The decline of rural living standards in Russia in the 1990s

Journal of Communist Studies and Transition Politics

Volumn 12, Issue 3, 1996, Pages 293-314

  Evans Jr , Alfred B ^a  

^a CALIFORNIA STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

COPING STRATEGY; ECONOMIC DECLINE; POST-COMMUNISM; RURAL ECONOMY; STANDARD OF LIVING;

RUSSIAN FEDERATION;

EID: 0030431799     PISSN: 13523279     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/13523279608415315     Document Type: Article

References (137)

1. Gross agricultural output in the Soviet Union was actually less in 1953 than it had been in 1928, on the eve of collectivization of agriculture: see Paul R. Gregory and Robert C. Stuart, Soviet Economic Structure and Performance (New York: Harper & Row, 1974), p.260. Data showing growing inequality between wages in industry and pay in collective farms from 1940 to 1950 are presented in Yuri V. Arutunyan, Sotsial'naya struktura sel'skogo naseleniya SSSR (Moscow: Mysl', 1971), p.114. Although the policies of the Stalin government showed a general bias in favour of urban areas and against rural areas, there were exceptions in the form of policies which did contribute to modernization in the countryside. For instance, the mechanization of agriculture did increase in the Soviet Union under Stalin, and the level of education in the villages also rose during the same period. Although 'urban bias' may validly be ascribed to the policies of the Soviet state (and it will be applied to the analysis of the policies of the independent Russian state in the conclusion of this article), it should be understood that the policies of the Stalin government were significantly influenced by a profound anti-rural ideological bias, but ultimately determined most consistently by a series of policy goals to which Stalin was committed. Those goals were followed regardless of whether their results worked to the disadvantage of rural residents. In any case, in Stalin's perspective, living standards, whether of urban or rural people, were primarily important as means to the achievement of ends, and not as ends in themselves.
2. Gross agricultural output in the Soviet Union was actually less in 1953 than it had been in 1928, on the eve of collectivization of agriculture: see Paul R. Gregory and Robert C. Stuart, Soviet Economic Structure and Performance (New York: Harper & Row, 1974), p.260. Data showing growing inequality between wages in industry and pay in collective farms from 1940 to 1950 are presented in Yuri V. Arutunyan, Sotsial'naya struktura sel'skogo naseleniya SSSR (Moscow: Mysl', 1971), p.114. Although the policies of the Stalin government showed a general bias in favour of urban areas and against rural areas, there were exceptions in the form of policies which did contribute to modernization in the countryside. For instance, the mechanization of agriculture did increase in the Soviet Union under Stalin, and the level of education in the villages also rose during the same period. Although 'urban bias' may validly be ascribed to the policies of the Soviet state (and it will be applied to the analysis of the policies of the independent Russian state in the conclusion of this article), it should be understood that the policies of the Stalin government were significantly influenced by a profound anti-rural ideological bias, but ultimately determined most consistently by a series of policy goals to which Stalin was committed. Those goals were followed regardless of whether their results worked to the disadvantage of rural residents. In any case, in Stalin's perspective, living standards, whether of urban or rural people, were primarily important as means to the achievement of ends, and not as ends in themselves.
3. David W. Bronson and Constance B. Krueger, 'The Revolution in Soviet Farm Household Income, 1953-1937', in James Millar (ed.), The Soviet Rural Community (Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press, 1971), pp.214-58; Gertrude Schroeder and Barbara Severin, 'Soviet Consumption and Income Policies in Perspective', in John Hardt (ed.), Soviet Economy in a New Perspective (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1976), pp.628-9; Alfred B. Evans, Jr., 'Equalization of Urban and Rural Living Levels in Soviet Society', Soviet Union, Vol.8, No.1 (1981), pp.42-3; O.M. Verbitskaya, Rossiiskoe krest'yanstvo: ot Stalina k Khrushchevu (Moscow: Nauka, 1992), pp.51-61. In addition to bringing increases in the pay of labour in agriculture, Khrushchev approved plans for the establishment of a centralized pension system for retired collective farmers.
4. David W. Bronson and Constance B. Krueger, 'The Revolution in Soviet Farm Household Income, 1953-1937', in James Millar (ed.), The Soviet Rural Community (Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press, 1971), pp.214-58; Gertrude Schroeder and Barbara Severin, 'Soviet Consumption and Income Policies in Perspective', in John Hardt (ed.), Soviet Economy in a New Perspective (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1976), pp.628-9; Alfred B. Evans, Jr., 'Equalization of Urban and Rural Living Levels in Soviet Society', Soviet Union, Vol.8, No.1 (1981), pp.42-3; O.M. Verbitskaya, Rossiiskoe krest'yanstvo: ot Stalina k Khrushchevu (Moscow: Nauka, 1992), pp.51-61. In addition to bringing increases in the pay of labour in agriculture, Khrushchev approved plans for the establishment of a centralized pension system for retired collective farmers.
5. David W. Bronson and Constance B. Krueger, 'The Revolution in Soviet Farm Household Income, 1953-1937', in James Millar (ed.), The Soviet Rural Community (Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press, 1971), pp.214-58; Gertrude Schroeder and Barbara Severin, 'Soviet Consumption and Income Policies in Perspective', in John Hardt (ed.), Soviet Economy in a New Perspective (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1976), pp.628-9; Alfred B. Evans, Jr., 'Equalization of Urban and Rural Living Levels in Soviet Society', Soviet Union, Vol.8, No.1 (1981), pp.42-3; O.M. Verbitskaya, Rossiiskoe krest'yanstvo: ot Stalina k Khrushchevu (Moscow: Nauka, 1992), pp.51-61. In addition to bringing increases in the pay of labour in agriculture, Khrushchev approved plans for the establishment of a centralized pension system for retired collective farmers.
6. David W. Bronson and Constance B. Krueger, 'The Revolution in Soviet Farm Household Income, 1953-1937', in James Millar (ed.), The Soviet Rural Community (Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press, 1971), pp.214-58; Gertrude Schroeder and Barbara Severin, 'Soviet Consumption and Income Policies in Perspective', in John Hardt (ed.), Soviet Economy in a New Perspective (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1976), pp.628-9; Alfred B. Evans, Jr., 'Equalization of Urban and Rural Living Levels in Soviet Society', Soviet Union, Vol.8, No.1 (1981), pp.42-3; O.M. Verbitskaya, Rossiiskoe krest'yanstvo: ot Stalina k Khrushchevu (Moscow: Nauka, 1992), pp.51-61. In addition to bringing increases in the pay of labour in agriculture, Khrushchev approved plans for the establishment of a centralized pension system for retired collective farmers.
7. V.F. Mashenkov and L.V. Bondarenko, Sovetskaya derevnya: trud, byt, dosug (Moscow: Rossel'khozizdat, 1986), p.89. In their estimate, workers in agriculture included both collective farm peasants and state farm workers.
8. Another factor which contributed to the lowering of the difference between the average income of an urbanite and the average income of a rural resident was the long-range increase in the percentage of rural people employed in non-agricultural occupations. Although more rural residents were employed in non-agricultural jobs than in agricultural occupations in Russia by the early 1990s, changes in the level of prosperity of agriculture still had a powerful effect on the incomes of rural residents.
9. Gertrude E. Schroeder, 'Rural Living Standards in the Soviet Union', in Robert C. Stuart (ed.), The Soviet Rural Economy (Totowa, NJ: Rowman & Allenheld, 1983), p.254.
10. M.I. Sidorova, 'Sblizhenie urovnya i uslovii zhizni gorodskogo i sel'skogo naseleniya', Ekonomika sel'skogo khozyaistva, 1987, No.11, p.50. Since earnings from private plot farming tended to be larger for rural residents than for urban residents, income disparity was less than wage disparity between those two groups in the population. Inequality between the two groups in income per person was greater than inequality in income per family, since on the average rural families were larger.
11. Evans, 'Equalization of Urban and Rural', pp.58-9; Alfred B. Evans, Jr., 'Changes in the Soviet Model of Rural Transformation', in The Soviet Rural Economy, pp.151-2; Theodore H. Friedgut, 'Integration of the Rural Sector into Soviet Society', Slavic and Soviel Series, The Russian and East European Research Center, Tel-Aviv University, Vol.3, No.1 (Spring 1978), p.31; Mashenkov and Bondarenko, Sovetskaya derevnya, p.117; Roland J. Fuchs, 'Urban Functions in Rural Development: Ideology and Planning in the USSR', Urban Geography, Vol.8, No.4 (1987), p.301; Alfred B. Evans, Jr., 'Soviet Rural Living Standards', Research on Soviet and East European Agriculture, Vol.10, No.4 (Dec. 1988), p.3.
