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Volumn 44, Issue 1, 1996, Pages 63-87

Silage in Britain, 1880-1990: The delayed adoption of an innovation

(1)  Brassley, Paul a  

a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

AGRICULTURAL HISTORY; ECONOMIC CHANGE; HISTORICAL STUDY; NINETEENTH CENTURY; SILAGE TECHNIQUE; TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATION; TWENTIETH CENTURY;

EID: 0030427440     PISSN: 00021490     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Review
Times cited : (22)

References (241)
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    • A Midsummer Night's Dream, act 4, scene 1, line 33
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    • William Shakespeare, A Midsummer Night's Dream, act 4, scene 1, line 33, in S Wells and G Taylor, eds, William Shakespeare: The Complete Works, 1988, p 326.
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  • 3
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    • Ames, Iowa
    • According to John T Schlebecker, Whereby We Thrive: A History of American Farming, 1607-1972, Ames, Iowa, 1975, p 183, the first silo was built in the USA in 1873, by the 1890s most dairy farmers used silage, and by 1914 it was becoming popular in cattle feeding areas. I am grateful to Dr Douglas E Bowers, head of the Agricultural and Rural History Section in the United States Department of Agriculture, for providing me with this and many other references.
    • (1975) Whereby We Thrive: A History of American Farming, 1607-1972 , pp. 183
    • Schlebecker, J.T.1
  • 7
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    • Vanishing meadows
    • A Colston and J Best, 'Vanishing meadows', Natural World, No 32, 1991, pp 22-24;
    • (1991) Natural World , vol.32 , pp. 22-24
    • Colston, A.1    Best, J.2
  • 9
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    • Crofters' care makes isles a haven for corncrakes
    • 10 August
    • am grateful to Caroline Steel of The Wildlife Trusts for this reference. For the corncrake, see also John Arlidge, 'Crofters' care makes isles a haven for corncrakes,' The Independent, 10 August 1994, p 5, which reported that farmers in the Western Isles of Scotland were being paid up to £50 per hectare by various conservation bodies to delay harvesting hay meadows until 1 August in order to allow corncrake chicks to fledge before the grass was cut. Many of those on the island of Tiree were reported to use the money to pay for baling their silage.
    • (1994) The Independent , pp. 5
    • Arlidge, J.1
  • 10
    • 22844440096 scopus 로고
    • The agricultural lessons of "the Eighties"
    • 3rd ser
    • J Wrightson, 'The agricultural lessons of "the Eighties"', JRASE, 3rd ser, 1, 1890, p 285.
    • (1890) JRASE , vol.1 , pp. 285
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  • 18
    • 85037710358 scopus 로고
    • it may be worth noting that G Barker, Prehistoric Farming in Europe, 1985, p 48 denies that silage was made in the prehistoric period.
    • (1985) Prehistoric Farming in Europe , pp. 48
    • Barker, G.1
  • 20
    • 22844441427 scopus 로고
    • The conservation of grass
    • H I Moore, 'The conservation of grass', JRASE, 133, 1972, p 29.
    • (1972) JRASE , vol.133 , pp. 29
    • Moore, H.I.1
  • 21
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    • On the feeding qualities of the natural and artificial grasses in different states of dryness
    • new ser
    • James F W Johnston, 'On the feeding qualities of the natural and artificial grasses in different states of dryness', Trans Highland and Agricultural Soc, new ser, 9, 1843, pp 60-61.
    • (1843) Trans Highland and Agricultural Soc , vol.9 , pp. 60-61
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  • 27
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    • Report on the practice of ensilage, at home and abroad
    • 2nd ser
    • H M Jenkins, 'Report on the practice of ensilage, at home and abroad', JRASE, 2nd ser, 20, 1884, pp 129-37;
    • (1884) JRASE , vol.20 , pp. 129-137
    • Jenkins, H.M.1
  • 28
  • 29
    • 22844450869 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Jenkins ('Practice of ensilage', p 136) points out that, ironically, it was a dry season which prompted French interest in ensilage, whereas 'the moving force with us has been a succession of wet seasons.'
