Democracy and economic reforms: Developing underdeveloped political economies

Journal of Asian and African Studies

Volumn 31, Issue 1-2, 1996, Pages 21-38

  Uzodike, Ufo Okeke ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF KWAZULU NATAL   (South Africa)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

DEMOCRATISATION; ECONOMIC REFORM; POLITICAL ECONOMY; STRUCTURAL ADJUSTMENT;

AFRICA;

EID: 0030425356     PISSN: 00219096     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/002190969603100103     Document Type: Article

References (74)

1. This importance is amply demonstrated in several recent works such as John Clark, Democratizing Development (West Hartford, CT: Kumarian Press, 1991); John Healey and Mark Robinson, Democracy, Governance, and Economic Policy (London: Overseas Development Institute, 1992); Goran Hyden and Michael Bratton, Governance and Politics in Africa (Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1992).
2. This importance is amply demonstrated in several recent works such as John Clark, Democratizing Development (West Hartford, CT: Kumarian Press, 1991); John Healey and Mark Robinson, Democracy, Governance, and Economic Policy (London: Overseas Development Institute, 1992); Goran Hyden and Michael Bratton, Governance and Politics in Africa (Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1992).
3. This importance is amply demonstrated in several recent works such as John Clark, Democratizing Development (West Hartford, CT: Kumarian Press, 1991); John Healey and Mark Robinson, Democracy, Governance, and Economic Policy (London: Overseas Development Institute, 1992); Goran Hyden and Michael Bratton, Governance and Politics in Africa (Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1992).
4. See Healey and Robinson, 1992: 95-112.
5. For the purposes of this analysis, these economic reform measures are referred to generally as structural adjustment programs.
6. See, for instance, Stephen Commins, Africa's Development Challenges and the World Bank (Boulder; Lynne Rienner, 1988); Adebayo Adedeji, Sadiq Rasheed and Melody Morrison, The Human Dimension of Africa's Persistent Crisis (London: Hans Zell Publishers, 1990); Bade Onimode et al., Alternative Development Strategies for Africa: Coalition for Change (London: IFAA, 1990); Fredoline Anunobi, The Implications of Conditionality: The International Monetary Fund and Africa (New York: University Press of America, 1992); Aderanti Adepoju, The Impact of Structural Adjustment on the Population of Africa (London: James Currey, 1993); Sayre Schatz, "Structural Adjustment in Africa: A Failing Grade So Far", The Journal of Modern African Studies, 32 (1994); Nwabufo Okeke Uzodike, Economic Reforms and Internal Political Process in Nigeria, PhD Dissertation (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina, 1994).
7. See, for instance, Stephen Commins, Africa's Development Challenges and the World Bank (Boulder; Lynne Rienner, 1988); Adebayo Adedeji, Sadiq Rasheed and Melody Morrison, The Human Dimension of Africa's Persistent Crisis (London: Hans Zell Publishers, 1990); Bade Onimode et al., Alternative Development Strategies for Africa: Coalition for Change (London: IFAA, 1990); Fredoline Anunobi, The Implications of Conditionality: The International Monetary Fund and Africa (New York: University Press of America, 1992); Aderanti Adepoju, The Impact of Structural Adjustment on the Population of Africa (London: James Currey, 1993); Sayre Schatz, "Structural Adjustment in Africa: A Failing Grade So Far", The Journal of Modern African Studies, 32 (1994); Nwabufo Okeke Uzodike, Economic Reforms and Internal Political Process in Nigeria, PhD Dissertation (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina, 1994).
8. See, for instance, Stephen Commins, Africa's Development Challenges and the World Bank (Boulder; Lynne Rienner, 1988); Adebayo Adedeji, Sadiq Rasheed and Melody Morrison, The Human Dimension of Africa's Persistent Crisis (London: Hans Zell Publishers, 1990); Bade Onimode et al., Alternative Development Strategies for Africa: Coalition for Change (London: IFAA, 1990); Fredoline Anunobi, The Implications of Conditionality: The International Monetary Fund and Africa (New York: University Press of America, 1992); Aderanti Adepoju, The Impact of Structural Adjustment on the Population of Africa (London: James Currey, 1993); Sayre Schatz, "Structural Adjustment in Africa: A Failing Grade So Far", The Journal of Modern African Studies, 32 (1994); Nwabufo Okeke Uzodike, Economic Reforms and Internal Political Process in Nigeria, PhD Dissertation (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina, 1994).