12. Evans, 'Equalization of Urban and Rural', pp.58-9; Alfred B. Evans, Jr., 'Changes in the Soviet Model of Rural Transformation', in The Soviet Rural Economy, pp.151-2; Theodore H. Friedgut, 'Integration of the Rural Sector into Soviet Society', Slavic and Soviel Series, The Russian and East European Research Center, Tel-Aviv University, Vol.3, No.1 (Spring 1978), p.31; Mashenkov and Bondarenko, Sovetskaya derevnya, p.117; Roland J. Fuchs, 'Urban Functions in Rural Development: Ideology and Planning in the USSR', Urban Geography, Vol.8, No.4 (1987), p.301; Alfred B. Evans, Jr., 'Soviet Rural Living Standards', Research on Soviet and East European Agriculture, Vol.10, No.4 (Dec. 1988), p.3.
13. Evans, 'Equalization of Urban and Rural', pp.58-9; Alfred B. Evans, Jr., 'Changes in the Soviet Model of Rural Transformation', in The Soviet Rural Economy, pp.151-2; Theodore H. Friedgut, 'Integration of the Rural Sector into Soviet Society', Slavic and Soviel Series, The Russian and East European Research Center, Tel-Aviv University, Vol.3, No.1 (Spring 1978), p.31; Mashenkov and Bondarenko, Sovetskaya derevnya, p.117; Roland J. Fuchs, 'Urban Functions in Rural Development: Ideology and Planning in the USSR', Urban Geography, Vol.8, No.4 (1987), p.301; Alfred B. Evans, Jr., 'Soviet Rural Living Standards', Research on Soviet and East European Agriculture, Vol.10, No.4 (Dec. 1988), p.3.
14. Evans, 'Equalization of Urban and Rural', pp.58-9; Alfred B. Evans, Jr., 'Changes in the Soviet Model of Rural Transformation', in The Soviet Rural Economy, pp.151-2; Theodore H. Friedgut, 'Integration of the Rural Sector into Soviet Society', Slavic and Soviel Series, The Russian and East European Research Center, Tel-Aviv University, Vol.3, No.1 (Spring 1978), p.31; Mashenkov and Bondarenko, Sovetskaya derevnya, p.117; Roland J. Fuchs, 'Urban Functions in Rural Development: Ideology and Planning in the USSR', Urban Geography, Vol.8, No.4 (1987), p.301; Alfred B. Evans, Jr., 'Soviet Rural Living Standards', Research on Soviet and East European Agriculture, Vol.10, No.4 (Dec. 1988), p.3.
15. Evans, 'Equalization of Urban and Rural', pp.58-9; Alfred B. Evans, Jr., 'Changes in the Soviet Model of Rural Transformation', in The Soviet Rural Economy, pp.151-2; Theodore H. Friedgut, 'Integration of the Rural Sector into Soviet Society', Slavic and Soviel Series, The Russian and East European Research Center, Tel-Aviv University, Vol.3, No.1 (Spring 1978), p.31; Mashenkov and Bondarenko, Sovetskaya derevnya, p.117; Roland J. Fuchs, 'Urban Functions in Rural Development: Ideology and Planning in the USSR', Urban Geography, Vol.8, No.4 (1987), p.301; Alfred B. Evans, Jr., 'Soviet Rural Living Standards', Research on Soviet and East European Agriculture, Vol.10, No.4 (Dec. 1988), p.3.
16. Evans, 'Equalization of Urban and Rural', pp.58-9; Alfred B. Evans, Jr., 'Changes in the Soviet Model of Rural Transformation', in The Soviet Rural Economy, pp.151-2; Theodore H. Friedgut, 'Integration of the Rural Sector into Soviet Society', Slavic and Soviel Series, The Russian and East European Research Center, Tel-Aviv University, Vol.3, No.1 (Spring 1978), p.31; Mashenkov and Bondarenko, Sovetskaya derevnya, p.117; Roland J. Fuchs, 'Urban Functions in Rural Development: Ideology and Planning in the USSR', Urban Geography, Vol.8, No.4 (1987), p.301; Alfred B. Evans, Jr., 'Soviet Rural Living Standards', Research on Soviet and East European Agriculture, Vol.10, No.4 (Dec. 1988), p.3.
17. Ibid., pp.3-4; percentages computed from data in Narodnoe khozyaistvo SSSR for several years. The figures on retail trade do not include sales in farmers' markets, nor do they include rural residents' purchases in stores in urban areas.
18. Ibid., pp.3-4; percentages computed from data in Narodnoe khozyaistvo SSSR for several years. The figures on retail trade do not include sales in farmers' markets, nor do they include rural residents' purchases in stores in urban areas.
19. The Non-Black Earth Zone extended into other republics of the USSR as well, but discussion in Moscow usually focused mainly on problems of that part of the zone located within the Russian republic.
20. Vladimir Shliapentokh, 'Human Aspiration as a Cause of the Failure of Soviet Agriculture: Data from Soviet Rural Sociology', The Rural Sociologist, Vol.2, No.3 (1982), pp.138-49; Cynthia S. Kaplan, 'Rural Residents: Social Change and Evolving Perceptions', Studies in Comparative Communism, Vol.23, No.2 (Summer 1990), pp.149-60. Mashenkov and Bondarenko, Sovetskaya derevnya, p.118: 'The "scissors" between the demands toward the conditions of rural life, especially on the part of rural youths, and their factual level, widened, which heightened the attracting force of the city.' The highest rate of migration from rural to urban areas was that among younger and more educated members of the rural labour force: see David E. Powell, 'The Rural Exodus', Problems of Communism, Vol.23, No.6 (Nov.-Dec. 1974), pp.2-4.
21. Vladimir Shliapentokh, 'Human Aspiration as a Cause of the Failure of Soviet Agriculture: Data from Soviet Rural Sociology', The Rural Sociologist, Vol.2, No.3 (1982), pp.138-49; Cynthia S. Kaplan, 'Rural Residents: Social Change and Evolving Perceptions', Studies in Comparative Communism, Vol.23, No.2 (Summer 1990), pp.149-60. Mashenkov and Bondarenko, Sovetskaya derevnya, p.118: 'The "scissors" between the demands toward the conditions of rural life, especially on the part of rural youths, and their factual level, widened, which heightened the attracting force of the city.' The highest rate of migration from rural to urban areas was that among younger and more educated members of the rural labour force: see David E. Powell, 'The Rural Exodus', Problems of Communism, Vol.23, No.6 (Nov.-Dec. 1974), pp.2-4.
22. Vladimir Shliapentokh, 'Human Aspiration as a Cause of the Failure of Soviet Agriculture: Data from Soviet Rural Sociology', The Rural Sociologist, Vol.2, No.3 (1982), pp.138-49; Cynthia S. Kaplan, 'Rural Residents: Social Change and Evolving Perceptions', Studies in Comparative Communism, Vol.23, No.2 (Summer 1990), pp.149-60. Mashenkov and Bondarenko, Sovetskaya derevnya, p.118: 'The "scissors" between the demands toward the conditions of rural life, especially on the part of rural youths, and their factual level, widened, which heightened the attracting force of the city.' The highest rate of migration from rural to urban areas was that among younger and more educated members of the rural labour force: see David E. Powell, 'The Rural Exodus', Problems of Communism, Vol.23, No.6 (Nov.-Dec. 1974), pp.2-4.
23. Vladimir Shliapentokh, 'Human Aspiration as a Cause of the Failure of Soviet Agriculture: Data from Soviet Rural Sociology', The Rural Sociologist, Vol.2, No.3 (1982), pp.138-49; Cynthia S. Kaplan, 'Rural Residents: Social Change and Evolving Perceptions', Studies in Comparative Communism, Vol.23, No.2 (Summer 1990), pp.149-60. Mashenkov and Bondarenko, Sovetskaya derevnya, p.118: 'The "scissors" between the demands toward the conditions of rural life, especially on the part of rural youths, and their factual level, widened, which heightened the attracting force of the city.' The highest rate of migration from rural to urban areas was that among younger and more educated members of the rural labour force: see David E. Powell, 'The Rural Exodus', Problems of Communism, Vol.23, No.6 (Nov.-Dec. 1974), pp.2-4.
