From forest to farm and back again: Land use history as a dimension of ecological research in coastal maine

Environmental History

Volumn 1, Issue 3, 1996, Pages

  Moore, Elizabeth H ^a   Witham, Jack W ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ECOLOGICAL RESEARCH; ECOSYSTEM CHANGE; ENVIRONMENTAL HISTORY; LAND USE HISTORY; MAN-ENVIRONMENT RELATIONS; RESEARCH ROLE;

USA, MAINE, KENNEBEC RIVER;

EID: 0030435753     PISSN: 10845453     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article

References (49)

1. Dates of aboriginal presence in the area come from Emerson W. Baker, The Clarke & Lake Company: The Historical Archaeology of a Seventeenth-Century Maine Settlement. Occasional Publications in Maine Archaeology, no. 4 (Augusta: Maine Historic Preservation Commission, 1985), 20, 17.
2. For an example of how a farmer's daily diary recording land use decisions is linked to larger patterns, see David Smith, "Maine's Changing Landscape to 1820," in Charles E. Clark, James S. Leamon and Karen Bowden, eds., Maine in the Early Republic (Hanover, N.H.: University Press of New England, 1988), 13-25. More broadly, John R. Stilgoe, Common Landscape of America, 1580 to 1845 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1982). examines the ecological effects of historical land uses on the developing American landscape. Examples of land use histories incorporated into ecological studies include Craig G. Lorimer, "The Presettlement Forest and Natural Disturbance Cycle of Northeastern Maine," Ecology 58 (Winter, 1977): 139-48; C. C. Whitney, "The History and Status of the Hemlock-Hardwood Forests of the Allegheny Plateau," Journal of Ecology 78 (June 1990): 443-58; and C. G. Whitney, From Coastal Wilderness to Fruited Plain: A History of Environmental Change in Temperate North America, 1500 to the Present (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1994)
3. For an example of how a farmer's daily diary recording land use decisions is linked to larger patterns, see David Smith, "Maine's Changing Landscape to 1820," in Charles E. Clark, James S. Leamon and Karen Bowden, eds., Maine in the Early Republic (Hanover, N.H.: University Press of New England, 1988), 13-25. More broadly, John R. Stilgoe, Common Landscape of America, 1580 to 1845 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1982). examines the ecological effects of historical land uses on the developing American landscape. Examples of land use histories incorporated into ecological studies include Craig G. Lorimer, "The Presettlement Forest and Natural Disturbance Cycle of Northeastern Maine," Ecology 58 (Winter, 1977): 139-48; C. C. Whitney, "The History and Status of the Hemlock-Hardwood Forests of the Allegheny Plateau," Journal of Ecology 78 (June 1990): 443-58; and C. G. Whitney, From Coastal Wilderness to Fruited Plain: A History of Environmental Change in Temperate North America, 1500 to the Present (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1994)
4. For an example of how a farmer's daily diary recording land use decisions is linked to larger patterns, see David Smith, "Maine's Changing Landscape to 1820," in Charles E. Clark, James S. Leamon and Karen Bowden, eds., Maine in the Early Republic (Hanover, N.H.: University Press of New England, 1988), 13-25. More broadly, John R. Stilgoe, Common Landscape of America, 1580 to 1845 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1982). examines the ecological effects of historical land uses on the developing American landscape. Examples of land use histories incorporated into ecological studies include Craig G. Lorimer, "The Presettlement Forest and Natural Disturbance Cycle of Northeastern Maine," Ecology 58 (Winter, 1977): 139-48; C. C. Whitney, "The History and Status of the Hemlock-Hardwood Forests of the Allegheny Plateau," Journal of Ecology 78 (June 1990): 443-58; and C. G. Whitney, From Coastal Wilderness to Fruited Plain: A History of Environmental Change in Temperate North America, 1500 to the Present (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1994)
