Who Competes? Changing landscapes of corporate control

Ecologist

Volumn 26, Issue 4, 1996, Pages 125-144

  Hildyard, Nicholas ^a   Hines, Colin ^a   Lang, Tim ^b  

^a Intl Forum on Gloablisation Europe ^*

^b UNIVERSITY OF WEST LONDON   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

COMPETITIVENESS; GLOBALISATION; JOB INSECURITY; LABOUR MARKET;

EID: 0030435506     PISSN: 02613131     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article

References (118)

1. Quoted in Seccombe, Weathering the Storm: Working Class Families from the Industrial Revolution to the Fertility Decline, Verso, London, 1993, p.30.
2. Hill, C., Reformation to Industrial Revolution, Penguin, Harmondsworth, 1967, p.264.
3. Statement by Trades Union Congress, London, 1951, cited in Felling, H., History of British Trade Unionism, Penguin, Harmondsworth, 1974.
4. From Edmonds, J., "Victorian Values", The Guardian, 11 June 1996.
5. As William Lazonick records, "With the production process carried out in the homes, workers had the power to tie up the capital, primarily raw materials, supplied by the putters out, as well as to appropriate some of that capital as their own. Putters-out sought to use the force of law to speed up the flow of work and reduce embezzlement of materials. But especially in good times, the control of work remained with the workers." Lazonick, W., Business Organization and the Myth of the Market Economy, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1992, p. 138.
6. In pre-industrial Britain, the word "job" meant no more than a "a small compact portion of some substance: a piece, a lump, a mouthful". Later, its meaning was expanded first to embrace larger "lumps" (such as forkloads of hay or piles of farmyard manure) and then to refer to the act of transporting the "job" in a cart. Only in the 19th century did the word come to mean having waged employment: before then "people worked hard, - very hard - but they did not have jobs to frame and contain their activities." Under such circumstances, mustering a workforce for fulltime labour on a specific task was no easy matter. See Bridges, W., "The Death of the Job", The Independent on Sunday, 5 February 1995. See also Bridges, W., Jobshift: How to Prosper Without Jobs, Nicholas Brealey, 1996.
7. In pre-industrial Britain, the word "job" meant no more than a "a small compact portion of some substance: a piece, a lump, a mouthful". Later, its meaning was expanded first to embrace larger "lumps" (such as forkloads of hay or piles of farmyard manure) and then to refer to the act of transporting the "job" in a cart. Only in the 19th century did the word come to mean having waged employment: before then "people worked hard, - very hard - but they did not have jobs to frame and contain their activities." Under such circumstances, mustering a workforce for fulltime labour on a specific task was no easy matter. See Bridges, W., "The Death of the Job", The Independent on Sunday, 5 February 1995. See also Bridges, W., Jobshift: How to Prosper Without Jobs, Nicholas Brealey, 1996.
8. Valenze, D., The First Industrial Woman, OUP, Oxford, 1995, p.114 and pp.122-123. As Valenze notes, "[C]ottagers had no say over the terms of their work or the payments they recieved. Manufacturers strove to maximise profits through . . . arbitary wage cutting, seasonal and partial employment, and the withholding of commodities in order to release them at advantageous times." Nonetheless, "cottagers's work arrangements left them free to determine their own pace of work and encouraged attitudes that seemed insubordinate to contemporaries." Indeed "a staunch independence remained central to the social world of laborers in cottage industries", partly because such industries frequently grew up in localities free from the rigid control of large landowners. The income from cottage industry also gave young people, particularly women, a freedom from parental authority.
9. For a discussion of the historical process of enclosure, see The Ecologist, "Whose Common Future? Reclaiming the Commons", The Ecologisl (Special Issue), Vol. 22, No.4. July/August 1992.