24. L.V. Nikiforov, Sotsial'no-ekonomicheskaya integratsiya goroda i sela (Moscow: Nauka, 1988), p.253, reported that urban-rural inequality in social investment per resident had decreased from a ratio of 5.2:1 during 1961-65 to a ratio of 1.8:1 for 1981-85. See also L.V. Nikiforov, 'Preodolenie sotsial'no-ekonomicheskikh razlichii mezhdu gorodom i selom', Voprosy ekonomiki, 1985, No.12, p.53. Mashenkov and Bondarenko, Sovetskaya derevnya, p.118, estimated in 1986 that the ratio was in the range from 2.5:1 to 3:1. Obviously, Soviet scholarly estimates of that ratio varied somewhat, but all concluded that inequality in that area had been reduced, and that a substantial disparity remained.
25. L.V. Nikiforov, Sotsial'no-ekonomicheskaya integratsiya goroda i sela (Moscow: Nauka, 1988), p.253, reported that urban-rural inequality in social investment per resident had decreased from a ratio of 5.2:1 during 1961-65 to a ratio of 1.8:1 for 1981-85. See also L.V. Nikiforov, 'Preodolenie sotsial'no-ekonomicheskikh razlichii mezhdu gorodom i selom', Voprosy ekonomiki, 1985, No.12, p.53. Mashenkov and Bondarenko, Sovetskaya derevnya, p.118, estimated in 1986 that the ratio was in the range from 2.5:1 to 3:1. Obviously, Soviet scholarly estimates of that ratio varied somewhat, but all concluded that inequality in that area had been reduced, and that a substantial disparity remained.
26. L.V. Nikiforov, Sotsial'no-ekonomicheskaya integratsiya goroda i sela (Moscow: Nauka, 1988), p.253, reported that urban-rural inequality in social investment per resident had decreased from a ratio of 5.2:1 during 1961-65 to a ratio of 1.8:1 for 1981-85. See also L.V. Nikiforov, 'Preodolenie sotsial'no-ekonomicheskikh razlichii mezhdu gorodom i selom', Voprosy ekonomiki, 1985, No.12, p.53. Mashenkov and Bondarenko, Sovetskaya derevnya, p.118, estimated in 1986 that the ratio was in the range from 2.5:1 to 3:1. Obviously, Soviet scholarly estimates of that ratio varied somewhat, but all concluded that inequality in that area had been reduced, and that a substantial disparity remained.
27. A.I. Alekseev, Mnogolikaya derevnya (naselenie i territoriya) (Moscow: Nauka, 1990), pp.119, 133. That book is the essential starting-point for the study of the Soviet (primarily Russian) countryside in the 1990s.
28. Ibid., p.107; L.V. Nikiforov et al., Agrarnye otnosheniya: vykhod iz tupika (Moscow: Nauka, 1991), p.213.
29. Ibid., p.107; L.V. Nikiforov et al., Agrarnye otnosheniya: vykhod iz tupika (Moscow: Nauka, 1991), p.213.
30. Nikiforov, Sotsial''no-ekonomicheskaya integratsiya, pp.263-4; Alekseev, Mnogolikaya derevnya, pp.112, 253; Nikiforov, Agrarnye otnosheniya, p.213.
31. Nikiforov, Sotsial''no-ekonomicheskaya integratsiya, pp.263-4; Alekseev, Mnogolikaya derevnya, pp.112, 253; Nikiforov, Agrarnye otnosheniya, p.213.
32. Nikiforov, Sotsial''no-ekonomicheskaya integratsiya, pp.263-4; Alekseev, Mnogolikaya derevnya, pp.112, 253; Nikiforov, Agrarnye otnosheniya, p.213.
33. A. Buzlaeva, 'Usloviya zhizni na sele i sotsial'naya spravedlivost', APK: ekonomika, upravlenie, 1990, No.9, p.69. That differentiation between large and small villages with respect to investment in service enterprises (and trade enterprises and public service institutions) persisted even though the notion of resettling the residents of small villages into larger settlements was gradually discredited and eventually officially repudiated:
34. see Alfred B. Evans, Jr. and Carol Nechemias, 'Changes in Soviet Rural Resettlement Policy', Studies in Comparative Communism, Vol.23, No.2 (Summer 1990), pp.125-47. For many years, investment in the renovation or improvement of service facilities in small, supposedly 'futureless' (neperspektivnye) villages was prohibited. Differences in social infrastructure between central settlements and outlying villages are described by Caroline Humphrey, 'Rural Society in the Soviet Union',
35. in Michael Paul Sacks and Jerry G. Pankhurst (eds.), Understanding Soviet Society (Boston, MA: Unwin Hyman, 1988), pp.58-60. However, Humphrey presents a more positive depiction of amenities and services in small settlements than has been found in most Russian sources, such as
36. A. Semin, 'Novye formy khozyaistvovaniya i sotsial'naya zashchita trudyashchikhsya', APK: ekonomika, upravlenie, 1993, No.1, p.59,
37. Such processes were generally not characteristic of villages in the southern part of the USSR, where rural settlements tended to be larger than in the northern part of the Soviet Union. In rural areas of Central Asia, where birth rates were much higher than in areas populated by Slavic nationalities and migration to urban areas was slower than in the European USSR, the pool of underemployed agricultural labourers was increasing.
38. Fuchs, 'Urban Functions', p.296; Evans, 'Soviet Rural Living Standards', p.5; see also A.A. Razumov, 'O differentsiatsii urovnya zhizni gorodskogo i sel'skogo naseleniya', Izvestiya AN SSSR, Seriya ekonomicheskaya, 1991, No.2, p.77. The changes in thinking that resulted in that perception among Soviet sources in the last years of the Brezhnev period are traced by Alfred B. Evans, Jr., 'Changes in Soviet Sources' Interpretation of Urban-Rural Differences', paper presented at the Annual Convention of the American Association for the Advancement of Slavic Studies, Honolulu, Hawaii, November 1993.
39. Fuchs, 'Urban Functions', p.296; Evans, 'Soviet Rural Living Standards', p.5; see also A.A. Razumov, 'O differentsiatsii urovnya zhizni gorodskogo i sel'skogo naseleniya', Izvestiya AN SSSR, Seriya ekonomicheskaya, 1991, No.2, p.77. The changes in thinking that resulted in that perception among Soviet sources in the last years of the Brezhnev period are traced by Alfred B. Evans, Jr., 'Changes in Soviet Sources' Interpretation of Urban-Rural Differences', paper presented at the Annual Convention of the American Association for the Advancement of Slavic Studies, Honolulu, Hawaii, November 1993.
40. Fuchs, 'Urban Functions', p.296; Evans, 'Soviet Rural Living Standards', p.5; see also A.A. Razumov, 'O differentsiatsii urovnya zhizni gorodskogo i sel'skogo naseleniya', Izvestiya AN SSSR, Seriya ekonomicheskaya, 1991, No.2, p.77. The changes in thinking that resulted in that perception among Soviet sources in the last years of the Brezhnev period are traced by Alfred B. Evans, Jr., 'Changes in Soviet Sources' Interpretation of Urban-Rural Differences', paper presented at the Annual Convention of the American Association for the Advancement of Slavic Studies, Honolulu, Hawaii, November 1993.
41. Fuchs, 'Urban Functions', p.296; Evans, 'Soviet Rural Living Standards', p.5; see also A.A. Razumov, 'O differentsiatsii urovnya zhizni gorodskogo i sel'skogo naseleniya', Izvestiya AN SSSR, Seriya ekonomicheskaya, 1991, No.2, p.77. The changes in thinking that resulted in that perception among Soviet sources in the last years of the Brezhnev period are traced by Alfred B. Evans, Jr., 'Changes in Soviet Sources' Interpretation of Urban-Rural Differences', paper presented at the Annual Convention of the American Association for the Advancement of Slavic Studies, Honolulu, Hawaii, November 1993.
42. S. Kisilev, 'Ekonomicheskie osnovy dal'neishego sotsial'nogo razvitiya sela', Ekonomicheskie nauki, 1983, No.4, p.108.
43. Mashenkov and Bondarenko, Sovetskaya derevnya, p.144.
44. Horst Herlemann, 'Aspects of the Quality of Rural Life in the Soviet Union', in The Quality of Life in the Soviet Union (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1987), p.165.
45. Nikiforov, Sotsial'no-ekonomicheskaya integratsiya, p.265.
46. Elizabeth M. Clayton, 'Soviet Rural Roads: Problems and Prospects', Studies in Comparative Communism, Vol.20, No.2 (Summer 1987), pp.163-73.