    • Practice of Ensilage , pp. 136
    • Jenkins1
  • 30
    • 22844452337 scopus 로고
    • The history of the silo
    • nd, c
    • The first silo in the USA appears to have been built in 1873, at Spring Grove, Illinois, by Fred L Hatch, who had read a translation of Vilmorin-Andrieux's paper while a student at the University of Illinois. However, Goffart's book was perhaps more influential, because it was translated and published in 1879 by Mr J B Brown, president of the New York Plow Co, and mailed to hundreds of his customers in the USA as an advertisement for his firm. See Lyman Carrier, 'The history of the silo', Jnl American Society of Agronomy, nd, c 1920, p 181;
    • (1920) Jnl American Society of Agronomy , pp. 181
    • Carrier, L.1
  • 31
    • 22844451282 scopus 로고
    • Washington
    • United States Department of Agriculture, Yearbook, 1899, Washington, 1900, p 617;
    • (1900) Yearbook, 1899 , pp. 617
  • 32
    • 22844449450 scopus 로고
    • American Society of Agricultural Engineers
    • Anon, The First Vertical Silo, American Society of Agricultural Engineers, 1969. I am indebted to Dr Bowers for all of these sources.
    • (1969) The First Vertical Silo
  • 35
    • 22844449877 scopus 로고
    • at about the same time, M J Sutton claimed to have been 'the medium of first placing ensilage obtained from France before agriculturalists at the Smithfield Cattle Show': see Sutton, Permanent and Temporary Pastures, 3rd ed, 1886, p 108.
    • (1886) Permanent and Temporary Pastures, 3rd Ed , pp. 108
    • Sutton1
  • 36
    • 22844450306 scopus 로고
    • Although it is worth noting that Sutton (Permanent and Temporary Pastures, 5th ed, 1895, p 122) claimed that silage was made in Canada 'long before it became familiar to farmers in Great Britain'.
    • (1895) Permanent and Temporary Pastures, 5th Ed , pp. 122
  • 37
    • 22844443620 scopus 로고
    • On straw chaff
    • 2nd ser
    • S Jonas, 'On straw chaff', JRASE, 2nd ser, 6, 1870, pp 119-21;
    • (1870) JRASE , vol.6 , pp. 119-121
    • Jonas, S.1
  • 38
    • 22844442220 scopus 로고
    • Marlborough
    • Jonas's career is outlined in R Brigden, Victorian Farms, Marlborough, 1986, pp 231-2.
    • (1986) Victorian Farms , pp. 231-232
    • Brigden, R.1
  • 39
    • 0012711563 scopus 로고
    • Report on the agriculture of the Austro-Hungarian Empire
    • 2nd ser
    • J Wrightson, 'Report on the agriculture of the Austro-Hungarian Empire', JRASE, 2nd ser, 10, 1874, p 351;
    • (1874) JRASE , vol.10 , pp. 351
    • Wrightson, J.1
  • 40
    • 22844438657 scopus 로고
    • according to Primrose McConnell, The Agricultural Notebook, 1st ed, 1883, p 120, 'Ensilage is a system of preserving hay or green fodder, originally introduced from Hungary.'
    • (1883) The Agricultural Notebook, 1st Ed , pp. 120
    • McConnell, P.1
  • 44
    • 22844438774 scopus 로고
    • From 1875 to 1883 the rainfall in June, July and August was above the 1915-50 average in every year except 1876, and in 1879 it was 186 per cent of the average, according to H H Lamb, Climate: Present, Past and Future, ii, 1977, P 623.
    • (1977) Climate: Present, Past and Future , vol.2 , pp. 623
    • Lamb, H.H.1
  • 45
    • 22844434559 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Woods, Ensilage, pp 28-9 and 37-9.
    • Ensilage , pp. 28-29
    • Woods1
  • 50
    • 0012689729 scopus 로고
    • On the chemistry of ensilage
    • 2nd ser
    • A Voelcker, 'On the chemistry of ensilage', JRASE. 2nd ser, 20, 1884, pp 482-504.
    • (1884) JRASE , vol.20 , pp. 482-504
    • Voelcker, A.1
  • 54
    • 22844439224 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Experiments in making ensilage during the wet season of 1888
    • 2nd ser
    • H Kains-Jackson, 'Experiments in making ensilage during the wet season of 1888', JRASE, 2nd ser, 25, 1889, p 281
    • (1889) JRASE , vol.25 , pp. 281
    • Kains-Jackson, H.1
  • 57
    • 0347273423 scopus 로고
    • Taunton
    • Lawes first wrote to The Times and The Agricultural Gazette about silage in 1882, exhibiting no great enthusiasm for it, again in 1884 ('So long as the making of ensilage is confined to the wealthy, and to enthusiastic amateurs, no harm can be done...'), and in the season 1884-5 conducted a series of experiments on which he reported to The Agricultural Gazette: see G V Dyke, John Bennet Lawes: The Record of his Genius, Taunton, 1991, pp 239, 240, 248, 296, 326-7.