10. Even then, it took almost half a century before the factory replaced the home as the dominant site of production; such was the resistance of workers to factory discipline that many preferred to accept lower wages in order to work at home, sutaining the old outputting system well into the nineteenth century. See Lazonick. W., op. cit. 5. Those unfortunate enough to end up in the workhouse were often transfered straight to factories, regardless of their own wishes. See Valenze, D., op. cit. 7, p.98.
11. Even then, it took almost half a century before the factory replaced the home as the dominant site of production; such was the resistance of workers to factory discipline that many preferred to accept lower wages in order to work at home, sutaining the old outputting system well into the nineteenth century. See Lazonick. W., op. cit. 5. Those unfortunate enough to end up in the workhouse were often transfered straight to factories, regardless of their own wishes. See Valenze, D., op. cit. 7, p.98.
12. Valenze, D., op. cit. 7. Valenze also notes. "Employers did not offer a 'living wage' to the female or the child since they assumed that she was dependent upon a household headed by a male and therefore did not depend only on her wages for subsistence."
13. Landes, D.S., Revolution in Time: Clocks and the Making of the Modern World, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass., quoted in Lazonick, W., op. cit. 5, p. 139.
14. Landes, D.S., Revolution in Time: Clocks and the Making of the Modern World, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass., quoted in Lazonick, W., op. cit. 5, p. 139.
15. Seccombe, W., op. cit. 1, pp.86-87.
16. Perrot, M., "The Three Ages of Industrial Discipline in 19th Century France", in J.M. Merriman, (ed.). Consciousness and Class Experience in 19th Century Europe, New York, 1979, p.161.
17. Although the factory system enabled industrialists to "solve" the uncertainties associated with the outputting system, by bringing labour together in one place, it created another form of uncertainty by making it easier for workers to organize, further increasing the need for direct management control over the labour process. See Braverman, H., Labour and Monopoly Capital, New York, Monthly Review Press, New York, 1974, pp.57-58, cited in Ruigrok W., and van Tulder, R., The Logic of International Restructuring, Routledge, London, 1995, p.38.
18. Although the factory system enabled industrialists to "solve" the uncertainties associated with the outputting system, by bringing labour together in one place, it created another form of uncertainty by making it easier for workers to organize, further increasing the need for direct management control over the labour process. See Braverman, H., Labour and Monopoly Capital, New York, Monthly Review Press, New York, 1974, pp.57-58, cited in Ruigrok W., and van Tulder, R., The Logic of International Restructuring, Routledge, London, 1995, p.38.
19. As Henry Ford, founder of the Ford Motor company famously put it, "If you cut wages, you just cut the number of your customers."
20. Drache, D, "From Keynes to K-Mart" in Boyer, R. and Drache, D., (eds.), Boyer, R. and Drache, D., States Against Markets, Routledge, 1996, pp.41-42.
21. Ibid., p.45.
22. Boris, E and Prügl, E., "Introduction" in Boris, E and Prügl, E., (eds.), Homeworkers in Global Perspective: Invisible No More, Routledge, London, 1996, p.6.
23. Edmonds, J., op. cit. 4, 1996.
24. Harris, N., The New Untouchables: Immigration and the New World Order, I.B. Taurus, London, 1995, p.33.
25. Drache, D., op. cit. 16, p.43. Drache notes, "The deterioration in living standards [has] forced the EU to revive its structural aid to industries in industrially depressed regions. Eligibility for Objective 2 aid requires an unemployment rate higher than the EU average, a higher percentage of industrial employment than the EC and a decline specificaly in industrial employment."
26. Harris, N., op. cit. 20, p.26.
27. Rifkin, J., The End of Work: The Decline of the Global Labour Fource an the Dawn of the Post-Market Era, O.P. Putnam's Sons, New York, 1995.
28. Cavanagh, J. and Broad, R., Understanding North-South Political Economy in the 1990s, Institute for Policy Studies, Washington DC, November 1994.