47. Fuchs, 'Urban Functions', p.294; Stephen K. Wegren, 'Weapons of the Weak: Rural Responses to Urban Bias and Consequences for Land Reform in Russia', Soviet and Post-Soviet Review, Vol.21, Nos.2-3 (1994), p.286.
48. Fuchs, 'Urban Functions', p.294; Stephen K. Wegren, 'Weapons of the Weak: Rural Responses to Urban Bias and Consequences for Land Reform in Russia', Soviet and Post-Soviet Review, Vol.21, Nos.2-3 (1994), p.286.
49. Ibid., p.303.
50. A. Nikonov, 'Sotsial'no-ekonomicheskii monitoring agramoi reformy v Rossii', APK: ekonomika, upravlenie, 1994, No.5, p.7. M. Borkhunov, Tsenovye proportsii i paritet otnoshenii v sel'skom khoziastve', APK: ekonomika, upravlenie, 1995, No.5, p.35, estimated that from 1990 to 1993, the prices of industrial goods and services provided for agriculture rose about three times as fast as the prices of goods produced by agriculture. Borkhunov's estimate of the widening of the price scissors is more modest than Nikonov's.
51. A. Nikonov, 'Sotsial'no-ekonomicheskii monitoring agramoi reformy v Rossii', APK: ekonomika, upravlenie, 1994, No.5, p.7. M. Borkhunov, Tsenovye proportsii i paritet otnoshenii v sel'skom khoziastve', APK: ekonomika, upravlenie, 1995, No.5, p.35, estimated that from 1990 to 1993, the prices of industrial goods and services provided for agriculture rose about three times as fast as the prices of goods produced by agriculture. Borkhunov's estimate of the widening of the price scissors is more modest than Nikonov's.
52. Goskomstat Rossii, 'Agropromyshlennyi kompleks Rossii v 1994 g.', APK: ekonomika, upravlenie, 1995, No.4, p.45. According to Stephen A. Wegren and Frank A. Durgin, 'Why Agrarian Reform is Failing', Transition (Open Media Research Institute), Vol.1, No.19 (20 Oct. 1995), p.51, from the beginning of 1990 to the end of 1994 prices for industrial inputs in agriculture rose 5.7 times as fast as prices paid for agricultural products.
53. Goskomstat Rossii, 'Agropromyshlennyi kompleks Rossii v 1994 g.', APK: ekonomika, upravlenie, 1995, No.4, p.45. According to Stephen A. Wegren and Frank A. Durgin, 'Why Agrarian Reform is Failing', Transition (Open Media Research Institute), Vol.1, No.19 (20 Oct. 1995), p.51, from the beginning of 1990 to the end of 1994 prices for industrial inputs in agriculture rose 5.7 times as fast as prices paid for agricultural products.
54. Borkhunov, 'Tsenovye proportsii', p.34.
55. A. Zaveryukha, 'Problemy agrarnoi reformy v Rossii', APK: ekonomika, upravlenie, 1995, No.7, p.5; V. Krylov, 'Puti vykhoda iz agrarnogo krizisa', APK: ekonomika, upravlenie, 1995, No.7, p.26.
56. A. Zaveryukha, 'Problemy agrarnoi reformy v Rossii', APK: ekonomika, upravlenie, 1995, No.7, p.5; V. Krylov, 'Puti vykhoda iz agrarnogo krizisa', APK: ekonomika, upravlenie, 1995, No.7, p.26.
57. A. Petrikov, 'Sel'skoe obshchestvo i agrarnaya reforma', Voprosy ekonomiki, 1993, No. 10, p.85; A. Semin and G. Sharikhina, Organizatsiya oplaty truda v usloviyakh agrarnoi reformy', APK: ekonomika, upravlenie, 1995, No.5, p.39.
58. A. Petrikov, 'Sel'skoe obshchestvo i agrarnaya reforma', Voprosy ekonomiki, 1993, No. 10, p.85; A. Semin and G. Sharikhina, Organizatsiya oplaty truda v usloviyakh agrarnoi reformy', APK: ekonomika, upravlenie, 1995, No.5, p.39.
59. For information on wage increases in those other sectors, see Goskomstat Rossii, Rossiiskii statisticheskii yezhegodnik, 1994 (Moscow: Gosudarstvennyi komitet Rossiiskoi Federatsii po statistike, 1994), pp.88, 760. It should be noted on the basis of data in the same source that in still other sectors of the economy whose workers were concentrated predominantly in urban areas, such as education and health care, wages did not increase as rapidly as wages in manufacturing.
60. N. Proka, 'Stimulirovanie agramogo truda', APK: ekonomika, upravlenie, 1994, No.3, p.72; A. Golovanov, 'Fond oplaty truda v usloviyakh rynka', APK: ekonomika, upravlenie, 1995, No.3, p.45.
61. N. Proka, 'Stimulirovanie agramogo truda', APK: ekonomika, upravlenie, 1994, No.3, p.72; A. Golovanov, 'Fond oplaty truda v usloviyakh rynka', APK: ekonomika, upravlenie, 1995, No.3, p.45.
62. Petrikov, 'Sel'skoe obshchestvo', p.85; Semin and Sharikhina, 'Organizatsiya oplaty', pp.39-40; Oleg Mikhailov, 'Situatsiya s zanyatost'yu v APK: kto vinovat i chto delat'', Chelovek i trud, 1995, No.9, p.32.
63. Petrikov, 'Sel'skoe obshchestvo', p.85; Semin and Sharikhina, 'Organizatsiya oplaty', pp.39-40; Oleg Mikhailov, 'Situatsiya s zanyatost'yu v APK: kto vinovat i chto delat'', Chelovek i trud, 1995, No.9, p.32.
64. Petrikov, 'Sel'skoe obshchestvo', p.85; Semin and Sharikhina, 'Organizatsiya oplaty', pp.39-40; Oleg Mikhailov, 'Situatsiya s zanyatost'yu v APK: kto vinovat i chto delat'', Chelovek i trud, 1995, No.9, p.32.
65. Aleksandr Nikiforov and Yevgenii Selin, 'Zaderzhki s oplaty truda v agrarnom sektore. Kak ikh izbezhat'?', Chelovek i trud, 1995, No.9, p.69. As such interruptions in wage payments imply, although the level of officially recorded unemployment among agricultural workers is low (though apparently growing), the level of underemployment or hidden unemployment in the sector is very high. Raisa Tumanova, 'Zanyatost' na sele: problema slozhnaya, no razreshimaya', Chelovek i trud, 1995, No.2, p.17. According to B. Pankov, 'Formirovanie agrarnogo rynka truda', APK: ekonomika, upravlenie, 1995, No.6, pp.44-5, although the official rate of unemployment in the countryside is only about two per cent, in reality there are only about 15.3 million jobs for the 20.3 million members of the rural labour force. Some Russian sources have reported that in the countryside, as in the cities, a majority of the unemployed (by a wide margin) are women. 'Programma kadrovogo obespecheniya agrarnoi reformy v usloviyakh perekhoda k rynku', APK: ekonomika, upravlenie, 1995, No.2, p.33; V. Kovalev, 'Nauchnoe obespechenie formirovaniya kadrovogo potentsiala APK', APK: ekonomika, upravlenie, 1995, No.9, p.30.
66. Aleksandr Nikiforov and Yevgenii Selin, 'Zaderzhki s oplaty truda v agrarnom sektore. Kak ikh izbezhat'?', Chelovek i trud, 1995, No.9, p.69. As such interruptions in wage payments imply, although the level of officially recorded unemployment among agricultural workers is low (though apparently growing), the level of underemployment or hidden unemployment in the sector is very high. Raisa Tumanova, 'Zanyatost' na sele: problema slozhnaya, no razreshimaya', Chelovek i trud, 1995, No.2, p.17. According to B. Pankov, 'Formirovanie agrarnogo rynka truda', APK: ekonomika, upravlenie, 1995, No.6, pp.44-5, although the official rate of unemployment in the countryside is only about two per cent, in reality there are only about 15.3 million jobs for the 20.3 million members of the rural labour force. Some Russian sources have reported that in the countryside, as in the cities, a majority of the unemployed (by a wide margin) are women. 'Programma kadrovogo obespecheniya agrarnoi reformy v usloviyakh perekhoda k rynku', APK: ekonomika, upravlenie, 1995, No.2, p.33; V. Kovalev, 'Nauchnoe obespechenie formirovaniya kadrovogo potentsiala APK', APK: ekonomika, upravlenie, 1995, No.9, p.30.
