program. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B, 205:581-598.
71. Graber, J., J. Brooks-Gunn, and M. Warren 1995 The Antecedents of Menarcheal Age: Heredity, Family Environment, and Stressful Life Events. Child Development 66:346-359.
72. Grafen, A. 1984 Natural Selection, Kin Selection, and Group Selection. In Behavioural Ecology: An Evolutionary Approach, second ed., J. Krebs and N. Davies, eds. Pp. 62-84. Sunderland, Massachusetts: Sinauer Associates.
73. Gunnar, M., S. Mangelsdorf, M. Larson, and L. Hertsgaard 1989 Attachment, Temperament, and Adrenocortical Activity in Infancy: A Study of Neuroendocrine Regulation. Developmental Psychology 25:355-363.
74. Hall, B. 1992 Evolutionary Developmental Biology. New York: Chapman and Hall.
75. Harlow, H. 1958 The Nature of Love. American Psychologist 13:673-685.
76. Harpending, H., P. Draper, and R. Pennington 1990 Culture, Evolution, Parental Care, and Mortality. In Disease in Populations in Transition, A. Swedland and G. Armelagos, eds. Pp. 251-265. South Hadley, Massachusetts: Bergin and Garvey.
77. Hausfater, G., and S. Hrdy, eds. 1984 Infanticide: Comparative and Evolutionary Perspectives. New York: Aldine de Gruyter.
78. Hazan, C., and P. Shaver 1987 Romantic Love Conceptualized as an Attachment Process. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 52:511-524.
79. Herman-Giddens, M., A. Sandler, and N. Friedman 1988 Sexual Precocity in Girls: An Association with Sexual Abuse? American Journal of Diseases of Children 142:431-433.
80. Hill, E., J. Young, and J. Nord 1994 Childhood Adversity, Attachment Security, and Adult Relationships: A Preliminary Study. Ethology and Sociobiology 15:323-338.
81. Hill, K. 1993 Life History Theory and Evolutionary Anthropology. Evolutionary Anthropology 2(3):78-88.
82. Hinde, R. 1961 The Establishment of the Parent-Offspring Relation in Birds, with Some Mammalian Analogies. In Current Problems in Animal Behaviour, W. H. Thorpe and O. L. Zangwill, eds. Pp. 175-193. London: Cambridge University Press.
83. 1982 Attachment: Some Conceptual and Biological Issues. In The Place of Attachment in Human Behavior, C. Parkes and J. Stevenson-Hinde, eds. Pp. 60-76. New York: Basic Books.
84. 1983 Ethology and Child Development. In Infancy and Developmental Psychobiology, M. Haith and J. Campos, eds. Pp. 27-94. Handbook of Child Psychology, Vol. II, P. Mussen, series ed. New York: Wiley.
85. 1987 Individuals, Relationships, and Culture: Links between Ethology and the Social Sciences. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
86. Hirschfield, M., and D. Tinkle 1975 Natural Selection and the Evolution of Reproductive Effort. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science 72:2227-2231.
87. Hrdy, S. 1977 Infanticide as a Primate Reproductive Strategy. American Scientist 65:40-49.
88. 1979 Infanticide among Animals: A Review, Classification, and Examination of the Implications for the Reproductive Strategies of Females. Ethology and Sociobiology 1:13-40.
89. 1992 Fitness Tradeoffs in the History and Evolution of Delegated Mothering with Special References to Wet-nursing, Abandonment and Infanticide. Ethology and Sociobiology 13:409-442.
90. Isabella, R., and J. Belsky 1991 Interactional Synchrony and the Origins of Infant-Mother Attachment: A Replication Study. Child Development 62:373-384.
91. Janson, J., and C. van Schaik 1993 Ecological Risk Aversion in Juvenile Primates: Slow and Steady Wins the Race. In Juvenile Primates: Life History, Development and Behavior, M. Pereira and L. Fairbanks, eds. Pp. 57-74. New York: Oxford University Press.
92. Johnston, T. 1982 Selective Costs and Benefits in the Evolution of Learning. In Advances in the Study of Behavior, Vol. 12, J. Rosenblatt, R. Hinde, C. Beer, and M.-C. Busnel, eds. Pp. 65-106. New York: Academic Press.
93. Jones, B., J. Leeton, I. McLeod, and C. Wood 1972 Factors Influencing the Age of Menarche in a Lower Socio-economic Group in Melbourne. Medical Journal of Australia 21:533-535.
94. Kagan, J. 1982 Psychological Research on the Human Infant: An Evaluative Summary. New York: W. T. Grant Foundation.
95. Kaplan, H. 1994 Evolutionary and Wealth Flows Theories of Fertility: Empirical Test and New Models. Population and Development Review 20(4):753-791.