    • (1991) John Bennet Lawes: The Record of His Genius , pp. 239
    • Dyke, G.V.1
  • 58
    • 22844448994 scopus 로고
    • These reports were subsequently reprinted, with minor alterations, as a pamphlet (Sir J B Lawes and J H Gilbert, Experiments on Ensilage, conducted at Rothamsted, season 1884-5, 1886), which concluded, inter alia, that silage was 'a very good food' for milking cows and fattening oxen, but that the output per acre would be less than that of roots, and that the area under cleaning crops would be reduced, so reducing the area suitable for growing grain crops (pp 55-8).
    • (1886) Experiments on Ensilage, Conducted at Rothamsted, Season 1884-5
    • Lawes, J.B.1    Gilbert, J.H.2
  • 60
    • 22844432014 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Not that the commission was overloaded with practical farmers, although among its members were the agricultural writer Faunce de Laune, James Howard, who originally suggested the production of the Jenkins report, the silage enthusiasts Henry Kains-Jackson and Stanhope Tollemache, and Lords Drogheda and Egerton, landowners.
  • 62
    • 22844447759 scopus 로고
    • The silo and silage-stack competition, 1885-6
    • 2nd ser
    • The Judges, 'The silo and silage-stack competition, 1885-6', JRASE, 2nd ser, 22, 1886, pp 259-311.
    • (1886) JRASE , vol.22 , pp. 259-311
  • 63
    • 22844451391 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See the references in Table 1 (note a)
    • See the references in Table 1 (note a).
  • 65
    • 22844444297 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • The sources of the statistics are given in Table 1 (note a). I am most grateful to Ms Kate Templeton for her help with the production of these figures.
  • 67
    • 22844431894 scopus 로고
    • The silage content of tower silos and silage clamps
    • The weight of a cubic foot of silage depends upon its composition (ie whether it is made from grass, grass and legumes, cereals and legumes, maize, or arable by-products such as cereals), moisture content, and degree of compaction, which increases as the depth of the silo and the effective weight applied to it increases. Thus A Amos, 'The silage content of tower silos and silage clamps', JRASE, 84, 1923, pp 50-60, found that for silage made from oats and tares, material with a high dry-matter content (37.4 per cent) taken from the top of a silo weighed 20.7 lbs per cubic foot, whereas material with a lower dry-matter content (27.5 per cent) taken from 20 feet from the top of a silo weighed 56.7 lbs per cubic foot. Having considered various types of silage made in several different years, he concluded that for a fairly typical moisture content of about 30 per cent, for both tower silos and clamps, a figure of 40 lbs per cubic foot could be used for converting a volume of silage to a weight.
    • (1923) JRASE , vol.84 , pp. 50-60
    • Amos, A.1
  • 68
    • 22844440634 scopus 로고
    • The same figure was given for grass silage in McConnell, Agricultural Notebook, 12th ed, 1953, p 708, and it is the one used for the appropriate calculations in this paper. In his first edition McConnell equates 4 tons of silage with one of hay (p 120).
    • (1953) Agricultural Notebook, 12th Ed , pp. 708
    • McConnell1
  • 70
    • 22844435754 scopus 로고
    • Annual report of the consulting chemist
    • 2nd ser
    • J A Voelcker, 'Annual report of the consulting chemist', JRASE, 2nd ser, XXI, 1885, p 337. Subsequent annual volumes contain similar reports, except for the volumes for 1890 and 1895. The 1891 volume contains 2 reports.