67. Aleksandr Nikiforov and Yevgenii Selin, 'Zaderzhki s oplaty truda v agrarnom sektore. Kak ikh izbezhat'?', Chelovek i trud, 1995, No.9, p.69. As such interruptions in wage payments imply, although the level of officially recorded unemployment among agricultural workers is low (though apparently growing), the level of underemployment or hidden unemployment in the sector is very high. Raisa Tumanova, 'Zanyatost' na sele: problema slozhnaya, no razreshimaya', Chelovek i trud, 1995, No.2, p.17. According to B. Pankov, 'Formirovanie agrarnogo rynka truda', APK: ekonomika, upravlenie, 1995, No.6, pp.44-5, although the official rate of unemployment in the countryside is only about two per cent, in reality there are only about 15.3 million jobs for the 20.3 million members of the rural labour force. Some Russian sources have reported that in the countryside, as in the cities, a majority of the unemployed (by a wide margin) are women. 'Programma kadrovogo obespecheniya agrarnoi reformy v usloviyakh perekhoda k rynku', APK: ekonomika, upravlenie, 1995, No.2, p.33; V. Kovalev, 'Nauchnoe obespechenie formirovaniya kadrovogo potentsiala APK', APK: ekonomika, upravlenie, 1995, No.9, p.30.
68. Aleksandr Nikiforov and Yevgenii Selin, 'Zaderzhki s oplaty truda v agrarnom sektore. Kak ikh izbezhat'?', Chelovek i trud, 1995, No.9, p.69. As such interruptions in wage payments imply, although the level of officially recorded unemployment among agricultural workers is low (though apparently growing), the level of underemployment or hidden unemployment in the sector is very high. Raisa Tumanova, 'Zanyatost' na sele: problema slozhnaya, no razreshimaya', Chelovek i trud, 1995, No.2, p.17. According to B. Pankov, 'Formirovanie agrarnogo rynka truda', APK: ekonomika, upravlenie, 1995, No.6, pp.44-5, although the official rate of unemployment in the countryside is only about two per cent, in reality there are only about 15.3 million jobs for the 20.3 million members of the rural labour force. Some Russian sources have reported that in the countryside, as in the cities, a majority of the unemployed (by a wide margin) are women. 'Programma kadrovogo obespecheniya agrarnoi reformy v usloviyakh perekhoda k rynku', APK: ekonomika, upravlenie, 1995, No.2, p.33; V. Kovalev, 'Nauchnoe obespechenie formirovaniya kadrovogo potentsiala APK', APK: ekonomika, upravlenie, 1995, No.9, p.30.
69. Aleksandr Nikiforov and Yevgenii Selin, 'Zaderzhki s oplaty truda v agrarnom sektore. Kak ikh izbezhat'?', Chelovek i trud, 1995, No.9, p.69. As such interruptions in wage payments imply, although the level of officially recorded unemployment among agricultural workers is low (though apparently growing), the level of underemployment or hidden unemployment in the sector is very high. Raisa Tumanova, 'Zanyatost' na sele: problema slozhnaya, no razreshimaya', Chelovek i trud, 1995, No.2, p.17. According to B. Pankov, 'Formirovanie agrarnogo rynka truda', APK: ekonomika, upravlenie, 1995, No.6, pp.44-5, although the official rate of unemployment in the countryside is only about two per cent, in reality there are only about 15.3 million jobs for the 20.3 million members of the rural labour force. Some Russian sources have reported that in the countryside, as in the cities, a majority of the unemployed (by a wide margin) are women. 'Programma kadrovogo obespecheniya agrarnoi reformy v usloviyakh perekhoda k rynku', APK: ekonomika, upravlenie, 1995, No.2, p.33; V. Kovalev, 'Nauchnoe obespechenie formirovaniya kadrovogo potentsiala APK', APK: ekonomika, upravlenie, 1995, No.9, p.30.
70. Wegren, 'Weapons of the Weak', p.289, and Pankov, 'Formirovanie agramogo rynka', p.44, assert that such inequality has increased recently.
71. Wegren, 'Weapons of the Weak', p.289, and Pankov, 'Formirovanie agramogo rynka', p.44, assert that such inequality has increased recently.
72. Goskomstat, 'Agropromyshlennyi kompleks v 1994', p.51.
73. Yu. A. Stutskii, 'O polozhenii v agropromyshlennom komplekse Rossii', APK: ekonomika, upravlenie, 1995, No.1, p.39.
74. Ibid.; Goskomstat, 'Agropromyshlennyi kompleks v 1994', p.51.
75. Ibid.; Goskomstat, 'Agropromyshlennyi kompleks v 1994', p.51.
76. V. Timofeev, 'Sotsial'noe obustroistvo sela - zadacha obshchenarodnaya', APK: ekonomika, upravlenie, 1993, No.9, p.16; G.I. Shmelev, 'Kto nakormit Rossiyu?', Vestnik Rossiiskoi Akademii Nauk, 1994, No.8, p.730; A. Nazarchuk, 'Problemy i puti vykhoda iz krizisa agropromyshlennogo kompleksa Rossiiskoi Federatsii', APK: ekonomika, upravlenie, 1995, No.4, p.22; I. Terent'ev, 'Itogi raboty agropromyshlennogo kompleksa v 1994 g.', Ekonomist, 1995, No.4, p.61. Buzlaeva, 'Usloviya', p.73, reported that the contraction of centralized budgetary financing for rural 'non-productive construction' had begun in 1988. That trend was also attributed to the late Gorbachev period by V. Timofeev, 'Sotsial'naya i inzhenernaya infrastruktura sela', APK; ekonomika, upravlenie, 1995, No.8, p.4. That tendency accelerated rapidly after 1991. Public service facilities, such as medical clinics, pre-school child-care institutions and schools, are reported to be supported by the budgets of local governments in most parts of Russia. The fate of retail stores and facilities providing daily services seems to vary; in some areas those shops have been privatized, while in other places they are now municipal property. In any case, the essential result is the impoverishment of the rural social infrastructure. Evidently there are exceptions to the general rule of the sloughing off of responsibility for social services by agricultural enterprises; Yu. Polyakov, 'Kolkhoz v novykh usloviyakh', APK: ekonomika, upravlenie, 1995, No.4, p.61, notes that the collective farm in a large village (stanitsa) in the Kalinin raion of Krasnodar krai still supports almost all the social infrastructure of the village.
77. V. Timofeev, 'Sotsial'noe obustroistvo sela - zadacha obshchenarodnaya', APK: ekonomika, upravlenie, 1993, No.9, p.16; G.I. Shmelev, 'Kto nakormit Rossiyu?', Vestnik Rossiiskoi Akademii Nauk, 1994, No.8, p.730; A. Nazarchuk, 'Problemy i puti vykhoda iz krizisa agropromyshlennogo kompleksa Rossiiskoi Federatsii', APK: ekonomika, upravlenie, 1995, No.4, p.22; I. Terent'ev, 'Itogi raboty agropromyshlennogo kompleksa v 1994 g.', Ekonomist, 1995, No.4, p.61. Buzlaeva, 'Usloviya', p.73, reported that the contraction of centralized budgetary financing for rural 'non-productive construction' had begun in 1988. That trend was also attributed to the late Gorbachev period by V. Timofeev, 'Sotsial'naya i inzhenernaya infrastruktura sela', APK; ekonomika, upravlenie, 1995, No.8, p.4. That tendency accelerated rapidly after 1991. Public service facilities, such as medical clinics, pre-school child-care institutions and schools, are reported to be supported by the budgets of local governments in most parts of Russia. The fate of retail stores and facilities providing daily services seems to vary; in some areas those shops have been privatized, while in other places they are now municipal property. In any case, the essential result is the impoverishment of the rural social infrastructure. Evidently there are exceptions to the general rule of the sloughing off of responsibility for social services by agricultural enterprises; Yu. Polyakov, 'Kolkhoz v novykh usloviyakh', APK: ekonomika, upravlenie, 1995, No.4, p.61, notes that the collective farm in a large village (stanitsa) in the Kalinin raion of Krasnodar krai still supports almost all the social infrastructure of the village.