9. See, for instance, Stephen Commins, Africa's Development Challenges and the World Bank (Boulder; Lynne Rienner, 1988); Adebayo Adedeji, Sadiq Rasheed and Melody Morrison, The Human Dimension of Africa's Persistent Crisis (London: Hans Zell Publishers, 1990); Bade Onimode et al., Alternative Development Strategies for Africa: Coalition for Change (London: IFAA, 1990); Fredoline Anunobi, The Implications of Conditionality: The International Monetary Fund and Africa (New York: University Press of America, 1992); Aderanti Adepoju, The Impact of Structural Adjustment on the Population of Africa (London: James Currey, 1993); Sayre Schatz, "Structural Adjustment in Africa: A Failing Grade So Far", The Journal of Modern African Studies, 32 (1994); Nwabufo Okeke Uzodike, Economic Reforms and Internal Political Process in Nigeria, PhD Dissertation (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina, 1994).
10. See, for instance, Stephen Commins, Africa's Development Challenges and the World Bank (Boulder; Lynne Rienner, 1988); Adebayo Adedeji, Sadiq Rasheed and Melody Morrison, The Human Dimension of Africa's Persistent Crisis (London: Hans Zell Publishers, 1990); Bade Onimode et al., Alternative Development Strategies for Africa: Coalition for Change (London: IFAA, 1990); Fredoline Anunobi, The Implications of Conditionality: The International Monetary Fund and Africa (New York: University Press of America, 1992); Aderanti Adepoju, The Impact of Structural Adjustment on the Population of Africa (London: James Currey, 1993); Sayre Schatz, "Structural Adjustment in Africa: A Failing Grade So Far", The Journal of Modern African Studies, 32 (1994); Nwabufo Okeke Uzodike, Economic Reforms and Internal Political Process in Nigeria, PhD Dissertation (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina, 1994).
11. See, for instance, Stephen Commins, Africa's Development Challenges and the World Bank (Boulder; Lynne Rienner, 1988); Adebayo Adedeji, Sadiq Rasheed and Melody Morrison, The Human Dimension of Africa's Persistent Crisis (London: Hans Zell Publishers, 1990); Bade Onimode et al., Alternative Development Strategies for Africa: Coalition for Change (London: IFAA, 1990); Fredoline Anunobi, The Implications of Conditionality: The International Monetary Fund and Africa (New York: University Press of America, 1992); Aderanti Adepoju, The Impact of Structural Adjustment on the Population of Africa (London: James Currey, 1993); Sayre Schatz, "Structural Adjustment in Africa: A Failing Grade So Far", The Journal of Modern African Studies, 32 (1994); Nwabufo Okeke Uzodike, Economic Reforms and Internal Political Process in Nigeria, PhD Dissertation (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina, 1994).
12. See, for instance, Stephen Commins, Africa's Development Challenges and the World Bank (Boulder; Lynne Rienner, 1988); Adebayo Adedeji, Sadiq Rasheed and Melody Morrison, The Human Dimension of Africa's Persistent Crisis (London: Hans Zell Publishers, 1990); Bade Onimode et al., Alternative Development Strategies for Africa: Coalition for Change (London: IFAA, 1990); Fredoline Anunobi, The Implications of Conditionality: The International Monetary Fund and Africa (New York: University Press of America, 1992); Aderanti Adepoju, The Impact of Structural Adjustment on the Population of Africa (London: James Currey, 1993); Sayre Schatz, "Structural Adjustment in Africa: A Failing Grade So Far", The Journal of Modern African Studies, 32 (1994); Nwabufo Okeke Uzodike, Economic Reforms and Internal Political Process in Nigeria, PhD Dissertation (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina, 1994).