    • (1885) JRASE , vol.21 , pp. 337
    • Voelcker, J.A.1
  • 73
    • 22844445353 scopus 로고
    • Royal Agricultural Society of England, County Agricultural Surveys, No 2
    • R H B Jesse, A Survey cf the Agriculture of Sussex, Royal Agricultural Society of England, County Agricultural Surveys, No 2, 1960, p 125;
    • (1960) A Survey Cf the Agriculture of Sussex , pp. 125
    • Jesse, R.H.B.1
  • 77
    • 22844437766 scopus 로고
    • Supply of silos by the Food Production Department
    • Anon, 'Supply of silos by the Food Production Department', Jnl Board of Agriculture, 25, 1918, pp 149-52;
    • (1918) Jnl Board of Agriculture , vol.25 , pp. 149-152
  • 78
    • 22844443378 scopus 로고
    • Royal Agricultural Society of England, County Agricultural Surveys
    • W B Mercer, A Survey of the Agriculture of Cheshire, Royal Agricultural Society of England, County Agricultural Surveys, No 4, 1963, p81;
    • (1963) A Survey of the Agriculture of Cheshire , vol.4 , pp. 81
    • Mercer, W.B.1
  • 79
    • 22844448448 scopus 로고
    • Royal Agricultural Society of England, County Agricultural Surveys
    • H W Gardner, A Survey of the Agriculture of Hertfordshire, Royal Agricultural Society of England, County Agricultural Surveys, No 5, 1967, p 58.
    • (1967) A Survey of the Agriculture of Hertfordshire , vol.5 , pp. 58
    • Gardner, H.W.1
  • 83
    • 22844447757 scopus 로고
    • The digestibility of oat and tare silage
    • See, for example, T B Wood and H E Woodman, 'The digestibility of oat and tare silage', J Ag Science, 11, 1921, pp 304-9;
    • (1921) J Ag Science , vol.11 , pp. 304-309
    • Wood, T.B.1    Woodman, H.E.2
  • 84
    • 22844443258 scopus 로고
    • A study of the process of making clamp silage
    • A Amos and H E Woodman, 'A study of the process of making clamp silage', J Ag Science, 15, 1925, pp 444-54;
    • (1925) J Ag Science , vol.15 , pp. 444-454
    • Amos, A.1    Woodman, H.E.2
  • 85
    • 22844438003 scopus 로고
    • The nutritive value of stack silage
    • H E Woodman, 'The nutritive value of stack silage', J Ag Science, 15, 1925, pp 327-33;
    • (1925) J Ag Science , vol.15 , pp. 327-333
    • Woodman, H.E.1
  • 86
    • 22844452691 scopus 로고
    • Crops for ensilage
    • A W Oldershaw, 'Crops for ensilage', JRASE, 84, 1923, pp 39-49;
    • (1923) JRASE , vol.84 , pp. 39-49
    • Oldershaw, A.W.1
  • 87
    • 22844437200 scopus 로고
    • The comparative cost of mangolds and silage
    • H W Kersey and C S Orwin, 'The comparative cost of mangolds and silage', JRASE, 86, 1925, pp 48-58.
    • (1925) JRASE , vol.86 , pp. 48-58
    • Kersey, H.W.1    Orwin, C.S.2
  • 88
    • 22844437543 scopus 로고
    • The conservation of grassland herbage
    • See, for example, S J Watson, 'The conservation of grassland herbage', JRASE, 95, 1934, pp 103-16;
    • (1934) JRASE , vol.95 , pp. 103-116
    • Watson, S.J.1
  • 89
    • 0012689236 scopus 로고
    • The chemical composition of grass silage
    • S J Watson, idem, 'The chemical composition of grass silage', J Ag Science, 27, 1937, pp 1-42;
    • (1937) J Ag Science , vol.27 , pp. 1-42
    • Watson, S.J.1
  • 93
    • 22844442337 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The first edition of this work, which was published in 1926, was based on a series of articles in the Journal of the Ministry written by Amos and Woodman, who, as footnote 48 indicates, were among the leading research workers on silage at that time: Jesse, Agriculture of Sussex, p 125;
    • Agriculture of Sussex , pp. 125
    • Jesse1
  • 95
    • 22844451598 scopus 로고
    • Recent developments in silage making
    • F H Garner, 'Recent developments in silage making', JRASE, 103, 1942, p 164;
    • (1942) JRASE , vol.103 , pp. 164
    • Garner, F.H.1
  • 96
    • 22844452579 scopus 로고
    • The feeding of livestock
    • W Godden, 'The feeding of livestock', JRASE, 106, 1945, p 48.
    • (1945) JRASE , vol.106 , pp. 48
    • Godden, W.1
  • 98
    • 22844432131 scopus 로고
    • Silage for self-sufficiency
    • Eric Rea, 'Silage for self-sufficiency', JRASE, 110, 1949, pp 28-9.