96. Kleiman, D., and J. Malcolm 1981 The Evolution of Male Parental Investment in Mammals. In Parental Care in Mammals, D. Gubernick and P. Klopfer, eds. Pp. 347-387. New York: Plenum.
97. Lamb, M., R. Thompson, W. Gardner, and E. Charnov 1985 Infant-Mother Attachment: The Origins and Developmental Significance of Individual Differences in Strange Situation Behavior. Hillsdale, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum.
98. Lawrence, E. 1991 Poverty and the Rate of Time Preference: Evidence from Panel Data. Journal of Political Economy 99:54-77.
99. Lempers, J., D. Clark-Lempers, and R. Simons 1989 Economic Hardship, Parenting, and Distress in Adolescence. Child Development 60:25-49.
100. Levine, N. 1987 Differential Child Care in Three Tibetan Communities: Beyond Son Preference. Population and Development Review 13(2):281-304.
101. Levins, R. 1968 Evolution in Changing Environments. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
102. Liesen, L. 1995 Feminism and the Politics of Reproductive Strategies. Politics and the Life Sciences 14(2):145-162.
103. Lorenz, K. 1935 Der Kumpan in der Umwelt des Vogels [Companionship in Bird Life]. Journal of Ornithology 83:137-213. (English translation in C. H. Schiller, ed., Instinctive Behavior. New York: International Universities Press, 1957).
104. Lott, D. 1991 lntraspecific Variation in the Social Systems of Wild Vertebrates. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
105. Low, B. 1978 Environmental Uncertainty and the Parental Strategies of Marsupials and Placentals. American Naturalist 112:197-213.
106. Main, M. 1981 Avoidance in the Service of Attachment: A Working Paper. In Behavioral Development: The Bielefeld Interdisciplinary Project, K. Immelmann, G. Barlow, L. Petrinovich, and M. Main, eds. Pp. 651-693. New York: Cambridge University Press.
107. 1990 Cross-cultural Studies of Attachment Organization: Recent Studies, Changing Methodologies, and the Concept of Conditional Strategies. Human Development 33:48-61.
108. 1991 Metacognitive Knowledge, Metacognitive Monitoring, and Singular (coherent) vs. Multiple (incoherent) Models of Attachment. In Attachment across the Life Cycle, C. Parkes, J. Stevenson-Hinde, and P. Marris, eds. Pp. 127-159. New York: Tavistock/Routledge.
109. Main, M., N. Kaplan, and J. Cassidy 1985 Security in Infancy, Childhood, and Adulthood: A Move to the Level of Representation. In Growing Points in Attachment Theory and Research, I. Bretherton and E. Waters, eds. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development (Serial No. 309), 50(1-2):66-104.
110. Maital, S., and S. Maital 1977 Time Preference, Delay of Gratification and the Intergenerational Transmission of Economic Instability: A Behavioral Theory of Income Distribution. In Essays in Labor Market Analysis, O. Ashenfelter and W. Oates, eds. Pp. 179-199. New York: John Wiley and Sons.
111. Marris, P. 1991 The Social Construction of Uncertainty. In Attachment across the Life Cycle, C. Parkes, J. Stevenson-Hinde, and P. Marris, eds. Pp. 77-90. London: Routledge.
112. McLoyd, V. 1990 The Declining Fortunes of Black Children: Psychological Distress, Parenting, and Socioemotional Development in the Context of Economic Hardship. Child Development 61:311-346.
113. Miller, G., E. Galanter, and K. Pribram 1960 Plans and the Structure of Behavior. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
114. Moffitt, T., A. Caspi, and J. Belsky 1992 Childhood Experience and the Onset of Menarche: A Test of a Sociobiological Experience. Child Development 63:47-58.
115. Monckberg, F. 1992 Nutrition, Emotional Factors, and Growth. In Human Growth: Basic and Clinical Aspects, M. Hernandez and J. Argente, eds. Pp. 117-131. New York: Elsevier.
116. Nesse, R., and G. Williams 1995 Why We Get Sick: The New Science of Darwinian Medicine. New York: Times Books/Random House.
117. O'Rand, A., and R. Ellis 1974 Social Class and Social Time Preference. Social Forces 53:53-62.
118. Orzack, S., and E. Sober 1994 Optimality Models and the Test of Adaptationism. American Naturalist 143:361-380.
119. Oyama, S. 1985 The Ontogeny of Information. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
120. 1994 Rethinking Development. In Psychological Anthropology, P. Bock, ed. Pp. 185-196. Westport, Connecticut: Praeger.
121. Parker, G., and J. Maynard Smith 1990 Optimality Theory in Evolutionary Biology. Nature 348:27-33.
122. Peacock, N. 1990 Comparative and Cross-cultural Approaches to the Study of Human Reproductive Failure. In Primate Life History and Evolution, C. DeRousseau, ed. Pp. 195-220. New York: Wiley-Liss.