78. V. Timofeev, 'Sotsial'noe obustroistvo sela - zadacha obshchenarodnaya', APK: ekonomika, upravlenie, 1993, No.9, p.16; G.I. Shmelev, 'Kto nakormit Rossiyu?', Vestnik Rossiiskoi Akademii Nauk, 1994, No.8, p.730; A. Nazarchuk, 'Problemy i puti vykhoda iz krizisa agropromyshlennogo kompleksa Rossiiskoi Federatsii', APK: ekonomika, upravlenie, 1995, No.4, p.22; I. Terent'ev, 'Itogi raboty agropromyshlennogo kompleksa v 1994 g.', Ekonomist, 1995, No.4, p.61. Buzlaeva, 'Usloviya', p.73, reported that the contraction of centralized budgetary financing for rural 'non-productive construction' had begun in 1988. That trend was also attributed to the late Gorbachev period by V. Timofeev, 'Sotsial'naya i inzhenernaya infrastruktura sela', APK; ekonomika, upravlenie, 1995, No.8, p.4. That tendency accelerated rapidly after 1991. Public service facilities, such as medical clinics, pre-school child-care institutions and schools, are reported to be supported by the budgets of local governments in most parts of Russia. The fate of retail stores and facilities providing daily services seems to vary; in some areas those shops have been privatized, while in other places they are now municipal property. In any case, the essential result is the impoverishment of the rural social infrastructure. Evidently there are exceptions to the general rule of the sloughing off of responsibility for social services by agricultural enterprises; Yu. Polyakov, 'Kolkhoz v novykh usloviyakh', APK: ekonomika, upravlenie, 1995, No.4, p.61, notes that the collective farm in a large village (stanitsa) in the Kalinin raion of Krasnodar krai still supports almost all the social infrastructure of the village.
79. V. Timofeev, 'Sotsial'noe obustroistvo sela - zadacha obshchenarodnaya', APK: ekonomika, upravlenie, 1993, No.9, p.16; G.I. Shmelev, 'Kto nakormit Rossiyu?', Vestnik Rossiiskoi Akademii Nauk, 1994, No.8, p.730; A. Nazarchuk, 'Problemy i puti vykhoda iz krizisa agropromyshlennogo kompleksa Rossiiskoi Federatsii', APK: ekonomika, upravlenie, 1995, No.4, p.22; I. Terent'ev, 'Itogi raboty agropromyshlennogo kompleksa v 1994 g.', Ekonomist, 1995, No.4, p.61. Buzlaeva, 'Usloviya', p.73, reported that the contraction of centralized budgetary financing for rural 'non-productive construction' had begun in 1988. That trend was also attributed to the late Gorbachev period by V. Timofeev, 'Sotsial'naya i inzhenernaya infrastruktura sela', APK; ekonomika, upravlenie, 1995, No.8, p.4. That tendency accelerated rapidly after 1991. Public service facilities, such as medical clinics, pre-school child-care institutions and schools, are reported to be supported by the budgets of local governments in most parts of Russia. The fate of retail stores and facilities providing daily services seems to vary; in some areas those shops have been privatized, while in other places they are now municipal property. In any case, the essential result is the impoverishment of the rural social infrastructure. Evidently there are exceptions to the general rule of the sloughing off of responsibility for social services by agricultural enterprises; Yu. Polyakov, 'Kolkhoz v novykh usloviyakh', APK: ekonomika, upravlenie, 1995, No.4, p.61, notes that the collective farm in a large village (stanitsa) in the Kalinin raion of Krasnodar krai still supports almost all the social infrastructure of the village.
80. V. Timofeev, 'Sotsial'noe obustroistvo sela - zadacha obshchenarodnaya', APK: ekonomika, upravlenie, 1993, No.9, p.16; G.I. Shmelev, 'Kto nakormit Rossiyu?', Vestnik Rossiiskoi Akademii Nauk, 1994, No.8, p.730; A. Nazarchuk, 'Problemy i puti vykhoda iz krizisa agropromyshlennogo kompleksa Rossiiskoi Federatsii', APK: ekonomika, upravlenie, 1995, No.4, p.22; I. Terent'ev, 'Itogi raboty agropromyshlennogo kompleksa v 1994 g.', Ekonomist, 1995, No.4, p.61. Buzlaeva, 'Usloviya', p.73, reported that the contraction of centralized budgetary financing for rural 'non-productive construction' had begun in 1988. That trend was also attributed to the late Gorbachev period by V. Timofeev, 'Sotsial'naya i inzhenernaya infrastruktura sela', APK; ekonomika, upravlenie, 1995, No.8, p.4. That tendency accelerated rapidly after 1991. Public service facilities, such as medical clinics, pre-school child-care institutions and schools, are reported to be supported by the budgets of local governments in most parts of Russia. The fate of retail stores and facilities providing daily services seems to vary; in some areas those shops have been privatized, while in other places they are now municipal property. In any case, the essential result is the impoverishment of the rural social infrastructure. Evidently there are exceptions to the general rule of the sloughing off of responsibility for social services by agricultural enterprises; Yu. Polyakov, 'Kolkhoz v novykh usloviyakh', APK: ekonomika, upravlenie, 1995, No.4, p.61, notes that the collective farm in a large village (stanitsa) in the Kalinin raion of Krasnodar krai still supports almost all the social infrastructure of the village.
81. V. Timofeev, 'Sotsial'noe obustroistvo sela - zadacha obshchenarodnaya', APK: ekonomika, upravlenie, 1993, No.9, p.16; G.I. Shmelev, 'Kto nakormit Rossiyu?', Vestnik Rossiiskoi Akademii Nauk, 1994, No.8, p.730; A. Nazarchuk, 'Problemy i puti vykhoda iz krizisa agropromyshlennogo kompleksa Rossiiskoi Federatsii', APK: ekonomika, upravlenie, 1995, No.4, p.22; I. Terent'ev, 'Itogi raboty agropromyshlennogo kompleksa v 1994 g.', Ekonomist, 1995, No.4, p.61. Buzlaeva, 'Usloviya', p.73, reported that the contraction of centralized budgetary financing for rural 'non-productive construction' had begun in 1988. That trend was also attributed to the late Gorbachev period by V. Timofeev, 'Sotsial'naya i inzhenernaya infrastruktura sela', APK; ekonomika, upravlenie, 1995, No.8, p.4. That tendency accelerated rapidly after 1991. Public service facilities, such as medical clinics, pre-school child-care institutions and schools, are reported to be supported by the budgets of local governments in most parts of Russia. The fate of retail stores and facilities providing daily services seems to vary; in some areas those shops have been privatized, while in other places they are now municipal property. In any case, the essential result is the impoverishment of the rural social infrastructure. Evidently there are exceptions to the general rule of the sloughing off of responsibility for social services by agricultural enterprises; Yu. Polyakov, 'Kolkhoz v novykh usloviyakh', APK: ekonomika, upravlenie, 1995, No.4, p.61, notes that the collective farm in a large village (stanitsa) in the Kalinin raion of Krasnodar krai still supports almost all the social infrastructure of the village.
82. V. Timofeev, 'Sotsial'noe obustroistvo sela - zadacha obshchenarodnaya', APK: ekonomika, upravlenie, 1993, No.9, p.16; G.I. Shmelev, 'Kto nakormit Rossiyu?', Vestnik Rossiiskoi Akademii Nauk, 1994, No.8, p.730; A. Nazarchuk, 'Problemy i puti vykhoda iz krizisa agropromyshlennogo kompleksa Rossiiskoi Federatsii', APK: ekonomika, upravlenie, 1995, No.4, p.22; I. Terent'ev, 'Itogi raboty agropromyshlennogo kompleksa v 1994 g.', Ekonomist, 1995, No.4, p.61. Buzlaeva, 'Usloviya', p.73, reported that the contraction of centralized budgetary financing for rural 'non-productive construction' had begun in 1988. That trend was also attributed to the late Gorbachev period by V. Timofeev, 'Sotsial'naya i inzhenernaya infrastruktura sela', APK; ekonomika, upravlenie, 1995, No.8, p.4. That tendency accelerated rapidly after 1991. Public service facilities, such as medical clinics, pre-school child-care institutions and schools, are reported to be supported by the budgets of local governments in most parts of Russia. The fate of retail stores and facilities providing daily services seems to vary; in some areas those shops have been privatized, while in other places they are now municipal property. In any case, the essential result is the impoverishment of the rural social infrastructure. Evidently there are exceptions to the general rule of the sloughing off of responsibility for social services by agricultural enterprises; Yu. Polyakov, 'Kolkhoz v novykh usloviyakh', APK: ekonomika, upravlenie, 1995, No.4, p.61, notes that the collective farm in a large village (stanitsa) in the Kalinin raion of Krasnodar krai still supports almost all the social infrastructure of the village.