13. Ben Turok, Alternative Development Strategies for Africa: Debt and Democracy (London: IFAA, 1990), p. 3.
14. World Bank, Sub-Saharan Africa: From Crisis to Sustainable Growth (Washington, DC: 1989), pp. 5-6; Douglas Rimmer, Action in Africa (London: James Curry, 1994), p. 13. These factors served largely to invigorate an already strong groundswell for political changes in many African countries. It should be noted that long before the collapse of the Soviet Union, there were strong pressures - more or less - in many African countries (Algeria, Cote d'Ivoire, Ghana, Guinea, Nigeria, Senegal, Sudan, Tanzania, Zaire, Zimbabwe, etc.) for substantial political and/or bureaucratic reforms.
15. World Bank, Sub-Saharan Africa: From Crisis to Sustainable Growth (Washington, DC: 1989), pp. 5-6; Douglas Rimmer, Action in Africa (London: James Curry, 1994), p. 13. These factors served largely to invigorate an already strong groundswell for political changes in many African countries. It should be noted that long before the collapse of the Soviet Union, there were strong pressures - more or less - in many African countries (Algeria, Cote d'Ivoire, Ghana, Guinea, Nigeria, Senegal, Sudan, Tanzania, Zaire, Zimbabwe, etc.) for substantial political and/or bureaucratic reforms.
16. The consequences of such reforms include adverse effects on income and employment. During the 1980s, per capita incomes declined in over 70% of African and Latin American countries which received IMF loans (as opposed to 83% of Asian countries which experienced growths in their per capita incomes). Unemployment rose dramatically. (African figures are not available now.) For Latin America: Bolivia = 13.3% in 1984 from 7.5% in 1980; Chile = 15.9% in 1984 from 10.4% in 1981; Mexico = 18.5% in 1984 from 11.7% in 1981 etc. As real incomes and employment declined, poverty increased. For instance, between 1981 and 1984, real income fell by 28% in Brazil, 30% in Mexico, and 13% in Peru; In Ghana and Zambia, the decline between 1974 and 1985 was 25% and 50%, respectively. See World Bank, World Development Report 1981-1989 (London: Oxford University Press, 1987).
17. Richard Sandbrook, The Politics of Africa's Economic Stagnation (Cambridge Univ. Press, 1985); and The Politics of Africa's Economic Recovery (Cambridge Univ. Press, 1993).
18. Richard Sandbrook, The Politics of Africa's Economic Stagnation (Cambridge Univ. Press, 1985); and The Politics of Africa's Economic Recovery (Cambridge Univ. Press, 1993).
19. Joan Nelson, Fragile Coalitions: The Politics of Economic Adjustment (Washington, DC: Overseas Development Council, 1989); Joan Nelson, Economic Crisis and Policy Choice: The Politics of Adjustment in Developing Countries (Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press, 1990); Stephen Haggard and Robert Kaufman, The Politics of Economic Adjustment: International Constraints, Distributive Conflicts and the State (Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press, 1992).
20. Joan Nelson, Fragile Coalitions: The Politics of Economic Adjustment (Washington, DC: Overseas Development Council, 1989); Joan Nelson, Economic Crisis and Policy Choice: The Politics of Adjustment in Developing Countries (Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press, 1990); Stephen Haggard and Robert Kaufman, The Politics of Economic Adjustment: International Constraints, Distributive Conflicts and the State (Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press, 1992).
21. Joan Nelson, Fragile Coalitions: The Politics of Economic Adjustment (Washington, DC: Overseas Development Council, 1989); Joan Nelson, Economic Crisis and Policy Choice: The Politics of Adjustment in Developing Countries (Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press, 1990); Stephen Haggard and Robert Kaufman, The Politics of Economic Adjustment: International Constraints, Distributive Conflicts and the State (Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press, 1992).
22. West Africa, 5/26/81: 1163.
23. Patrick Chabal, Political Domination in Africa (New York: Columbia Univ. Press, 1986), p. 8; Jean-Francois Bayart, The State in Africa: The Politics of the Belly (New York: Longman, 1993).
24. Patrick Chabal, Political Domination in Africa (New York: Columbia Univ. Press, 1986), p. 8; Jean-Francois Bayart, The State in Africa: The Politics of the Belly (New York: Longman, 1993).