123. 1991 An Evolutionary Perspective on the Patterning of Maternal Investment in Pregnancy. Human Nature 2(4):351-385.
124. Pennington, R., and H. Harpending 1988 Fitness and Fertility among the Kalahari !Kung. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 7:303-319.
125. Promislow, D., and P. Harvey 1990 Living Fast and Dying Young: A Comparative Analysis of Life-history Variation in Mammals. Journal of the Zoological Society of London 220:417-437.
126. 1991 Mortality Rates and the Evolution of Mammal Life Histories. Acta Oecologica 12:94-101.
127. Radke-Yarrow, M. 1991 Attachment Patterns in Children of Depressed Mothers. In Attachment across the Lifespan, C. Parkes, J. Stevenson-Hinde, and P. Marris, eds. Pp. 115-126. New York: Tavistock/Routledge.
128. Ricks, M. 1985 The Social Transmission of Parental Behavior: Attachment across Generations. In Growing Points in Attachment Theory and Research, I. Bretherton and E. Waters, eds. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development (Serial No. 309), 50(1-2):211-227.
129. Roff, D. 1992 The Evolution of Life Histories: Theory and Analysis. New York: Chapman and Hall.
130. Rogers, A. 1990 The Evolutionary Economics of Reproduction. Ethology and Sociobiology 11:479-495.
131. 1994 Evolution of Time Preference by Natural Selection. American Economic Review 84:460-481.
132. Rosenblum, L., and M. Andrews 1994 Influences of Environmental Demand on Maternal and Infant Development. Acta Pediatrica, Supplement, 397:57-63.
133. Rosenblum, L., J. Caplan, S. Freedman, T. Bassoff, et al. 1994 Adverse Early Experiences Affect Noradrenergic and Serotonergic Functioning in Adult Primates. Biological Psychiatry 35(4):221-227.
134. Rubenstein, D. 1982 Risk, Uncertainty, and Evolutionary Strategies. In Current Problems in Sociobiology, King's College Sociobiology Study Group, eds. Pp. 91-111. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
135. 1993 On the Evolution of Juvenile Lifestyles in Mammals. In Juvenile Primates: Life History, Development and Behavior, M. Pereira and L. Fairbanks, eds. Pp. 38-56. New York: Oxford University Press.
136. Ruddick, S. 1989 Maternal Thinking: Toward a Politics of Peace. New York: Ballantine Books.
137. Sampson, R., and J. Laub 1994 Urban Poverty and the Family Context of Delinquency: A New Look at Structure and Process in a Classic Study. Child Development 65:523-540.
138. Schaffer, W. 1983 The Application of Optimal Control Theory to the General Life History Problem. American Naturalist 121:418-431.
139. Scheper-Hughes, N. 1992 Death without Weeping: The Violence of Everyday Life in Brazil. Berkeley: University of California Press.
140. Seger, J., and J. Brockmann 1987 What is Bet-hedging? In Oxford Survey in Evolutionary Biology, Vol. 4, P. Harvey and L. Partridge, eds. Pp. 182-211. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
141. Shaver, P., and C. Hazan 1993 Adult Romantic Attachment. In Advances in Personal Relationships, Vol. 4, D. Perlman and W. Jones, eds. Pp. 29-70. Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.
142. Smith, E. 1991 The Influence of Nutrition and Postpartum Mating on Weaning and Subsequent Play Behaviour of Hooded Rats. Animal Behaviour 41:513-524.
143. Smith, E., and B. Winterhalder 1992 Natural Selection and Decision-making: Some Fundamental Principles. In Evolutionary Ecology and Human Behavior, E. Smith and B. Winterhalder, eds. Pp. 25-60. New York: Aldine de Gruyter.
144. Smuts, B. 1992 Male Aggression against Women: An Evolutionary Perspective. Human Nature 3(1):1-44.
145. 1995 The Evolutionary Origins of Patriarchy. Human Nature 6(1):1-32.
146. Spitz, R. 1945 Hospitalism: An Inquiry into the Genesis of Psychiatric Conditions in Early Childhood. Psychoanalytic Study of the Child 1:53-74.
147. Sroufe, L. 1988 The Role of Infant-Caregiver Attachment in Development. In Clinical Implications of Attachment, J. Belsky and T. Nezworski, eds. Pp. 18-38. Hillsdale, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum.
148. Sroufe, L., and E. Waters 1977 Attachment as an Organizational Construct. Child Development 48:1184-1199.
149. Stamps, J. 1991 Why Evolutionary Issues Are Revising Interest in Proximate Behavioral Mechanisms. American Zoologist 31:339-348.
150. Stearns, S. 1982 The Role of Development in the Evolution of Life Histories. In Evolution and Development, J. Bonner, ed. Pp. 237-258. Dahlem Konferenzen. New York: Springer-Verlag.