83. V.P. Belen'kii, 'Sotsial'nye aspekty agrarnoi reformy', Sotsiologicheskie issledovaniya, 1992, No.9, p.89; Petrikov, 'Sel'skoe obshchestvo', p.85; Nazarchuk, 'Problemy i puti', p.22.
84. V.P. Belen'kii, 'Sotsial'nye aspekty agrarnoi reformy', Sotsiologicheskie issledovaniya, 1992, No.9, p.89; Petrikov, 'Sel'skoe obshchestvo', p.85; Nazarchuk, 'Problemy i puti', p.22.
85. V.P. Belen'kii, 'Sotsial'nye aspekty agrarnoi reformy', Sotsiologicheskie issledovaniya, 1992, No.9, p.89; Petrikov, 'Sel'skoe obshchestvo', p.85; Nazarchuk, 'Problemy i puti', p.22.
86. 'Programma kadrovogo obespecheniya', p.32.
87. Zaveryukha, 'Problemy agrarnoi reformy', p.4. Terent'ev, 'Itogi', p.61, estimates that the scale of construction of rural roads in 1994 was only a third of what it had been in 1991.
88. Zaveryukha, 'Problemy agrarnoi reformy', p.4. Terent'ev, 'Itogi', p.61, estimates that the scale of construction of rural roads in 1994 was only a third of what it had been in 1991.
89. Timofeev, 'Sotsial'noe obustroistvo', p.15.
90. Petrikov, 'Sel'skoe obshchestvo', pp.85-6, said that during 1991-92 space in rural pre-school child care institutions, clubs, hospitals and enterprises of daily services had been cut back. For the reasons noted in this article, it is very likely that the contraction of such facilities has continued since 1992.
91. A. Ogarkov, 'Sotsial'noe i inzhenernoe obustroistvo sel'skikh territorii', Economist, 1994, No.3, p.91. Nazarchuk, 'Problemy i puti', p.22: 'In many regions ... the existing potential of the social infrastructure of rural areas is being destroyed.' Svetlana K. Orlovskaya, interview by the author at the Institute of Economics of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, 18 July 1995: 'In most regions, budgets are inadequate for allocations to the social sphere, even to maintain and support that which was there earlier.' Of course, it is likely that a large proportion of the facilities and equipment used in agricultural production is also deteriorating without being adequately repaired or replaced. Timofeev, 'Sotsial'naya', 1995, p.6: 'The social and engineering infrastructure of the countryside is perishing in front of the eyes of the whole people.'
92. A. Ogarkov, 'Sotsial'noe i inzhenernoe obustroistvo sel'skikh territorii', Economist, 1994, No.3, p.91. Nazarchuk, 'Problemy i puti', p.22: 'In many regions ... the existing potential of the social infrastructure of rural areas is being destroyed.' Svetlana K. Orlovskaya, interview by the author at the Institute of Economics of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, 18 July 1995: 'In most regions, budgets are inadequate for allocations to the social sphere, even to maintain and support that which was there earlier.' Of course, it is likely that a large proportion of the facilities and equipment used in agricultural production is also deteriorating without being adequately repaired or replaced. Timofeev, 'Sotsial'naya', 1995, p.6: 'The social and engineering infrastructure of the countryside is perishing in front of the eyes of the whole people.'
93. Timofeev, 'Sotsial'noe obustroistvo', p.14.
94. Timofeev has estimated that only 12.5 per cent of homes in rural areas were connected with natural gas lines by 1993 (ibid.). The results of growth in the number of rural residences with propane tanks in the Brezhnev period were noted by Schroeder, 'Rural Living Standards', p.250.
95. Ogarkov, 'Sotsial'noe i inzhenernoe obustroistvo', p.91.
96. The corresponding figures for urban schools were as follows: water lines, 93.5 per cent, sewer lines, 87.7 per cent, and central heating, 92.7 per cent: see Goskomstat, Rossiiskii statisticheskii yezhegodnik, 1994, p.121. During the past few years, the Russian statistical yearbook has more openly admitted deficiencies in rural living conditions.
97. This measure does not include sales in farmers' markets. Other shortcomings of the measure are discussed by Schroeder, 'Rural Living Standards', pp.245-6. The data include purchases by enterprises.
98. Belen'kii, 'Sotsial'nye aspekty', p.89: 'For many residents of the countryside, economic alienation from the sphere of social and cultural services is growing, turning many of those services, especially those of the highest quality, into unattainable ones.'
99. Another widely used measure of the effectiveness of health care is the life-span. The average life-span of Russians has been decreasing in recent years, with a greater decrease among males than females. Timofeev, 'Sotsial'noe obustroistvo', p.15, reported in 1993 that the average life span in the countryside was two years less than that in the cities. However, data showing trends in the life-span in urban and rural areas in Russia have not been published, as far as this author is aware. It should be noted that the average life span is also influenced by other factors in addition to the quality and accessibility of medical care.
100. Zaveryukha, 'Problemy agrarnoi reformy', p.4.
101. Goskomstat, 'Agropromyshlennyi kompleks v 1994', p.51.
102. Goskomstat, Rossiiskii statisticheskii yezhegodnik, 1994, p.413. The figures for 1990 in rural and urban areas were 13.9 and 35.7. Telephones per 100 people in rural areas had risen as a percentage of the measure in urban areas from 22.0 in 1970 to 38.9 in 1990 and 41.5 in 1993.
103. Goskomstat Rossii, Sotsial'noe razvitie Rossiiskoi Federatsii v 1992 godu (Moscow: Respublikanskii informatsionno-izdatel'skii tsentr, 1992), p.279.
104. Timofeev, 'Sotsial'noe obustroistvo', p.14.
105. Ogarkov, 'Sotsial'noe i inzhenernoe obustroistvo', p.91. That source said that 'more than 45 thousand rural populated points' had no telephones.
106. Z.I. Katugina and I.N. Martynova, 'Agrarnaya reforma v Sibiri: sotsial'nyi aspekt', Obshchestvo i ekonomika, 1993, No.4, p.42.
107. A. Nikonov, 'Sotsial'no-ekonomicheskie problemy agrarnoi reformy v Rossiiskoi Federatsii', APK: ekonomika, upravlenie, 1993, No.10, p.13. As that source suggested, household farming is usually carried out on a larger scale by agricultural workers, but is not carried out exclusively by those employed on farms. During this author's travels in Semenov raion of Nizhegorodskii oblast and Taldom raion of Moscow oblast of Russia in July 1995, his observations and conversations with local residents created the impression that almost all those living in small towns and villages in those districts were engaged in private plot farming, although on varying scales. The author also gained the impression that people in medium-sized and large cities (including Moscow) have expanded their cultivation of small plots of land near their cities or at family cabins (dachi) in the countryside. Most of the output from urban dwellers' small plots of land is not officially recorded.
108. Parikov, 'Formirovanie agrarnogo rynka', p.44, estimates that 1,990,00 were occupied in private farming in 1991, and 3,077,00 in 1994.
109. Shmelev, 'Kto nakormit', p.728; Goskomstat, Rossiiskii statisticheskii yezhegodnik, 1994, p.341. Shmelev estimated that figure for 1994 to be 36 per cent, but Goskomstat estimated it at 35 per cent. It should be noted that private plot production had started to provide a growing share of agricultural output under Gorbachev, and that the trend accelerated in Russia after 1991. However, Pankov, 'Formirovanie agrarnogo rynka', p.45, asserted that a 'period of stabilization' of private plot output had begun by 1995.
110. Shmelev, 'Kto nakormit', p.728; Goskomstat, Rossiiskii statisticheskii yezhegodnik, 1994, p.341. Shmelev estimated that figure for 1994 to be 36 per cent, but Goskomstat estimated it at 35 per cent. It should be noted that private plot production had started to provide a growing share of agricultural output under Gorbachev, and that the trend accelerated in Russia after 1991. However, Pankov, 'Formirovanie agrarnogo rynka', p.45, asserted that a 'period of stabilization' of private plot output had begun by 1995.