5. For an example of how a farmer's daily diary recording land use decisions is linked to larger patterns, see David Smith, "Maine's Changing Landscape to 1820," in Charles E. Clark, James S. Leamon and Karen Bowden, eds., Maine in the Early Republic (Hanover, N.H.: University Press of New England, 1988), 13-25. More broadly, John R. Stilgoe, Common Landscape of America, 1580 to 1845 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1982). examines the ecological effects of historical land uses on the developing American landscape. Examples of land use histories incorporated into ecological studies include Craig G. Lorimer, "The Presettlement Forest and Natural Disturbance Cycle of Northeastern Maine," Ecology 58 (Winter, 1977): 139-48; C. C. Whitney, "The History and Status of the Hemlock-Hardwood Forests of the Allegheny Plateau," Journal of Ecology 78 (June 1990): 443-58; and C. G. Whitney, From Coastal Wilderness to Fruited Plain: A History of Environmental Change in Temperate North America, 1500 to the Present (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1994)
6. For an example of how a farmer's daily diary recording land use decisions is linked to larger patterns, see David Smith, "Maine's Changing Landscape to 1820," in Charles E. Clark, James S. Leamon and Karen Bowden, eds., Maine in the Early Republic (Hanover, N.H.: University Press of New England, 1988), 13-25. More broadly, John R. Stilgoe, Common Landscape of America, 1580 to 1845 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1982). examines the ecological effects of historical land uses on the developing American landscape. Examples of land use histories incorporated into ecological studies include Craig G. Lorimer, "The Presettlement Forest and Natural Disturbance Cycle of Northeastern Maine," Ecology 58 (Winter, 1977): 139-48; C. C. Whitney, "The History and Status of the Hemlock-Hardwood Forests of the Allegheny Plateau," Journal of Ecology 78 (June 1990): 443-58; and C. G. Whitney, From Coastal Wilderness to Fruited Plain: A History of Environmental Change in Temperate North America, 1500 to the Present (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1994)
7. Hugh M. Raup, "The View from John Sanderson's Farm: A Perspective for the Use of the Land," Forest History 10 (April 1966): 2-11.
8. Norman L. Christensen, "Landscape History and Ecological Change," Journal of Forest History 33 (July 1989): 116-24.
9. Both William Cronon's and Frank B. Golley's responses are found in Christensen. "Landscape History," 125.
10. Northern Forest Lands Council, Finding Common Ground: Conserving the Northern Forest The Recommendations of the Northern Forest Lands Council (Concord, N.H.: The Council, September 1994); Christensen, "Landscape History," 117.
11. Northern Forest Lands Council, Finding Common Ground: Conserving the Northern Forest The Recommendations of the Northern Forest Lands Council (Concord, N.H.: The Council, September 1994); Christensen, "Landscape History," 117.
12. Recently, David R. Foster drew upon the Harvard Forest's historical records to address the reciprocal relationships between human history and ecosystem dynamics. See David R. Foster, "Land-Use History (1730-1990) and Vegetation Dynamics in Central New England, USA," Journal of Ecology 80 (December 1992): 755-72; and David R. Foster, T. M. Zebryk, P. Schoonmaker, and A. Lezberg, "Post-Settlement History of Human Land-Use and Vegetation Dynamics of a Tsuga canadensis (Hemlock) Woodlot in Central New England," Journal of Ecology 80 (December 1992): 773-86.
13. Recently, David R. Foster drew upon the Harvard Forest's historical records to address the reciprocal relationships between human history and ecosystem dynamics. See David R. Foster, "Land-Use History (1730-1990) and Vegetation Dynamics in Central New England, USA," Journal of Ecology 80 (December 1992): 755-72; and David R. Foster, T. M. Zebryk, P. Schoonmaker, and A. Lezberg, "Post-Settlement History of Human Land-Use and Vegetation Dynamics of a Tsuga canadensis (Hemlock) Woodlot in Central New England," Journal of Ecology 80 (December 1992): 773-86.
14. Information about trees on the Holt Research Forest is from Alan J. Kimball, J. W. Witham, J. L. Rudnicky, A. S. White, and M. L. Hunter, Jr., "Harvest-created and natural canopy gaps in an oak-pine forest in Maine," Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club 122 (April 1995): 115-23. Information on other plants comes from unpublished relevé data compiled by the forest staff. Scientific names of the species listed are: eastern white pine (Pinus strobus), red maple (Acer rubrum), northern red oak (Quercus rubra), red spruce (Picea rubens), eastern hemlock (Taiga canadensis), blueberries (Vaccinium spp.), huckleberry (Gaylussacia baccata), juniper (Juniperus communis), viburnum (Viburnum spp.), sweet vernal grass (Anthoxanthum odoratum), timothy (Phleum pratense), barberry (Berberis vulgaris), the apple tree (Pyrus malus), hawkweeds (Hieracium spp.), Saint-John's-wort (Hypericum perforatum), evening primrose (Oenethera biennis), and yarrow (Achillea millefolium).