25. Kathie L. Krumm, "The External Debt of Sub-Saharan Africa: Origins, Magnitude, and Implications for Action", World Bank Staff Working Papers, No. 741 (Washington, DC: 1985), pp. 6-18, 45-53.
26. Stephen Haggard, "The Politics of Adjustment: Lessons from the IMF's Extended Fund Facility", International Organization, Vol. 39, Summer 1985: 509-518; John Loxley, "Structural Adjustment in Africa: Reflections on Ghana and Zambia", Review of African Political Economy, No 47, Spring 1990: 9; Edward Jaycox, "Structural Adjustment in Sub-Saharan Africa: The World Bank's Perspective", Issue, Volume XVIII/1, 1989: 36; Meijer, 1990: 664-674.
27. Stephen Haggard, "The Politics of Adjustment: Lessons from the IMF's Extended Fund Facility", International Organization, Vol. 39, Summer 1985: 509-518; John Loxley, "Structural Adjustment in Africa: Reflections on Ghana and Zambia", Review of African Political Economy, No 47, Spring 1990: 9; Edward Jaycox, "Structural Adjustment in Sub-Saharan Africa: The World Bank's Perspective", Issue, Volume XVIII/1, 1989: 36; Meijer, 1990: 664-674.
28. Stephen Haggard, "The Politics of Adjustment: Lessons from the IMF's Extended Fund Facility", International Organization, Vol. 39, Summer 1985: 509-518; John Loxley, "Structural Adjustment in Africa: Reflections on Ghana and Zambia", Review of African Political Economy, No 47, Spring 1990: 9; Edward Jaycox, "Structural Adjustment in Sub-Saharan Africa: The World Bank's Perspective", Issue, Volume XVIII/1, 1989: 36; Meijer, 1990: 664-674.
29. Stephen Haggard, "The Politics of Adjustment: Lessons from the IMF's Extended Fund Facility", International Organization, Vol. 39, Summer 1985: 509-518; John Loxley, "Structural Adjustment in Africa: Reflections on Ghana and Zambia", Review of African Political Economy, No 47, Spring 1990: 9; Edward Jaycox, "Structural Adjustment in Sub-Saharan Africa: The World Bank's Perspective", Issue, Volume XVIII/1, 1989: 36; Meijer, 1990: 664-674.
30. The 1973-1974 oil price hikes not only provided huge savings for oil-exporting countries but also resulted in dramatic increases in recyclable funds for commercial banks. The resulting competition between the banks for clients pushed down the real rate of interest. Many developing countries, suffering from adverse shifts in terms of trade and seemingly temporary weak export prospects, viewed the low interest rates as justifying the use of external borrowing to finance continued economic growth. See, for example, Albert Fishlow, "The East European Dept Crisis in the Latin American Mirror", International Organization, Vol. 40, Spring 1986: 568-570; Laura D'/Andrea Tyson, "The Debt Crisis and Adjustment Responses in Eastern Europe: A Comparative Perspective", International Organization, Vol. 40, 2, 1986: 241-242.
31. The 1973-1974 oil price hikes not only provided huge savings for oil-exporting countries but also resulted in dramatic increases in recyclable funds for commercial banks. The resulting competition between the banks for clients pushed down the real rate of interest. Many developing countries, suffering from adverse shifts in terms of trade and seemingly temporary weak export prospects, viewed the low interest rates as justifying the use of external borrowing to finance continued economic growth. See, for example, Albert Fishlow, "The East European Dept Crisis in the Latin American Mirror", International Organization, Vol. 40, Spring 1986: 568-570; Laura D'/Andrea Tyson, "The Debt Crisis and Adjustment Responses in Eastern Europe: A Comparative Perspective", International Organization, Vol. 40, 2, 1986: 241-242.
32. According to the World Development Report 1990: Poverty (p. 11) the GDP figures for the sub-Saharan region declined from 3.2 percent average (1965-1973) to 0.1 percent (1973-1983). The figures from some other sources differ substantially at 6.6 percent (1965-1973) and 3.2 percent 1973-1980. See also Robert S. Browne and Robert J. Cummings. The Lagos Plan of Action vs. The Berg Report: Contemporary Issues in African Economic Development (Lawrenceville, VA: Brunswick, 1984); and Robert S. Browne, "Evaluating the World Bank's Major Reports: A Review Essay." Issue, Volume XVI/2, 1988: 5.