    • (1949) JRASE , vol.110 , pp. 28-29
    • Rea, E.1
  • 99
    • 22844451597 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • The capital cost of towers was thought to be too great for them to be given equal emphasis. I am grateful to Mr Victor Burke, of Rattery, Devon, who was employed by a War Ag in 1947-8, for this information.
  • 103
    • 22844438116 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • M McG Cooper, Competitive Farming, 1956, p 35. Cooper was professor of agriculture first at Wye College and then at the University of Newcastle upon Tyne.
    • (1956) Competitive Farming , pp. 35
    • Cooper, M.McG.1
  • 104
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    • Images of the rural in popular culture
    • B Short, ed
    • The programme's objectives were 10 per cent education, 15 per cent information, and the rest entertainment. I am grateful to Godfrey Baseley, the first producer of The Archers, for this information. See also S Laing, 'Images of the rural in popular culture', in B Short, ed, The English Rural Community: Image and Analysis, 1992, p 145.
    • (1992) The English Rural Community: Image and Analysis , pp. 145
    • Laing, S.1
  • 105
    • 22844438113 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • the Caine Committee
    • BPP, 1958/9, VIII, Report of the Committee on Grassland Utilisation (the Caine Committee), p 321. The figures are given on pp 55-6 in the original pagination of the report.
    • Report of the Committee on Grassland Utilisation , pp. 321
  • 107
    • 22844440936 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • BPP, 1958/9, VIII, pp 48-62.
    • BPP, 1958/9, VIII, pp 48-62.
  • 109
    • 22844434250 scopus 로고
    • University of Exeter, Department of Economics (Agricultural Economics) Report No 138
    • V H Beynon, Grassland Management: An Economic Study in Devon, University of Exeter, Department of Economics (Agricultural Economics) Report No 138, 1963, p 6.
    • (1963) Grassland Management: An Economic Study in Devon , pp. 6
    • Beynon, V.H.1
  • 111
    • 22844443848 scopus 로고
    • The agriculture of Warwickshire
    • C Higgs, 'The agriculture of Warwickshire', JRASE, 123, 1962, pp 73-4;
    • (1962) JRASE , vol.123 , pp. 73-74
    • Higgs, C.1
  • 114
    • 22844439327 scopus 로고
    • Royal Agricultural Society of England, County Agricultural Surveys
    • W Harwood Long, A Survey of the Agriculture of Yorkshire, Royal Agricultural Society of England, County Agricultural Surveys, No 6, 1969, p 140.
    • (1969) A Survey of the Agriculture of Yorkshire , vol.6 , pp. 140
    • Harwood Long, W.1
  • 121
    • 22844448991 scopus 로고
    • Experiences of a Scotsman on the Essex clays
    • 3rd ser
    • P McConnell, 'Experiences of a Scotsman on the Essex clays', JRASE, 3rd ser, 2, 1891, p 321.
    • (1891) JRASE , vol.2 , pp. 321
    • McConnell, P.1
  • 122
    • 22844438434 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Silage on the farm: Experience and experiment
    • H I Moore, 'Silage on the farm: experience and experiment', JRASE, 116, 1955, p 60.
    • (1955) JRASE , vol.116 , pp. 60
    • Moore, H.I.1
  • 126
    • 22844440095 scopus 로고
    • New York
    • W H Jordan, director of the New York Agricultural Experiment Station, made the same point in The Feeding of Animals, New York, 1903, p 219,
    • (1903) The Feeding of Animals , pp. 219
    • Jordan, W.H.1
  • 132
    • 22844446039 scopus 로고
    • Suggestions for stock-feeding in the winter of 1893-4
    • 3rd ser
    • in the 1880s Clare Sewell Read, 'Suggestions for stock-feeding in the winter of 1893-4', JRASE, 3rd ser, 4, 1893, p 469, passed all his silage through the chaff-cutter with straw, and then added shredded roots and cake to it before feeding: an early version of complete-diet feeding perhaps?
    • (1893) JRASE , vol.4 , pp. 469
    • Read, C.S.1
  • 145
    • 22844442578 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The Judges, 'The silo', p 306;
    • The Silo , pp. 306
  • 147
    • 22844441768 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • see footnote 24 above
    • see footnote 24 above.
  • 153
    • 22844431771 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • am grateful to Geoffrey Hearnden of Bridford, one of the farmers involved in this experiment, for supplying me with this reference, and for pointing out that it is easier to make silage in large quantities than in small. The same point is made in Mercer, Agriculture of Cheshire, p 83.