151. 1992 The Evolution of Life Histories. New York: Oxford University Press.
152. Suomi, S. 1991 Primate Models of Affective Disorders. In Neurobiology of Learning, Emotion, and Affect, J. Madden, ed. Pp. 195-214. New York: Raven Press.
153. Surbey, M. 1990 Family Composition, Stress, and Human Menarche. In The Socioendocrinology of Primate Reproduction, F. Bercovich and T. Zeigler, eds. Pp. 11-32. New York: Liss.
154. Tauber, A. 1994 Darwinian Aftershocks: Repercussions in Late Twentieth Century Medicine. Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine 87:27-31.
155. Tinbergen, N. 1963 On the Aims and Methods of Ethology. Zeitschrift f̈ur Tierpsychologie 20:410-433.
156. Trickett, P., and F. Putnam 1993 The Impact of Child Sexual Abuse on Females: Toward a Developmental Psychobiological Integration. Psychological Science 4(2):81-87.
157. Trivers, R. 1972 Parental Investment and Sexual Selection. In Sexual Selection and the Descent of Man, B. Campbell, ed. Pp. 136-179. New York: Aldine de Gruyter.
158. 1974 Parent-Offspring Conflict. American Zoologist 24:249-264.
159. Tronick, E., G. Morelli, and S. Winn 1987 Multiple Caretaking of Efe (Pygmy) Infants. American Anthropologist 89:96-106.
160. van Schaik, C., and R. Dunbar 1990 The Evolution of Monogamy in Large Primates: A New Hypothesis and Some Crucial Tests. Behaviour 115:31-62.
161. Valenzuela, M. 1990 Attachment in Chronically Underweight Young Children. Child Development 61:1984-1996.
162. Vaughn, B., and E. Waters 1990 Attachment Behavior at Home and in the Laboratory: Q-sort Observations and Strange Situation Classifications of One-year-olds. Child Development 61:1965-1973.
163. Vila, B. 1994 A General Paradigm for Understanding Criminal Behavior: Extending Evolutionary Ecological Theory. Criminology 32(3):311-359.
164. Vitzthum, V. 1994 Resolution of a Paradox: The Evolution of a Flexibly Responsive Reproductive System. Human Biology, in press.
165. Wachs, T., and S. Desai 1993 Parent-report Measures of Toddler Temperament and Attachment: Their Relation to Each Other and to the Social Microenvironment. Infant Behavior and Development 16(3):391-396.
166. Waters, E., and K. Deane 1985 Defining and Assessing Individual Differences in Attachment Relationships: Q-methodology and the Organization of Behavior in Infancy and Early Childhood. In Growing Points in Attachment Theory and Research, I. Bretherton and E. Waters, eds. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development (Serial No. 309), 50(1-2):41-65.
167. Wellens, R., R. Malina, A. Roche, W. Chumlea, S. Guo, and R. Siervogel 1992 Body Size and Fatness in Young Adults in Relation to Age at Menarche. American Journal of Human Biology 4:783-787.
168. Wiley, A. 1992 Adaptation and the Biocultural Paradigm in Medical Anthropology: A Critical Review. Medical Anthropology Quarterly 6:216-236.
169. Wiley, A., and L. Carlin 1994 Biological Bases and Environmental Contingencies: Biocultural Perspectives on Mother-Infant Attachment. Paper presented at the 93rd annual meeting of the American Anthropological Association, December 4, Atlanta.
170. Williams, G. 1957 Pleiotropy, Natural Selection, and the Evolution of Senescence. Evolution 11:398-411.
171. 1966 Adaptation and Natural Selection. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
172. Wolkind, S., and M. Rutter 1985 Separation, Loss, and Family Relationships. In Child and Adolescent Psychiatry: Modern Approaches, M. Rutter and L. Hersov, eds. Pp. 34-57. Palo Alto: Blackwell Scientific.
173. Worthman, C. 1993 The Company They Keep: Sex Differences in Maturational Timing. Paper presented at the session on "Evolution Medicine: New Directions and Perspectives." Annual Meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, February 15, Boston.
174. 1994 Developmental Microniche: A Concept for Modelling Relationships of Biology, Behavior, and Culture in Development. Paper presented at the session on "Human Growth and Development: Modelling Relationships of Biology and Context." Annual meeting of the American Association of Physical Anthropologists, March 31-April 2, Denver.
175. Wyatt, G. 1990 Changing Influences on Adolescent Sexuality over the Past Forty Years. In Adolescence and Puberty, J. Bancroft and J. Reinisch, eds. Pp. 182-206. Kinsey Institute Series 3. New York: Oxford University Press.
176. Yarrow, L. 1967 The Development of Focused Relationships during Infancy. In Exceptional Infant, Vol. 1, J. Hellmuth, ed. Pp. 227-242. Seattle: Special Child.