33. According to the World Development Report 1990: Poverty (p. 11) the GDP figures for the sub-Saharan region declined from 3.2 percent average (1965-1973) to 0.1 percent (1973-1983). The figures from some other sources differ substantially at 6.6 percent (1965-1973) and 3.2 percent 1973-1980. See also Robert S. Browne and Robert J. Cummings. The Lagos Plan of Action vs. The Berg Report: Contemporary Issues in African Economic Development (Lawrenceville, VA: Brunswick, 1984); and Robert S. Browne, "Evaluating the World Bank's Major Reports: A Review Essay." Issue, Volume XVI/2, 1988: 5.
34. According to the World Development Report 1990: Poverty (p. 11) the GDP figures for the sub-Saharan region declined from 3.2 percent average (1965-1973) to 0.1 percent (1973-1983). The figures from some other sources differ substantially at 6.6 percent (1965-1973) and 3.2 percent 1973-1980. See also Robert S. Browne and Robert J. Cummings. The Lagos Plan of Action vs. The Berg Report: Contemporary Issues in African Economic Development (Lawrenceville, VA: Brunswick, 1984); and Robert S. Browne, "Evaluating the World Bank's Major Reports: A Review Essay." Issue, Volume XVI/2, 1988: 5.
35. See, United Nation's Economic Community for Africa, Lagos Plan of Action for Economic Development of Africa 1980-2000, 1980.
36. World Bank, Accelerated Development in Sub-Suharan Africa: An Agenda for Action. Washington, DC, 1981.
37. Although the IMF was already prescribing such reforms through conditional lending, some critics argued that "when the advanced capitalist countries that are the IMFs major sponsors were also its borrowers, harsh preconditions were virtually non-existent." See Madeley, African World News, January 1988: 55.
38. Nelson, 1989: 18.
39. Bade Onimode, Imperialism and Underdevelopment in Nigeria: The Dialectics, of Mass Poverty (London: Zed Press, 1982); Bade Onimode (Ed.), The IMF, the World Bank and the African Debr. The Social and Political Impact (London: Zed Books, 1989).
40. Bade Onimode, Imperialism and Underdevelopment in Nigeria: The Dialectics, of Mass Poverty (London: Zed Press, 1982); Bade Onimode (Ed.), The IMF, the World Bank and the African Debr. The Social and Political Impact (London: Zed Books, 1989).
41. Gerald K. Helleiner, "IMF and Africa in the 1980's." Canadian Journal of African Studies, 17 (1) 1983: 159; Haggard, 1985: 533; Michael Hodd, "Africa, the IMF and the World Bank." African Affairs, Vol. 86, No. 344, July 1987: 38; Stewart, 1987: 479-482; Barbara Stallings and Robert Kaufman (Eds), Debt and Democracy in Latin America (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1988); Matthew Martin, The Crumbling Facade of African Debt Negotiations: No Winners (New York: St Martin's Press, 1991); Thomas Callaghy and John Ravenhill (Eds), Hemmed In: Responses to Africa's Economic Decline (New York: Columbia Univ. Press, 1993); David Sahn (Ed.), Adjustment to Policy Failure in African Economies (Ithaca: Cornell Univ. Press, 1994).
42. Gerald K. Helleiner, "IMF and Africa in the 1980's." Canadian Journal of African Studies, 17 (1) 1983: 159; Haggard, 1985: 533; Michael Hodd, "Africa, the IMF and the World Bank." African Affairs, Vol. 86, No. 344, July 1987: 38; Stewart, 1987: 479-482; Barbara Stallings and Robert Kaufman (Eds), Debt and Democracy in Latin America (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1988); Matthew Martin, The Crumbling Facade of African Debt Negotiations: No Winners (New York: St Martin's Press, 1991); Thomas Callaghy and John Ravenhill (Eds), Hemmed In: Responses to Africa's Economic Decline (New York: Columbia Univ. Press, 1993); David Sahn (Ed.), Adjustment to Policy Failure in African Economies (Ithaca: Cornell Univ. Press, 1994).