15. The relevé method was originally described in Dietter Mueller-Dombois and H. Ellenburg, Aims and Methods of Vegetation Ecology (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1974), 45-64. A modified version of the relevé method was used at the Holt Research Forest to make visual estimates of the relative abundance of all vascular plant species in five different height layers in each of the 640 subquadrants (25 × 25 meters) in the 40-hectare study area. The relative abundance was assessed using one of the following coverage codes - o: None present; 1: Rare; 3: Occasional; 4: Common; 5: 5-25 percent; 6: 25-50 percent, 7: 50-75 percent, 8: 75-100 percent. The details of the methodology are given in Jack W. Witham et al., A Long-Term Study of an Oak-Pine Forest Ecosystem: Techniques Manual for the Holt Research Forest, Maine Agricultural Experiment Station Technical Bulletin 153 (Orono: University of Maine Press, 1993), 90-95.
16. The relevé method was originally described in Dietter Mueller-Dombois and H. Ellenburg, Aims and Methods of Vegetation Ecology (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1974), 45-64. A modified version of the relevé method was used at the Holt Research Forest to make visual estimates of the relative abundance of all vascular plant species in five different height layers in each of the 640 subquadrants (25 × 25 meters) in the 40-hectare study area. The relative abundance was assessed using one of the following coverage codes - o: None present; 1: Rare; 3: Occasional; 4: Common; 5: 5-25 percent; 6: 25-50 percent, 7: 50-75 percent, 8: 75-100 percent. The details of the methodology are given in Jack W. Witham et al., A Long-Term Study of an Oak-Pine Forest Ecosystem: Techniques Manual for the Holt Research Forest, Maine Agricultural Experiment Station Technical Bulletin 153 (Orono: University of Maine Press, 1993), 90-95.
17. Prehistoric artifacts from the Clarke & Lake site may date to 10,000 years B.P. (Before Present). Periods of heavy use date from 3700-3000 B.P. and 2200-700 B.P.; Baker, The Clarke & Lake Company, 20; shell midden information from Arthur Spiess, Maine State Archaeologist, personal communication with Elizabeth Moore, January 1995 [records of all personal communications cited in this article are in the possession of the authors]. The term "Abenaki" refers to a subgroup of the aboriginal people living on the Maine-Maritimes peninsula, but also is used as an umbrella term covering all of the people in the region. This article uses Abenaki in the broader sense. See Arthur E. Spiess, "Early Contact Period Context," The Maine Archaeological Society Bulletin 34, no. 2 (1095): 1-20, for an overview of the aboriginal ethnic cultures in coastal Maine, 1500-1676. The Champlain visit is covered in Charles B. McLane, Islands of the Mid-Maine Coast, vol. 4: Pemaquid Point to the Kennebec River (Gardiner, Me.: Tilbury House, 1994), 4; and Clarence A. Day, A History of Maine Agriculture, 1604-1860, University of Maine Studies, Second series, No. 68 (Orono: University of Maine Press, 1954), 18-19. William Cronon, Changes in the Land: Indians, Colonists, and the Ecology of New England (New York: Hill and Wang, 1983), 38.
18. Prehistoric artifacts from the Clarke & Lake site may date to 10,000 years B.P. (Before Present). Periods of heavy use date from 3700-3000 B.P. and 2200-700 B.P.; Baker, The Clarke & Lake Company, 20; shell midden information from Arthur Spiess, Maine State Archaeologist, personal communication with Elizabeth Moore, January 1995 [records of all personal communications cited in this article are in the possession of the authors]. The term "Abenaki" refers to a subgroup of the aboriginal people living on the Maine-Maritimes peninsula, but also is used as an umbrella term covering all of the people in the region. This article uses Abenaki in the broader sense. See Arthur E. Spiess, "Early Contact Period Context," The Maine Archaeological Society Bulletin 34, no. 2 (1095): 1-20, for an overview of the aboriginal ethnic cultures in coastal Maine, 1500-1676. The Champlain visit is covered in Charles B. McLane, Islands of the Mid-Maine Coast, vol. 4: Pemaquid Point to the Kennebec River (Gardiner, Me.: Tilbury House, 1994), 4; and Clarence A. Day, A History of Maine Agriculture, 1604-1860, University of Maine Studies, Second series, No. 68 (Orono: University of Maine Press, 1954), 18-19. William Cronon, Changes in the Land: Indians, Colonists, and the Ecology of New England (New York: Hill and Wang, 1983), 38.