29. Edmonds, J., op. cit. 4.
30. Kapstein, E.B., "'Workers and the World Economy", Foreign Affairs, May/June 1996, p.22. In Germany, the unemployment rate between 1969 and 1973 was below one per cent; today, at four million unemployed, it is approaching 10 per cent - the highest it has been since the 1930s. In Belgium, the unemployment rate has quadrupled over the past 20 years.
31. Rifkin, J., op. cit. 23.
32. Ibid.
33. Ruigrok, W. and van Tulder, R., op. cit. 14 pp. 125,129,281.
34. Harrison, B., Lean and Mean: The Changing Landscape of Corporate Power in an Age of Flexibility, Basic Books, New York, 1994, p. 180.
35. Ibid.
36. Neil, A. "The Guts and Glory", The Guardian. 8 January 1996.
37. Sutton, K., "Sound of the Last Post", The Guardian, 8 January 1996.
38. Rifkin, J., op. cit. 23.
39. The figures are for 1980. See Harrison, B., op. cit. 30, p. 156. In Japan as a shole, only about 30 per cent of the labour force has permanent employment. See Lazonick, W., op. cit. 5, p.41.
40. The figures are for 1980. See Harrison, B., op. cit. 30, p. 156. In Japan as a shole, only about 30 per cent of the labour force has permanent employment. See Lazonick, W., op. cit. 5, p.41.
41. Donaghu, M.T. and Barff, R., "Nike just did it: International subcontracting and flexibility in athletic footwear production", Regional Studies 24, December 1990, pp.537-552. See also Brookes, B. and Madden, P., The Globe-Trotting Sports Shoe, Christian Aid, December 1995.
42. Donaghu, M.T. and Barff, R., "Nike just did it: International subcontracting and flexibility in athletic footwear production", Regional Studies 24, December 1990, pp.537-552. See also Brookes, B. and Madden, P., The Globe-Trotting Sports Shoe, Christian Aid, December 1995.
43. Gringeri, C., Making Cadillacs and Buicks for General Motors, in Boris, E. and Prügl, E. (eds.), op. cit. 18, p.181,183.
44. Amin, A. and Tomaney, J., "The Challenge of Cohesion" in Amin, A. and Tomaney, J. (eds.), Behind the Myth of European Union: Prospects for Cohesion, Routledge, London, 1995, p.22.
45. Ruigrok, W. and van Tulder, R., op. cit. 14, p. 178. Akio Morita of Sony uses the term "global localization" (see Ohmae, K., The Borderless World: Power and Strategy in the Interlinked Economy, Fontana, 1990, p.10.). Anita Roddick of the Body Shop refers to "multilocalism".
46. Ruigrok, W. and van Tulder, R., op. cit. 14, p. 178. Akio Morita of Sony uses the term "global localization" (see Ohmae, K., The Borderless World: Power and Strategy in the Interlinked Economy, Fontana, 1990, p.10.). Anita Roddick of the Body Shop refers to "multilocalism".
47. Ohmae, K., op. cit. 39, p.38.
48. Quoted in Sally, R., States and Firms: Multinational Enterprises in Institutional Competition, Routledge, London, 1995, p.49.
49. Ohmae, K., op. cit. 39, p.74.
50. Petrella, R., "Globalisation and Internationalisation: The Dynamics of the Emerging World Order" in Boyer, R. and Drache, D., op. cit. 16, p.67.
51. Ruigrok, W. and van Tulder, R., op. cit. 14, pp.179,188.
52. Kerski, A., "Pulp, Paper and Power: How an Industry Reshapes its Social Environment", The Ecologist, Vol. 25. No.4, July/August 1995, pp. 142-149
53. Hoedeman, O. and Doherty, "Misshaping Europe: The European Round Table of Industrialists", The Ecologist, Vol. 24, No. 4, July/August 1994, pp.135-141. Access is defined by the ERT's secretary as "being able to 'phone Helmut Kohl and recommend that he read a report." It means "John Major 'phoning to thank the ERT for its viewpoints." It means "having lunch with the Swedish Prime Minister just prior to the Swedish decision to apply for EC membership."