111. Shmelev, 'Kto nakormit', p.728; Goskomstat, Rossiiskii statisticheskii yezhegodnik, 1994, p.341. Shmelev estimated that figure for 1994 to be 36 per cent, but Goskomstat estimated it at 35 per cent. It should be noted that private plot production had started to provide a growing share of agricultural output under Gorbachev, and that the trend accelerated in Russia after 1991. However, Pankov, 'Formirovanie agrarnogo rynka', p.45, asserted that a 'period of stabilization' of private plot output had begun by 1995.
112. Yevgenii Starikov, 'Na zavode i v pole: starye klassy v novuyu epokhu', Znamya, 1994, No.7, p.185; Yuri Yestifeev, 'Derevnya bez deneg', Moskva, 1995, No.8, p.148.
113. Yevgenii Starikov, 'Na zavode i v pole: starye klassy v novuyu epokhu', Znamya, 1994, No.7, p.185; Yuri Yestifeev, 'Derevnya bez deneg', Moskva, 1995, No.8, p.148.
114. I. Poshkus, 'Sotsial'no-ekonomicheskie problemy sovershenstvovaniya zemel'nykh otnoshenii v Rossii', APK: ekonomika, upravlenie, 1994, No.4, p.4.
115. Nikonov, 'Sotsial'no-ekonomicheskii monitoring', p.8. The proportions given by this source are 76 per cent and 24 per cent. Some of the marketed output is sold for cash, while some is exchanged for other products.
116. Shmelev, 'Kto nakormit', p.729.
117. Timofeev, 'Sotsial'noe obustroistvo', 1993, p.14.
118. Of course, the decrease in the urban population of Russia after 1991 was due not only to migration to rural areas, but also to a decrease in the birthrate and a shortening of the average life span. The last two factors have also been felt in the countryside, however: ibid., p.15.
119. Nikonov, 'Sotsial'no-ekonomicheskii monitoring', p.8; see also Wegren, 'Weapons of the Weak', p.296.
120. Nikonov, 'Sotsial'no-ekonomicheskii monitoring', p.8; see also Wegren, 'Weapons of the Weak', p.296.
121. Stephen K. Wegren, 'Rural Migration and Agrarian Reform in Russia: A Research Note', Europe-Asia Studies, Vol.47, No.5 (July 1995), p.880, found that to be true in Kostroma and Kaluga oblasts of Russia during 1992-93.
122. The intra-oblast migrants were the second largest group of new arrivals to the countryside in the oblasts studied by Wegren: ibid. The Orlovskaya interview was the source of the report that many of those moving to the countryside have roots in the villages to which they have returned.
123. Poshkus, 'Sotsial'no-ekonomicheskie problemy', 1994, p.10. This statement by Poshkus raises the possibility that the availability of abandoned housing in depopulated rural settlements may be another factor attracting migrants from the near abroad to rural areas, in view of the chronic shortage of housing and the recently rising cost of housing in Russian cities, although Russian scholars do not emphasize the importance of that factor in attracting migrants to the villages.
124. 'Programma kadrovogo obespecheniya', p.32; V. Pechenkina, 'Sotsial'nye preobrazovaniya na sele Orlovshchiny', APK: ekonomika, upravlenie, 1994, No.12, p.32; O. Mikhailov, 'Formirovanie rynka truda i zanyatost' sel'skogo naseleniya', Rossiiskii ekonomicheskii zhurnal, 1995, No.7, p.42.
125. 'Programma kadrovogo obespecheniya', p.32; V. Pechenkina, 'Sotsial'nye preobrazovaniya na sele Orlovshchiny', APK: ekonomika, upravlenie, 1994, No.12, p.32; O. Mikhailov, 'Formirovanie rynka truda i zanyatost' sel'skogo naseleniya', Rossiiskii ekonomicheskii zhurnal, 1995, No.7, p.42.
126. 'Programma kadrovogo obespecheniya', p.32; V. Pechenkina, 'Sotsial'nye preobrazovaniya na sele Orlovshchiny', APK: ekonomika, upravlenie, 1994, No.12, p.32; O. Mikhailov, 'Formirovanie rynka truda i zanyatost' sel'skogo naseleniya', Rossiiskii ekonomicheskii zhurnal, 1995, No.7, p.42.
127. The Stalinist policies were the source of the long-term trends that led one American scholar to conclude that 'the Soviet pattern of development favors the city': see Ellen Mickiewicz, 'Introduction', in Ellen Mickiewicz (ed.), Handbook of Soviet Social Science Data (New York: Free Press, 1973), p.5.
128. Stephen K. Wegren, 'Dilemmas of Agrarian Reform in the Soviet Union', Soviet Studies, Vol.44, No.1 (Jan. 1992), pp.3-36. Wegren's arguments are consistent with analyses offered earlier by some other scholars studying Soviet agriculture, including Roy D. Laird. An entire issue of the Journal of Development Studies, Vol.29, No.4 (July 1993), was devoted to the discussion and evaluation of the concept of urban bias in a comparative perspective.
129. Stephen K. Wegren, 'Dilemmas of Agrarian Reform in the Soviet Union', Soviet Studies, Vol.44, No.1 (Jan. 1992), pp.3-36. Wegren's arguments are consistent with analyses offered earlier by some other scholars studying Soviet agriculture, including Roy D. Laird. An entire issue of the Journal of Development Studies, Vol.29, No.4 (July 1993), was devoted to the discussion and evaluation of the concept of urban bias in a comparative perspective.
130. Surely any debate among scholars studying that topic would concern the degree of amelioration of urban bias in the post-Stalin Soviet Union, and not the basic fact of a substantial decrease in such bias. At any rate, the opening of such a debate is not the purpose of this article.
131. Starikov, 'Na zavode', p.183, and Mikhailov, 'Situatsiya', p.32, make that point specifically in relation to organizations purchasing and processing agricultural products. They argue that each of those organizations occupies a monopoly or semi-monopoly position. Their arguments are consistent with the implicit explanation of the price scissors offered by Wegren and Durgin, 'Why Agrarian', p.53.
132. Starikov, 'Na zavode', p.183, and Mikhailov, 'Situatsiya', p.32, make that point specifically in relation to organizations purchasing and processing agricultural products. They argue that each of those organizations occupies a monopoly or semi-monopoly position. Their arguments are consistent with the implicit explanation of the price scissors offered by Wegren and Durgin, 'Why Agrarian', p.53.
133. Starikov, 'Na zavode', p.183, and Mikhailov, 'Situatsiya', p.32, make that point specifically in relation to organizations purchasing and processing agricultural products. They argue that each of those organizations occupies a monopoly or semi-monopoly position. Their arguments are consistent with the implicit explanation of the price scissors offered by Wegren and Durgin, 'Why Agrarian', p.53.
134. Aleksandr Zaveryukha, 'APK Rossii v usloviyakh perekhodnogo perioda', Vlast', 1995, No.9, p.5. Another recent trend resulting from the disadvantages faced by agricultural enterprises in trading with many other enterprises in Russia is the growth of branches or departments of agricultural enterprises which are directly engaged in the processing and marketing of agricultural products.
135. That conclusion is based on the analysis presented by William Liefert, David Sedik and Christian Foster, 'Progress in Agricultural Reform', Transition (Open Media Research Institute), Vol.1, No. 16 (18 Sept. 1995), p.51. It should be noted that the optimistic assessment of recent changes in Russian agriculture provided by those authors is sharply at variance with the pessimistic assessment
136. offered by Wegren and Durgin, 'Why Agrarian'. However, the causal interpretations of trends which are offered by those two articles, although contrasting, are not mutually exclusive. It is possible to say, both that Russian agricultural producers recently have suffered from growing competitive disadvantages in relation to the enterprises with which they trade, and also that Russian agricultural producers have lost the protection and subsidies which formerly were assured them by the state. Each set of factors has played a role in the impoverishment of large numbers of agricultural enterprises, the growth of disguised and open unemployment in agriculture, the relative decline of wages in agriculture, and the decrease in financing of the social infrastructure of rural areas.
137. Jean C. Oi, 'Reform and Urban Bias in China', Journal of Development Studies, Vol.29, No.4 (July 1993), p.145, argues that in China 'the urban-biased policies are the insurance policies that the regime buys to ensure that those in the urban areas, particularly the workers, will refrain from political activity that will endanger the stability of the regime'. However, according to Oi (pp.141 and 143), in recent years in China, rural non-agricultural enterprises, with the assistance and encouragement of local governments, have begun to counter the effects of urban bias with considerable success. The growth of such locally based rural non-agricultural economic enterprises has largely been lacking in Russia so far, and it does not seem likely that most local governments in Russia have placed great emphasis on the creation and growth of such enterprises.