19. Prehistoric artifacts from the Clarke & Lake site may date to 10,000 years B.P. (Before Present). Periods of heavy use date from 3700-3000 B.P. and 2200-700 B.P.; Baker, The Clarke & Lake Company, 20; shell midden information from Arthur Spiess, Maine State Archaeologist, personal communication with Elizabeth Moore, January 1995 [records of all personal communications cited in this article are in the possession of the authors]. The term "Abenaki" refers to a subgroup of the aboriginal people living on the Maine-Maritimes peninsula, but also is used as an umbrella term covering all of the people in the region. This article uses Abenaki in the broader sense. See Arthur E. Spiess, "Early Contact Period Context," The Maine Archaeological Society Bulletin 34, no. 2 (1095): 1-20, for an overview of the aboriginal ethnic cultures in coastal Maine, 1500-1676. The Champlain visit is covered in Charles B. McLane, Islands of the Mid-Maine Coast, vol. 4: Pemaquid Point to the Kennebec River (Gardiner, Me.: Tilbury House, 1994), 4; and Clarence A. Day, A History of Maine Agriculture, 1604-1860, University of Maine Studies, Second series, No. 68 (Orono: University of Maine Press, 1954), 18-19. William Cronon, Changes in the Land: Indians, Colonists, and the Ecology of New England (New York: Hill and Wang, 1983), 38.
20. Prehistoric artifacts from the Clarke & Lake site may date to 10,000 years B.P. (Before Present). Periods of heavy use date from 3700-3000 B.P. and 2200-700 B.P.; Baker, The Clarke & Lake Company, 20; shell midden information from Arthur Spiess, Maine State Archaeologist, personal communication with Elizabeth Moore, January 1995 [records of all personal communications cited in this article are in the possession of the authors]. The term "Abenaki" refers to a subgroup of the aboriginal people living on the Maine-Maritimes peninsula, but also is used as an umbrella term covering all of the people in the region. This article uses Abenaki in the broader sense. See Arthur E. Spiess, "Early Contact Period Context," The Maine Archaeological Society Bulletin 34, no. 2 (1095): 1-20, for an overview of the aboriginal ethnic cultures in coastal Maine, 1500-1676. The Champlain visit is covered in Charles B. McLane, Islands of the Mid-Maine Coast, vol. 4: Pemaquid Point to the Kennebec River (Gardiner, Me.: Tilbury House, 1994), 4; and Clarence A. Day, A History of Maine Agriculture, 1604-1860, University of Maine Studies, Second series, No. 68 (Orono: University of Maine Press, 1954), 18-19. William Cronon, Changes in the Land: Indians, Colonists, and the Ecology of New England (New York: Hill and Wang, 1983), 38.
21. Parker McCobb Reed, History of the Lower Kennebec: 1602-1889 (Bath, Me.: Sentinel and Times Print, 1889), 23.
22. The pollen studies are in Douglas C. Kellogg, "Prehistoric landscapes, paleoenvironments, and archaeology of western Muscongus Bay, Maine." Ph.D. diss., University of Maine, Orono, 1991. See Cronon, Changes in the Land, ch. 3, "Seasons of Want and Plenty," for a discussion of the northern New England native people's migratory food gathering practices and southern New England native people's agricultural practices.
23. The pollen studies are in Douglas C. Kellogg, "Prehistoric landscapes, paleoenvironments, and archaeology of western Muscongus Bay, Maine." Ph.D. diss., University of Maine, Orono, 1991. See Cronon, Changes in the Land, ch. 3, "Seasons of Want and Plenty," for a discussion of the northern New England native people's migratory food gathering practices and southern New England native people's agricultural practices.