54. Drache, D., op. cit. 16, p.57.
55. Petrella, R., op. cit. 43, p. 77.
56. Ramsay, H., "Le Défi Europén", in Amin, A. and Tomaney, J. op. cit. 38, p. 183. See also Harrison, B., op. cit. 30, p. 164. Harrison notes: "The merger wave in Europe began in ernest during the mid-1980s. . . One accounting firm counted 1,200 mergers and aquisitions amongt major corporations in 1988 alone . . . In 1992, France's Elf-Aquitaine. a petroleum giant, acquired a chain of refineries and gasoline stations in eastern Germany. Switzerland's Nestlé aquired the manufacturer of France's famous Perrier water, Germany's Lufthansa and Air France merged their four-star hotel chains, and Italy's state-owned cement giant, Italcementi, aquired a 45 per cent share of what had been France's largest cement producer, making Italcementi a $4-billion multinational corporation overnight."
57. Ramsay, H., "Le Défi Europén", in Amin, A. and Tomaney, J. op. cit. 38, p. 183. See also Harrison, B., op. cit. 30, p. 164. Harrison notes: "The merger wave in Europe began in ernest during the mid-1980s. . . One accounting firm counted 1,200 mergers and aquisitions amongt major corporations in 1988 alone . . . In 1992, France's Elf-Aquitaine. a petroleum giant, acquired a chain of refineries and gasoline stations in eastern Germany. Switzerland's Nestlé aquired the manufacturer of France's famous Perrier water, Germany's Lufthansa and Air France merged their four-star hotel chains, and Italy's state-owned cement giant, Italcementi, aquired a 45 per cent share of what had been France's largest cement producer, making Italcementi a $4-billion multinational corporation overnight."
58. Ramsay, H., op. cit. 49, p. 184-185.
59. The financial Times, 9 January 1996.
60. Lewis, J. "The Making of Banking Behemoths", Multinational Monitor, June 1996, pp.8,11.
61. Sheppley, S. and Wilmot, J., "Core Vs. Periphery", in Amin. A and Tomaney, J., op. cit. 38, p.56. See also The Economist, "Single Market, Single Minded", 4 May 1996.
62. Sheppley, S. and Wilmot, J., "Core Vs. Periphery", in Amin. A and Tomaney, J., op. cit. 38, p.56. See also The Economist, "Single Market, Single Minded", 4 May 1996.
63. David, K.A., Europe 92: Reflections from the Underside, The Challenge to Community Organizing, World Council of Churches, Geneva 1992, p.17.
64. Leys, C., "On lop of the World", Red Pepper, No. 25, June 1996, 1996.
65. SouthWest Organizing Project, Intel Inside New Mexico: A Case Study of Environmental and Economic Injustice. SouthWest Organizing Project, New Mexico, 1995, pp.36,45.
66. Invest in Britain Bureau, Britain The Preferred Location: An Introduction for Investors, Dept. of Trade and Industry, London, 1993, p.7.
67. Goldsmith, A, "Seeds of Exploitation: Free Trade Zones in the Global Economy" in Mander, J. and Goldsmith, E. (eds.), The Case Against the Gloal Economy and For a Turn Toward the Local, Sierra Club Books, San Fransisco, 1996, pp.267-273.
68. Lang, T. and Hines, C., The New Protectionism, Earthscan, London, 1993, p.81.
69. Goldsmith, A, op. cit. 58, p.272.
70. Nader, R. and Wallach, L., "GATT, NAFTA and the Subversion of the Democratic Process" in Mander, J. and Goldsmith, E., op. cit. 58, p.98. Wallach and Nader also note, "Laws of other nations - such as Canadian cigarette packaging requirements, Thai cigarette sales limitations, Danish bottle recycling laws and Canadian reforestation requirements - have been formally challenged as nontariff barriers under existing free trade agreements or threatened with future challenges under the Uruguay Round rules."