43. Gerald K. Helleiner, "IMF and Africa in the 1980's." Canadian Journal of African Studies, 17 (1) 1983: 159; Haggard, 1985: 533; Michael Hodd, "Africa, the IMF and the World Bank." African Affairs, Vol. 86, No. 344, July 1987: 38; Stewart, 1987: 479-482; Barbara Stallings and Robert Kaufman (Eds), Debt and Democracy in Latin America (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1988); Matthew Martin, The Crumbling Facade of African Debt Negotiations: No Winners (New York: St Martin's Press, 1991); Thomas Callaghy and John Ravenhill (Eds), Hemmed In: Responses to Africa's Economic Decline (New York: Columbia Univ. Press, 1993); David Sahn (Ed.), Adjustment to Policy Failure in African Economies (Ithaca: Cornell Univ. Press, 1994).
44. Gerald K. Helleiner, "IMF and Africa in the 1980's." Canadian Journal of African Studies, 17 (1) 1983: 159; Haggard, 1985: 533; Michael Hodd, "Africa, the IMF and the World Bank." African Affairs, Vol. 86, No. 344, July 1987: 38; Stewart, 1987: 479-482; Barbara Stallings and Robert Kaufman (Eds), Debt and Democracy in Latin America (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1988); Matthew Martin, The Crumbling Facade of African Debt Negotiations: No Winners (New York: St Martin's Press, 1991); Thomas Callaghy and John Ravenhill (Eds), Hemmed In: Responses to Africa's Economic Decline (New York: Columbia Univ. Press, 1993); David Sahn (Ed.), Adjustment to Policy Failure in African Economies (Ithaca: Cornell Univ. Press, 1994).
45. Gerald K. Helleiner, "IMF and Africa in the 1980's." Canadian Journal of African Studies, 17 (1) 1983: 159; Haggard, 1985: 533; Michael Hodd, "Africa, the IMF and the World Bank." African Affairs, Vol. 86, No. 344, July 1987: 38; Stewart, 1987: 479-482; Barbara Stallings and Robert Kaufman (Eds), Debt and Democracy in Latin America (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1988); Matthew Martin, The Crumbling Facade of African Debt Negotiations: No Winners (New York: St Martin's Press, 1991); Thomas Callaghy and John Ravenhill (Eds), Hemmed In: Responses to Africa's Economic Decline (New York: Columbia Univ. Press, 1993); David Sahn (Ed.), Adjustment to Policy Failure in African Economies (Ithaca: Cornell Univ. Press, 1994).
46. Gerald K. Helleiner, "IMF and Africa in the 1980's." Canadian Journal of African Studies, 17 (1) 1983: 159; Haggard, 1985: 533; Michael Hodd, "Africa, the IMF and the World Bank." African Affairs, Vol. 86, No. 344, July 1987: 38; Stewart, 1987: 479-482; Barbara Stallings and Robert Kaufman (Eds), Debt and Democracy in Latin America (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1988); Matthew Martin, The Crumbling Facade of African Debt Negotiations: No Winners (New York: St Martin's Press, 1991); Thomas Callaghy and John Ravenhill (Eds), Hemmed In: Responses to Africa's Economic Decline (New York: Columbia Univ. Press, 1993); David Sahn (Ed.), Adjustment to Policy Failure in African Economies (Ithaca: Cornell Univ. Press, 1994).
47. Gerald K. Helleiner, "IMF and Africa in the 1980's." Canadian Journal of African Studies, 17 (1) 1983: 159; Haggard, 1985: 533; Michael Hodd, "Africa, the IMF and the World Bank." African Affairs, Vol. 86, No. 344, July 1987: 38; Stewart, 1987: 479-482; Barbara Stallings and Robert Kaufman (Eds), Debt and Democracy in Latin America (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1988); Matthew Martin, The Crumbling Facade of African Debt Negotiations: No Winners (New York: St Martin's Press, 1991); Thomas Callaghy and John Ravenhill (Eds), Hemmed In: Responses to Africa's Economic Decline (New York: Columbia Univ. Press, 1993); David Sahn (Ed.), Adjustment to Policy Failure in African Economies (Ithaca: Cornell Univ. Press, 1994).