24. For a discussion of the aboriginal practice of understory burning, see Cronon, Changes in the Land, 48-50.
25. Carolyn F. Todd, "Georgetown: A Brief Historical Perspective," in Georgetown, Maine, Comprehensive Plan, 1993 (Georgetown, Me.: Town of Georgetown, 1993), 1-4. There is some confusion about the date Parker was on Arrowsic. McLane, in Islands of the Mid-Maine Coast, vol. 4, 6, places Parker on Arrowsic in 1650. According to Mildred Stafford, Arrowsic town historian, there were two men named John Parker in this area at the same time. Baker, The Clarke & Lake Company, 10, also has a description of this early history including the transaction with Robinhood. See also Leon E. Cranmer, Cushnoc: The History and Archaeology of Plymouth Traders on the Kennebec, Occasional Publications in Maine Archaeology, no. 7 (Augusta: Maine Historic Preservation Commission, 1990), 30.
26. Carolyn F. Todd, "Georgetown: A Brief Historical Perspective," in Georgetown, Maine, Comprehensive Plan, 1993 (Georgetown, Me.: Town of Georgetown, 1993), 1-4. There is some confusion about the date Parker was on Arrowsic. McLane, in Islands of the Mid-Maine Coast, vol. 4, 6, places Parker on Arrowsic in 1650. According to Mildred Stafford, Arrowsic town historian, there were two men named John Parker in this area at the same time. Baker, The Clarke & Lake Company, 10, also has a description of this early history including the transaction with Robinhood. See also Leon E. Cranmer, Cushnoc: The History and Archaeology of Plymouth Traders on the Kennebec, Occasional Publications in Maine Archaeology, no. 7 (Augusta: Maine Historic Preservation Commission, 1990), 30.
27. Carolyn F. Todd, "Georgetown: A Brief Historical Perspective," in Georgetown, Maine, Comprehensive Plan, 1993 (Georgetown, Me.: Town of Georgetown, 1993), 1-4. There is some confusion about the date Parker was on Arrowsic. McLane, in Islands of the Mid-Maine Coast, vol. 4, 6, places Parker on Arrowsic in 1650. According to Mildred Stafford, Arrowsic town historian, there were two men named John Parker in this area at the same time. Baker, The Clarke & Lake Company, 10, also has a description of this early history including the transaction with Robinhood. See also Leon E. Cranmer, Cushnoc: The History and Archaeology of Plymouth Traders on the Kennebec, Occasional Publications in Maine Archaeology, no. 7 (Augusta: Maine Historic Preservation Commission, 1990), 30.
28. Carolyn F. Todd, "Georgetown: A Brief Historical Perspective," in Georgetown, Maine, Comprehensive Plan, 1993 (Georgetown, Me.: Town of Georgetown, 1993), 1-4. There is some confusion about the date Parker was on Arrowsic. McLane, in Islands of the Mid-Maine Coast, vol. 4, 6, places Parker on Arrowsic in 1650. According to Mildred Stafford, Arrowsic town historian, there were two men named John Parker in this area at the same time. Baker, The Clarke & Lake Company, 10, also has a description of this early history including the transaction with Robinhood. See also Leon E. Cranmer, Cushnoc: The History and Archaeology of Plymouth Traders on the Kennebec, Occasional Publications in Maine Archaeology, no. 7 (Augusta: Maine Historic Preservation Commission, 1990), 30.
29. The portrayal of the typical Arrowsic farm of the mid-1600s is drawn from Day, A History of Maine Agriculture, in which he quotes John Josselyn (p. 14) and offers his own perspective (p. 51). Free roaming animals were common; their impacts are conjecture by the authors.
30. All the information about the Clarke & Lake settlement is from Baker, The Clarke 6 Lake Company, 3-16, 61-63.
31. Climate information from David C. Smith, personal communication to Moore, May 1995; export theory from Emerson Baker, personal communication to Moore, May 1995; pasture requirements for large animals from David C. Smith and Richard Hale, personal communication to Moore, April and May 1995. See Baker. The Clarke & like Company, 12, for a discussion of clearing on Arrowsic Island at this time.