71. Harris, N., op. cit. 20, p.57. Harris notes "The system appears to change continuously . . . The manufacturing location - as opposed to particular companies (which are created and destroyed as relocation occurs) - might start in Hong Kong in the 1950s, move on to Taiwan and Korea in the early and mid-1960s, to parts of Latin America, to Israel and Portugal, and to Sigapore in the late 1960s, to Malaysia and Thailand in the 1970s, to China, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Mauritius in the 1980s. In the 1980s particularly, the geography became even more scrambled, as Hong Kong firms moved manufacturing capacity to southern China: Japanese, Korean and Taiwanese capital opened capacity in both China and southeast Asia, in Sri Lanka, the Caribbean and the United States (in search of technology and markets). Activities which began on the Mexican border moved on to the interior, to the Caribbean and to East and Southeast Asia - and might easily return if the conditions are favourable."
72. Dobson, R., "Asian Tigers Lured by Low Pay in the Valleys", Independent on Sunday, 26 May 1996.
73. "Another kind of export", Independent on Sunday, 7 May 1995.
74. Harris, N., op. cit. 20, p.63.
75. Genillard, A., "German Plans to Shift Production Abroad", Financial Times, 31 May 1994.
76. "Can Europe Compete?", The Financial Times, 7 March 1994. See also "Labour price falls offshore", The Financial Times, 25 February 1994.
77. "Can Europe Compete?", The Financial Times, 7 March 1994. See also "Labour price falls offshore", The Financial Times, 25 February 1994.
78. Ramsay, H., "A Capital Idea: Multinationals, Labour and Europe's Single Market, Global Labour, No. 1, May 1993, p.9. Ramsay notes, "The decsion followed fierce lobbying between the British and Irish governments. The decision to transfer to Ayr led to accusations of illegal inducements from 'Locate in Scotland', a government agency."
79. Buchan, D., "French Promise to make Hoover pay dear", The Financial Times, 4 February 1993. See also Ramsey, H. op. cit. 68.
80. Buchan, D., "French Promise to make Hoover pay dear", The Financial Times, 4 February 1993. See also Ramsey, H. op. cit. 68.
81. Ramsay, H., op. cit. 68, p.9.
82. Robinson, R. and Goodman, D.S.G., The New Rich in Asia: Mobile Phones, McDonalds and Middle Class Revolution, Routledge, London. 1996, p.154. See also Mallet, V. "Success brings problems", Financial Times, 24 September 1993. Thailand's Charoen Pokphand group is now one of the largest investors in China and has stakes there in everything from motorcycle factories to feedmills.
83. Robinson, R. and Goodman, D.S.G., The New Rich in Asia: Mobile Phones, McDonalds and Middle Class Revolution, Routledge, London. 1996, p.154. See also Mallet, V. "Success brings problems", Financial Times, 24 September 1993. Thailand's Charoen Pokphand group is now one of the largest investors in China and has stakes there in everything from motorcycle factories to feedmills.
84. An Indonesian shoe worker's pay rate is US$1.03 per day, well below the US shoe industry average of $6.94 per hour. This wage is less than the Indonesian goverment's figure for minimum physical need. The labour costs to manufacture a pair of Nike shoes that sell for $80 in the US, according to one estimate, is approximately 12 cents.
85. Harris, N., op. cit. 20, p.68.
86. Ibid.
87. Karacs, I., "Berlin rebuilt by low-wage British labour", The Independent, 7 June 1996.
88. Harris, N., op. cit. 20. See also Financial Times, 10 July 1989.
89. Harris, N., op. cit. 20. See also Financial Times, 10 July 1989.
90. See also Andreas, P., "Border Troubles: Free Trade, Immigration and Cheap Labour", The Ecologist, Vol. 24, No, 6, Nov/Dec 1994, pp.230-234.