    • Agriculture of Cheshire , pp. 83
    • Mercer1
  • 158
    • 22844444295 scopus 로고
    • by 1944, according to C Culpin, Farm Machinery, 2nd ed, 1944, p 221, there were a million silos in the USA.
    • (1944) Farm Machinery, 2nd Ed , pp. 221
    • Culpin, C.1
  • 163
    • 22844451389 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • BPP, 1958/9, VIII, pp 53, 57
    • BPP, 1958/9, VIII, pp 53, 57.
  • 183
    • 22844443257 scopus 로고
    • The decrease in the number of farm workers was seen, at the time, as a reason for the adoption of silage in the 1920s: 'Ensilage not only compares favourably with root-growing in labour costs, but...facilitates the destruction of weeds, partly because these are smothered under the dense foliage and subsequently cut and ensiled before their seeds are shed, and partly because the crop is cleared from the field in early summer, and the land consequently can be broken up in hot weather by steam or tractor and the perennial weeds quickly destroyed' (H Hunter, ed, Bailliere's Encyclopaedia of Scientific Agriculture, 1931, p 284).
    • (1931) Bailliere's Encyclopaedia of Scientific Agriculture , pp. 284
    • Hunter, H.1
  • 185
    • 22844445036 scopus 로고
    • Cmnd 7644
    • H Kornberg, Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution. Seventh Report: Agriculture and Pollution, Cmnd 7644, 1979, p 10. The figures given are for sales of pesticides by UK manufacturers for home and export use, all at 1976 values, and they show an increase in herbicide sales from about £10 million in 1958 to about £80 million in 1976. However, no figures are quoted for consumption within the UK only (the problems of finding such data are discussed on p 9 of the report), although it is stated that roughly half of all pesticides were sold at home in 1976. The MAFF Annual Review of Agriculture gives no separate figures for expenditure on pesticides before 1983 (prior to that they were included with veterinary and electricity costs and rates) and no separate figures for herbicides at all.
    • (1979) Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution. Seventh Report: Agriculture and Pollution , pp. 10
    • Kornberg, H.1
  • 188
    • 22844438654 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Figures for the years up to 1945 are for Great Britain, and are taken from MAFF, A Century of Agricultural Statistics, pp 120-21.
    • A Century of Agricultural Statistics , pp. 120-121
  • 191
    • 22844448211 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Seddon, The Silent Revolution, pp 25-7 contains a vivid account of the problems of haymaking;
    • The Silent Revolution , pp. 25-27
    • Seddon1
  • 195
    • 22844431770 scopus 로고
    • Farmers Leaflet No 16, Cambridge
    • Tetraploid ryegrasses first appeared on the NIAB recommended list in 1964: see National Institute of Agricultural Botany, Varieties of Ryegrass, Farmers Leaflet No 16, Cambridge, 1964, pp 4-7. I am very grateful to my colleague David Barnard for this point, and to him and Dr John Kirk for discussing the effects of tetraploid ryegrasses.
    • (1964) Varieties of Ryegrass , pp. 4-7
  • 197
    • 22844439223 scopus 로고
    • These figures are taken from the indices of prices of medium fuel oil or gas oil fuel given in the annual volumes of the Annual Abstract of Statistics for the years 1964 to 1983, deflated by the Retail Price Index series (1985 = 100) given in A Burrell, B Hill and J Medland, Agrifacts, 1990, p 148. At its lowest, in 1970, the oil price index in real terms stood at 510.2; by 1974 it was 836.1; in 1980, 1179.3; and in 1983, 1492.3. In current price terms (ie not adjusting for inflation) the changes were much greater, nearly trebling between 1970 and 1975, and increasing by 13 times between 1970 and 1983.
    • (1990) Agrifacts , pp. 148
    • Burrell, A.1    Hill, B.2    Medland, J.3
  • 200
    • 84991115786 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The prices charted in Figure 5 are for dairy compound feeds, listed in the 1971, 1975, 1983 and 1989 editions of Federation of United Kingdom Milk Marketing Boards, UK Dairy Facts and Figures. In constant price terms, compound feed prices in 1973 and 1974 increased to levels not experienced since the mid-1950s, although by 1982 they had again fallen to their 1972 level.