32. Climate information from David C. Smith, personal communication to Moore, May 1995; export theory from Emerson Baker, personal communication to Moore, May 1995; pasture requirements for large animals from David C. Smith and Richard Hale, personal communication to Moore, April and May 1995. See Baker. The Clarke & like Company, 12, for a discussion of clearing on Arrowsic Island at this time.
33. Climate information from David C. Smith, personal communication to Moore, May 1995; export theory from Emerson Baker, personal communication to Moore, May 1995; pasture requirements for large animals from David C. Smith and Richard Hale, personal communication to Moore, April and May 1995. See Baker. The Clarke & like Company, 12, for a discussion of clearing on Arrowsic Island at this time.
34. Climate information from David C. Smith, personal communication to Moore, May 1995; export theory from Emerson Baker, personal communication to Moore, May 1995; pasture requirements for large animals from David C. Smith and Richard Hale, personal communication to Moore, April and May 1995. See Baker. The Clarke & like Company, 12, for a discussion of clearing on Arrowsic Island at this time.
35. McLane, Islands of the Mid-Maine Coast, vol. 4, 17, 19, 219, states that the last serious Abenaki attack "nearly eliminated" the settlement
36. Mildred Stafford. Arrowsic town historian, personal communication to Moore, March 1994; Stafford also provided information on farm locations, family histories, and cemetery records for this stud), plus a cop) of Joseph Heath's 1720 survey map Information from deeds in Register of Deeds offices, York County Courthouse, Alfred, Me., and Lincoln County Courthouse, Wiscasset, Me.
37. Patterns of chancing land use during this and succeeding periods emerge from dates and locations of property transfers across the island, recorded in deeds at the Register of Deeds office, York County Courthouse, Alfred, Me.
38. Specific agricultural data presented in this article was derived from two sources: U.S. Census Bureau, Censuses of Agriculture, original ledger reports of production by farm in each town, microfilm on roll 1. vol. 30 (1850), roll 5, vol. 136 (1860), roll 9, vol. 145 (1870), and roll 15, vol. 156 (1880), in Maine State Archives, Augusta; and Town of Arrowsic, tax records, 1875-1941. Arrowsic, Me., Town Hall.
39. Information on tanning process from Richard Hale, personal communication to Moore. April 1995.
40. These acreage calculations are estimates, based on the following: Crops: Stephen L. Goodale, secretary of the Maine Board of Agriculture in 1860, estimated the state's average production rate in bushels per acre as follows: Indian corn, 30-35 bu.; wheat, 10-12 bu.; oats, 30-35 bu.; barley, 20-30 bu.; rye, 10-20 bu.; potatoes, 150-200 bu. Cited in Day, A History of Maine Agriculture, 278. Hay: Day, A History of Maine Agriculture, 278, suggests the average form in 1860 took 22 acres to produce its average 17 tons of hay, or about .77 tons per acre. Pasture: Two acres is the standard of pasture required for each horse, cow, or other large animal, or for every five sheep ( Richard Hale, personal communication to Moore, April 1995) The effect of salt hay on these hay and pasture requirement is unclear, illustrating the inexact nature of these estimates.
41. These acreage calculations are estimates, based on the following: Crops: Stephen L. Goodale, secretary of the Maine Board of Agriculture in 1860, estimated the state's average production rate in bushels per acre as follows: Indian corn, 30-35 bu.; wheat, 10-12 bu.; oats, 30-35 bu.; barley, 20-30 bu.; rye, 10-20 bu.; potatoes, 150-200 bu. Cited in Day, A History of Maine Agriculture, 278. Hay: Day, A History of Maine Agriculture, 278, suggests the average form in 1860 took 22 acres to produce its average 17 tons of hay, or about .77 tons per acre. Pasture: Two acres is the standard of pasture required for each horse, cow, or other large animal, or for every five sheep ( Richard Hale, personal communication to Moore, April 1995) The effect of salt hay on these hay and pasture requirement is unclear, illustrating the inexact nature of these estimates.
42. For a discussion of this period of farm abandonment, see David C. Smith, W. R. Baron, A. E. Bridges, J. TeBrake, and H. W. Borns, Jr., "Climate Fluctuation and Agricultural Change in Southern And Central New England, 1765-1880," Maine Historical Society Quarterly 21 (Spring 1982): 179-200.