91. Harris, N., op. cit. 20.
92. Drache, D, op. cit. 16, p.47.
93. Ibid., p.49.
94. Transfer pricing is the price used for internal sales of goods and services between the divisions of a business enterprise. Transnationals use this to make their profits appear minimal in countries where taxation is high in order to maximize the after-tax profitability worldwide. TNCs also make use of over 30 international off-shore financial centres where taxation in real terms is low or non-existent. It is estimated that over half the world's financial transactions by value involve an off-shore centre, either directly or indirectly. While sections of the business world maintain pressure to cut social welfare, they are apparently blind to this "corporate welfare
95. Breverton, T.D., "Rules Under Different Vision of Economy and Society - The Economic Vision", paper presented at "The Evolution of Rules for a Single European Market", Exeter University, 8-11 September 1994. See also Keegan, W., Laurance, B. and Wintour, P., "Our Missing £17 billion", The Observer, 14 July 1996.
96. Breverton, T.D., "Rules Under Different Vision of Economy and Society - The Economic Vision", paper presented at "The Evolution of Rules for a Single European Market", Exeter University, 8-11 September 1994. See also Keegan, W., Laurance, B. and Wintour, P., "Our Missing £17 billion", The Observer, 14 July 1996.
97. People's Europe Campaign, The Single Currency - Axing Labour's Programme, House of Commons, London, 1996.
98. L 'Union Européenne: Les Traités de Rome at de Maastricht, Textes Compares, Article 104C and Protocol on The Excessive Deficit Proceedure, La Documentation Française, Paris, 1995, pp. 63 and 210. Article 104c, para. 3 states: "If a Member State does not fulfil the requirements [to keep public borrowing below 3 per cent of GDP] the Commission shall prepare a report. The report of the Commission shall . . . take into account whether the government deficit exceeds government investment expenditure . . ." (emphasis added). The inclusion of the word "investment" legitimizes a distinction between "productive" and "non-productive" expenditure.
99. These criticisms are drawn from Weber, F., "Impact of the Social Charter", Europe 1992: The Challenge to Urban Organizing, Dublin 1991, pp.34, 37. Webber made the criticisms with reference to the European Social Charter, the predecessor to Maastricht's social chapter. However, they can be applied equally to the Social Chpater.
100. Employment Policy Institute, "Introduction", Economic Report, Vol. 9, No. 5, June 1995. Two senior economists at the World Bank have also acknowledged the role that economic liberalization has played in creating unemployment in the North: "There is no doubt that part of the rise [in unemployment in the North] is due to increased competition from developing country imports. Most analyses conclude that trade with developing countries can explain only 10 to 30 per cent of the industrial countries labour market difficulties . . . [Other calculations] suggest that trade with developing countries during the past two decades reduced the demand for unskilled workers by between 3 million and 9 million, or 1 per cent and 3 per cent of total employment. See Diwan, I and Revenga, A., "Wages, Inequality and International Integration", Finance and Development. September 1995, pp. 10-11. See also Wood, A., North-South Trade, Employment and Inequality: Changing Fortunes in a Skill-Driven World, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1994.
101. Employment Policy Institute, "Introduction", Economic Report, Vol. 9, No. 5, June 1995. Two senior economists at the World Bank have also acknowledged the role that economic liberalization has played in creating unemployment in the North: "There is no doubt that part of the rise [in unemployment in the North] is due to increased competition from developing country imports. Most analyses conclude that trade with developing countries can explain only 10 to 30 per cent of the industrial countries labour market difficulties . . . [Other calculations] suggest that trade with developing countries during the past two decades reduced the demand for unskilled workers by between 3 million and 9 million, or 1 per cent and 3 per cent of total employment. See Diwan, I and Revenga, A., "Wages, Inequality and International Integration", Finance and Development. September 1995, pp. 10-11. See also Wood, A., North-South Trade, Employment and Inequality: Changing Fortunes in a Skill-Driven World, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1994.