48. Gerald K. Helleiner, "IMF and Africa in the 1980's." Canadian Journal of African Studies, 17 (1) 1983: 159; Haggard, 1985: 533; Michael Hodd, "Africa, the IMF and the World Bank." African Affairs, Vol. 86, No. 344, July 1987: 38; Stewart, 1987: 479-482; Barbara Stallings and Robert Kaufman (Eds), Debt and Democracy in Latin America (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1988); Matthew Martin, The Crumbling Facade of African Debt Negotiations: No Winners (New York: St Martin's Press, 1991); Thomas Callaghy and John Ravenhill (Eds), Hemmed In: Responses to Africa's Economic Decline (New York: Columbia Univ. Press, 1993); David Sahn (Ed.), Adjustment to Policy Failure in African Economies (Ithaca: Cornell Univ. Press, 1994).
49. Miles Kahler, "Politics and International Debt: Explaining the Crisis," International Organization, 39(3) 1985; and "International Financial Institutions and the Politics of Adjustment," in: Nelson, 1989; Robert Kaufman, "Democratic and Authoritarian Responses to the Debt Issue," International Organization, 39(3) 1985; Julius Nyang'oro, "The Evolving Role of the State Under Structural Adjustment." Paper presented at the annual conference of the ASA, Baltimore (MD), November 14, 1990.
50. Miles Kahler, "Politics and International Debt: Explaining the Crisis," International Organization, 39(3) 1985; and "International Financial Institutions and the Politics of Adjustment," in: Nelson, 1989; Robert Kaufman, "Democratic and Authoritarian Responses to the Debt Issue," International Organization, 39(3) 1985; Julius Nyang'oro, "The Evolving Role of the State Under Structural Adjustment." Paper presented at the annual conference of the ASA, Baltimore (MD), November 14, 1990.
51. Miles Kahler, "Politics and International Debt: Explaining the Crisis," International Organization, 39(3) 1985; and "International Financial Institutions and the Politics of Adjustment," in: Nelson, 1989; Robert Kaufman, "Democratic and Authoritarian Responses to the Debt Issue," International Organization, 39(3) 1985; Julius Nyang'oro, "The Evolving Role of the State Under Structural Adjustment." Paper presented at the annual conference of the ASA, Baltimore (MD), November 14, 1990.
52. Miles Kahler, "Politics and International Debt: Explaining the Crisis," International Organization, 39(3) 1985; and "International Financial Institutions and the Politics of Adjustment," in: Nelson, 1989; Robert Kaufman, "Democratic and Authoritarian Responses to the Debt Issue," International Organization, 39(3) 1985; Julius Nyang'oro, "The Evolving Role of the State Under Structural Adjustment." Paper presented at the annual conference of the ASA, Baltimore (MD), November 14, 1990.
53. This was true despite accounts to the contrary (Hyden and Bratton, p. IX; Young and Kante, 1992: 59). In fact, some of the struggles culminated in multi-party elections and transitions (from military rule) in Ghana (1979), Nigeria (1979), Uganda (1980) and Sudan (1986).
54. Human rights are inalienable rights held by each human being simply because she/he is human. They include civil and political rights as well as economic, social, and cultural rights. See Jack Donnelly, International Human Rights (Boulder: Westview, 1993), p. 19.
55. Michael Bratton and Nicholas van der Walle, "Toward Governance in Africa: Popular Demands and State Responses," in: Hyden and Bratton, 1992: 29-33.
56. Samuel Decalo, "The Process, Prospects and Constraints of Democratization in Africa", African Affairs, Vol. 91, 1992: 10; also see Sahr John Kpundeh, Democratization in Africa: African Views, African Voices (Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1992), pp. 8-13.
57. Samuel Decalo, "The Process, Prospects and Constraints of Democratization in Africa", African Affairs, Vol. 91, 1992: 10; also see Sahr John Kpundeh, Democratization in Africa: African Views, African Voices (Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1992), pp. 8-13.