43. Farm data from Town of Arrowsic tax records. Twenty-four sheep are noted in the 1929 tax records for the Shea farm; their absence in the records in subsequent years may reflect their absence from the farm, or could be due to a change in what was taxed.
44. For a look at post-World War II brining patterns in Maine, see Richard Wescott and D. Vail, "The Transformation of Farming in Maine, 1940-1985," Maine Historical Society Quarterly 28 (Fall 1988): 66-84.
45. Cronon stated: 'Only by including history within the domain of ecological analysis (and ecology within the domain of historical analysis) will we move our fields forward." Cronon response in Christensen, "Landscape History," 125. Smith wrote: "A comprehensive study of the reciprocal impact of environment and human activity. . .should provide a better understanding of the History of land-use," Smith, "Maine's Changing Landscape to 1820," 13-14. Golley concludes "Thus the history of the environment, from the perspective of the plant ecologist, the human ecologist, the environmental historian, or the forest historian is not only intrinsically interesting in itself but also is of practical value to the forester and land manager." Golley response in Christensen, "Landscape History," 125.
46. Three examples of papers exploring the relationships between forests and land use history are: Glenn Matlack, "Plant Species Migration in a Mixed-History Forest Landscape in Eastern North America," Ecology 75 (July 1994): 1491-1502, and "Vegetation Dynamics of the Forest Edge - Trends in Space and Successional Time," Journal of Ecology 82 (March 1994): 113-23); and G. C. Whitney and D. R. Foster, "Overstorey Composition and Age as Determinants of the Understorey Flora of Woods of Central New England," Journal of Ecology 76 (September 1988): 867-76. For more information on huckleberry see: Glenn Motzkin, D. R. Foster, A. Allen, J. Harrod, and R. D. Boone, "Controlling Site to Evaluate History: Vegetation Patterns of a New England Sand Plain," Ecological Monographs (forthcoming).
47. Three examples of papers exploring the relationships between forests and land use history are: Glenn Matlack, "Plant Species Migration in a Mixed-History Forest Landscape in Eastern North America," Ecology 75 (July 1994): 1491-1502, and "Vegetation Dynamics of the Forest Edge - Trends in Space and Successional Time," Journal of Ecology 82 (March 1994): 113-23); and G. C. Whitney and D. R. Foster, "Overstorey Composition and Age as Determinants of the Understorey Flora of Woods of Central New England," Journal of Ecology 76 (September 1988): 867-76. For more information on huckleberry see: Glenn Motzkin, D. R. Foster, A. Allen, J. Harrod, and R. D. Boone, "Controlling Site to Evaluate History: Vegetation Patterns of a New England Sand Plain," Ecological Monographs (forthcoming).
48. Three examples of papers exploring the relationships between forests and land use history are: Glenn Matlack, "Plant Species Migration in a Mixed-History Forest Landscape in Eastern North America," Ecology 75 (July 1994): 1491-1502, and "Vegetation Dynamics of the Forest Edge - Trends in Space and Successional Time," Journal of Ecology 82 (March 1994): 113-23); and G. C. Whitney and D. R. Foster, "Overstorey Composition and Age as Determinants of the Understorey Flora of Woods of Central New England," Journal of Ecology 76 (September 1988): 867-76. For more information on huckleberry see: Glenn Motzkin, D. R. Foster, A. Allen, J. Harrod, and R. D. Boone, "Controlling Site to Evaluate History: Vegetation Patterns of a New England Sand Plain," Ecological Monographs (forthcoming).
49. Three examples of papers exploring the relationships between forests and land use history are: Glenn Matlack, "Plant Species Migration in a Mixed-History Forest Landscape in Eastern North America," Ecology 75 (July 1994): 1491-1502, and "Vegetation Dynamics of the Forest Edge - Trends in Space and Successional Time," Journal of Ecology 82 (March 1994): 113-23); and G. C. Whitney and D. R. Foster, "Overstorey Composition and Age as Determinants of the Understorey Flora of Woods of Central New England," Journal of Ecology 76 (September 1988): 867-76. For more information on huckleberry see: Glenn Motzkin, D. R. Foster, A. Allen, J. Harrod, and R. D. Boone, "Controlling Site to Evaluate History: Vegetation Patterns of a New England Sand Plain," Ecological Monographs (forthcoming).