    • UK Dairy Facts and Figures
  • 206
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    • The feeding of livestock
    • Charles Crowther, 'The feeding of livestock', JRASE, 96, 1935, p 332.
    • (1935) JRASE , vol.96 , pp. 332
    • Crowther, C.1
  • 209
    • 0004218169 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • the various categories of additive are classified and described in Halley and Soffe, Agricultural Notebook, pp 199-200; this also describes a system (known as the Liscombe Star System) for deciding whether or not an additive is needed under various circumstances of grass variety, growth stage, nitrogen level, weather, degree of wilting and chopping: it is clear from this that even with good weather Victorian silage makers would have made better silage if additives had been available.
    • Agricultural Notebook , pp. 199-200
    • Halley1    Soffe2
  • 211
    • 22844447403 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • according to Moore ('The conservation of grass', p 30) the wire mesh silos were difficult to fill, sometimes collapsed, and could only be regarded as a wartime expedient.
    • The Conservation of Grass , pp. 30
    • Moore1
  • 213
    • 22844438116 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Cherrington was not the only enthusiast: it was 'one of the most valuable developments in modern grassland farming', according to M McG Cooper, Competitive Farming, 1956, p 29,
    • (1956) Competitive Farming , pp. 29
    • Cooper, M.McG.1
  • 214
    • 22844444089 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The greatest innovation in connection with silage making
    • 'The greatest innovation in connection with silage making' for Jesse, Agriculture of Sussex, p 125.
    • Agriculture of Sussex , pp. 125
    • Jesse1
  • 216
    • 22844438540 scopus 로고
    • In fact. Hosier's hay-sweep was a simpler version of the horse-drawn sweep rake which Primrose McConnell claimed to have introduced from the United States of America in the 1890s: see P McConnell, The Complete Farmer, 1911, p 385.
    • (1911) The Complete Farmer , pp. 385
    • McConnell, P.1
  • 225
    • 22844442928 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • I am grateful to my colleague Derek Shepherd, and to Chris Evans of the Agricultural Engineers' Association Ltd for obtaining these figures.
  • 227
    • 22844449563 scopus 로고
    • Cooper and Morris (Grass Farming, 5th ed, 1983, p 169) credit Rex Paterson with the invention of self-feed soon after 1950.
    • (1983) Grass Farming, 5th Ed , pp. 169
    • Cooper1    Morris2
  • 230
    • 22844441059 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Arthur Court (Seedtime to Harvest, p 78), who was perhaps more typical of the ordinary farmer, mentions its adoption in 'about 1960',
    • Seedtime to Harvest , pp. 78
    • Court, A.1
  • 234
    • 22844450656 scopus 로고
    • Vacuum compression silage
    • C P van Zeller, 'Vacuum compression silage', Agriculture, 72, 1965, pp 219-21.
    • (1965) Agriculture , vol.72 , pp. 219-221
    • Van Zeller, C.P.1
  • 237
    • 22844448447 scopus 로고
    • Polythene sheeting
    • Anon, 'Polythene sheeting', Agriculture, 70, 1963, p 43; I am most grateful to my colleagues John Brockman and John Usher for making me aware, from their own personal experience, of the importance of polythene sheeting.
    • (1963) Agriculture , vol.70 , pp. 43
  • 238
    • 22844434136 scopus 로고
    • Big bale silage
    • P L Redman, 'Big bale silage', JRASE, 144, 1983, pp 113-18;
    • (1983) JRASE , vol.144 , pp. 113-118
    • Redman, P.L.1
  • 241
    • 0028590215 scopus 로고
    • Development of seed-fertilizer technology in Indonesian rice agriculture
    • There are perhaps some interesting comparisons to be made between the delayed adoption of silage and the pattern of adoption of fertilizers in Britain and high-yielding rice varieties in southeast Asia. Inorganic nitrogenous fertilizers were available in the nineteenth century, but their use expanded most rapidly after the 19505, when shorter-strawed cereal varieties became available, which were capable of withstanding high nitrogen applications without lodging, and output expansion did not, thanks to price support, produce falling prices. Similarly van der Eng explains that the delay in the adoption of high-yielding rice varieties was the result of several inter-dependent factors: see P van der Eng, 'Development of seed-fertilizer technology in Indonesian rice agriculture', Ag Hist, 68, 1994, pp 20-53.
    • (1994) Ag Hist , vol.68 , pp. 20-53
    • Van Der Eng, P.1


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