58. Donald Rothchild and Naomi Chazan (Eds), The Precarious Balance: State-Society Relations in Africa (Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1988).
59. The Lockean conception of the social contract is anchored on the notion of consent.
60. Theda Skocpol, States and Social Revolutions: A Comparative Analysis of France, Russia and China (London: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1979); David Held, "Central Perspectives of the Modern State," in: Held et al. State and Societies (New York: New York University Press, 1983); Nelson Kasfir, State and Class in Africa (London: Frank Cass, 1984); Sam C. Nolutshungu, "Fragments of a Democracy: Reflections on Class and Politics in Nigeria," Third World Quarterly, January 1990.
61. Theda Skocpol, States and Social Revolutions: A Comparative Analysis of France, Russia and China (London: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1979); David Held, "Central Perspectives of the Modern State," in: Held et al. State and Societies (New York: New York University Press, 1983); Nelson Kasfir, State and Class in Africa (London: Frank Cass, 1984); Sam C. Nolutshungu, "Fragments of a Democracy: Reflections on Class and Politics in Nigeria," Third World Quarterly, January 1990.
62. Theda Skocpol, States and Social Revolutions: A Comparative Analysis of France, Russia and China (London: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1979); David Held, "Central Perspectives of the Modern State," in: Held et al. State and Societies (New York: New York University Press, 1983); Nelson Kasfir, State and Class in Africa (London: Frank Cass, 1984); Sam C. Nolutshungu, "Fragments of a Democracy: Reflections on Class and Politics in Nigeria," Third World Quarterly, January 1990.
63. Theda Skocpol, States and Social Revolutions: A Comparative Analysis of France, Russia and China (London: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1979); David Held, "Central Perspectives of the Modern State," in: Held et al. State and Societies (New York: New York University Press, 1983); Nelson Kasfir, State and Class in Africa (London: Frank Cass, 1984); Sam C. Nolutshungu, "Fragments of a Democracy: Reflections on Class and Politics in Nigeria," Third World Quarterly, January 1990.
64. Nolutshungu, 1990: 87.
65. Nolutshungu, 1990.
66. Scholars using the "new institutionalism" framework suggest that it is possible to achieve this by mechanisms which can enable the desirable values to be internalized. See Douglass North, Institutions, Instutional Change, and Economic Performance (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1990);
67. and Randall Calvert, "Rational Actors, Equilibrium, and Social Institutions," in: J. Knight and I. Sened (Eds), Explaining Social Institutions (Ann Arbor: Univ. of Michigan Press, 1995 [forthcoming]).
68. My contention here is not that democratic rights (even if perceived as human rights) are absolute rights. Certainly, a society has the right, within certain parameters, to determine the rights and obligations of its citizens. Nevertheless, an institutional framework, such as an independent judiciary, must be put in place to provide individuals and groups with the means to challenge such public decisions.
69. Led largely by university students, trade unionists and intellectuals, the domestic forces also included civil servants, church groups and defecting elite groups.
70. Uzodike, 1994.
71. Ironically, the last completed transition to democratic rule (1979-1983) emplaced a civilian government which proceeded quickly to plunder and destroy the Nigerian political economy with a level of corruption and ineptitude so high that the country was plunged into massive external debt and economic recession. The Nigerian SAP was a response to the problems which ensued due to the resulting structural distortions and attendant productive incompetence. See Ibid.
72. Increased democratization should not be taken as the automatic result of SAP implementation. Indeed, there is a real danger - because of its objective realities - that SAP may intensify class, ethnic, or regional suspicion and competition for the available scarce resources. The net effect, under a poor leadership or weak government, could be a repeat of the 1994 Rwandan experience rather than the recent democratic experiences of countries such as Benin, Cape Verde, Sao Tome and Principe, and Zambia.
73. According to Francis Fukuyama these events ushered in "the end of mankind's ideological evolution and the universalization of Western liberal democracy as the final form of human government". See "The End of History?," The National Interest, No. 16, Summer 1989: 3-5. Regardless of its merits such claims point to the arrogance of Western hegemony and the narrow working parameters of the new world order.
74. See, for instance, Food and Agriculture Organization, Commodity Review and Outlook 1994 to 1995.