102. Employment Policy Institute, "Introduction", Economic Report, Vol. 9, No. 5, June 1995. Two senior economists at the World Bank have also acknowledged the role that economic liberalization has played in creating unemployment in the North: "There is no doubt that part of the rise [in unemployment in the North] is due to increased competition from developing country imports. Most analyses conclude that trade with developing countries can explain only 10 to 30 per cent of the industrial countries labour market difficulties . . . [Other calculations] suggest that trade with developing countries during the past two decades reduced the demand for unskilled workers by between 3 million and 9 million, or 1 per cent and 3 per cent of total employment. See Diwan, I and Revenga, A., "Wages, Inequality and International Integration", Finance and Development. September 1995, pp. 10-11. See also Wood, A., North-South Trade, Employment and Inequality: Changing Fortunes in a Skill-Driven World, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1994.
103. Prügl, E., "Home-based Producers in Development Discourse" in Boris, E. and Prügl, E., op. cit. 18, p.45.
104. See, for example, Diwan, I and Revenga, A., op. cit. 86, pp.10-11. The authors stress, however, that "international inequality will change only slowly under any realistic scenario." Indeed, at best, the "ratio between the wages of the richest and the poorest groups in the international wage hierachy . . . could fall from an estimated 60 to 1 in 1992 to 50 to 1 by 2010." If free market policies are not adopted, says the Bank, the ratio of labour incomes could "rise to about 70 to 1".
105. Ibid., p.8. The Bank predicts that, by 2020, Africans will nonetheless still earn 50 times less than North Americans.
106. Drache, D, op. cit. 16, p.36.
107. Diwan, I and Revenga, A., op. cit. 86, p.11.
108. Lazonick, W., op. cit. 5, p.3. The nineteenth century German protectionist, Freidrich List, went as far as to accuse Adam Smith of "writing as if the nations of the world did not exist". See Cowen, M.P. and Shenton, R.W., Doctrines of Development, Routledge, London, 1996, p.163.
109. Lazonick, W., op. cit. 5, p.3. The nineteenth century German protectionist, Freidrich List, went as far as to accuse Adam Smith of "writing as if the nations of the world did not exist". See Cowen, M.P. and Shenton, R.W., Doctrines of Development, Routledge, London, 1996, p.163.
110. Lazonick, W., op. cit. 5, p.8.
111. Friedrich List warned that, without unless the state protected German industry, Britain's industrial advance would leave the German people with nothing to do other than furnish an English world with "children's toys, wooden clocks, philosophical writings, and sometimes an auxiliary corps, who might sacrifice themselves to pine away in the deserts of Asia or Africa, for the sake of extending the manufacturing and commercial supremacy, the literature and language of England." Cited in Cowen, M.P. and Shenton, R.W., op. cit. 92, p.163.
112. Lazonick, W., op. cit. 5, p.27.
113. Ruigrok, W. and van Tulder, R., op. cit. 14, p.42
114. Nancy Hutchens, a human resources consultant, draws an analogy between the new contingent workforce emerging in the 1990s and the just-in-time inventory revolution that swept the business community in the 1980s. "The revolution in the 1990s", says Hutchens "is toward just-in-time employment . . . companies will use people only as they need them." Cited in Rifkin, J., op. cit. 23.
115. Ohmae, K., Address to the Japan Society, Toronto, 2 December 1993, cited in Drache, D., op. cit. 16 p.52.
116. As the global management guru Kenichi Ohmae notes, "By becoming, in effect, an insider in key markets, a global corporation can make its costs independent of home-country currency - that is, at a par with those of domestic competitors in each of its markets. But it can also pull off the trick of using cheaper sources of inputs from elsewhere in the world, something local players cannot easily duplicate . . ." See Ohmae, K., op. cit. 39, p. 109.
117. Hines, C. and Lang, T., op. cit. 59.
118. See Lang, T. and Raven, H., "From Market to Hypermarket: Food Retailing in Britain", The Ecologist, Vol. 24, No. 4, July/August 1994, pp. 124-129