The evolution of hornedness in female ruminants

Behaviour

Volumn 133, Issue 5-6, 1996, Pages 399-442

  Roberts, S C ^a,b  

^a UNIVERSITY COLLEGE LONDON   (United Kingdom)

^b NONE   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EVOLUTION; FEMALE COMPETITION HYPOTHESIS; HORNEDNESS; RUMINANT;

AEPYCEROS; BOOCERUS; OREOTRAGUS;

EID: 0030423439     PISSN: 00057959     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1163/156853996X00521     Document Type: Article

References (204)

1. Adams, M.G. (1980). Odour-producing organs of mammals. - Symp. Zool. Soc. Lond. 45, p. 57-86.
2. Aeschlimann, A. (1963). Observations sur Philantomba maxwelli (Hamilton-Smith), une antilope de la fôret eburnée. - Acta Trop. 20, p. 341-368.
3. Ahnesjö, I., Vincent, A., Alatalo, R., Halliday, T. & Sutherland, W.J. (1993). The role of females in influencing mating patterns. - Behav. Ecol. 4, p. 187-189.
4. Alados, C.L. & Escös, J.M. (1992). The determinants of social status and the effect of female rank on reproductive success in Dama and Cuvier's gazelles. - Ethol. Ecol. Evol. 4, p. 151-164.
5. Altmann, M. (1952). Social behaviour of elk, Cervus canadensis nelsoni, in the Jackson Hole area of Wyoming. - Behaviour 4, p. 116-143.
6. Altmann, S.A. (1991). Diets of yearling female primates (Papio cynocephalus) predict lifetime fitness. - Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 88, p. 420-423.
7. Ansell, W.F.H. (1971). Artiodactyla. - In: The mammals of Africa. An identification manual (J. Meester & H.W. Setzer, eds). Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington DC, p. 1-84.
8. Baccus, R., Ryman, N., Smith, M.H., Reuterwall, C. & Cameron, D.G. (1983). Genetic variability and differentiation of large grazing mammals. - J. Mammal. 64, p. 109-120.
9. Balmford, A., Rosser, A.M. & Albon, S.D. (1992). Correlates of female choice in resource-defending antelope. - Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 31. p. 107-114.
10. Barette, C. (1977). Scent marking in captive muntjacs, Muntiacus reevesi. - Anim. Behav. 25, p. 536-541.
11. Benzon, B. (1935). Horned female impala. - The Field 166, p. 92.
12. Berger, J. (1988). Social systems, resources, and phylogenetic inertia: an experimental test and its limitations. - In: The ecology of social behaviour. Academic Press, New York, p. 157-186.
13. Bergerud, A.T. (1974). The role of the environment in the aggregation, movement and disturbance behaviour of caribou. - In: The behaviour of ungulates and its relation to managemeni (V. Geist & F.R. Walther, eds). IUCN, Morges, p. 552-584.
14. Berglund, A., Magnhagen, C., Bisazza, A., König, B. & Huntingford, F. (1993). Female-female competition over reproduction. - Behav. Ecol. 4, p. 184-187.
15. Berry, L.J. (1932). A horned black-tailed doe with fawn. - J. Mammal. 13, p. 282-283.
16. Bertram, B.C.R. (1978). Living in groups: predators and prey. - In: Behavioural ecology: an evolutionary approach (J.R. Krebs & N.B. Davies, eds). Sinauer Associates, Sunderland, Massachusetts, p. 64-96.
17. _ (1980). Vigilance and group size in ostriches. - Anim. Behav. 28, p. 278-286.
18. Bon, R., Gonzalez, G., Im, S. & Badia, J. (1990). Seasonal grouping in female moufflons in relation to food availability. - Ethology 86, p. 224-236.
19. Browman, L. & Hudson, P. (1957). Behaviour of penned mule deer. - J. Mammal. 38, p. 247-251.
20. Bubenik, A.B. (1968). The significance of antlers in the social life of the Cervidae. - Deer 1, p. 208-214.
21. Buechner, H.K., Morrison, J.A. & Leuthold, W. (1968). Reproduction in Uganda kob with special reference to behaviour. - In: Comparative biology of reproduction in mammals (I.W. Rowlands, ed.). Zool. Soc. London, London.
22. Burley, N. (1981). The evolution of sexual indistinguishability. - In: Natural selection and social behaviour (R.D. Alexander & D.W. Tinkle, eds). Chiron Press, New York, p. 121-137.
23. Clutton-Brock, T.H. (1982). The functions of antlers. - Behaviour 79, p. 108-125.
24. _ (1989). Mammalian mating systems. - Proc. R. Soc. B 235, p. 339-372.
25. _, Albon, S.D. & Guinness, P.E. (1986). Great expectations: dominance, breeding success and offspring sex ratios in red deer. - Anim. Behav. 34, p. 460-471.
26. _, _ & _ (1989). Fitness costs of gestation and lactation in wild mammals. -Nature 337, p. 260-262.
27. _, _ & Harvey, P.H. (1980). Antlers, body size and breeding systems in the Cervidae. - Nature 285, p. 565-567.
28. _, Guinness, F.E. & Albon, S.D. (1982). Red deer: the behaviour and ecology of two sexes. - Chicago University Press, Chicago.
29. _, _ & _ (1983). Costs of reproduction to red deer hinds. - J. Anim. Ecol. 52, p. 367-383.
30. _ & Harvey, P.H. (1984). Comparative approaches to investigating adaptation. - In: Behavioural ecology: an evolutionary approach (J.R. Krebs & N.B. Davies, eds). Blackwell, Oxford, p. 8-29.
31. Collins, D.A. (1984). Spatial pattern in a troop of yellow baboons (Papio cynocephalus) in Tanzania. - Anim. Behav. 32, p. 536-553.
32. Corbet, G.B. & Hill, J.E. (1991). A world list of mammalian species. - Nat. Hist. Mus. Publ., Oxford University Press, Oxford.
33. Cowan, I. McT. (1946). Antlered doe mule deer. - Can. Fld. Nat. 60, p. 11-12.
34. Cronin, M.A. (1991). Mitochondrial-DNA phylogeny of deer (Cervidae). - J. Mammal. 72, p. 533-566.
35. Darling, F.F. (1937). A herd of red deer. - Oxford University Press, Oxford.
36. Darwin, C. (1871). The descent of man and selection in relation to sex (1888 edn). - John Murray, London.
37. Dasmann, R.F. & Taber, R.D. (1956). Behaviour of Columbian white-tailed deer with reference to population ecology. - J. Mammal. 37, p. 143-164.
38. Davies, N.B. (1991). Mating systems. - In: Behavioural ecology: an evolutionary approach. 3rd edn (J.R. Krebs & N.B. Davies, eds). Blackwell, Oxford, p. 263-294.
39. Dehn, M.M. (1990). Vigilance for predators: detection and dilution effects. - Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 26, p. 337-342.
40. Dixon, J.S. (1927). Horned does. - J. Mammal. 8, p. 289-291.
41. Doutt, J.K. & Donaldson, J.C. (1959). An antlered doe with possible masculinising tumour. - J. Mammal. 40, p. 230-236.
42. Dunbar, R.I.M. (1980). Determinants and evolutionary consequences of dominance among female gelada baboons. - Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 7, p. 253-265.
43. _ (1984). The ecology of monogamy. - New Scientist 103, p. 12-15.
44. _ (1985). Monogamy on the rocks. - Nat. Hist. 94, p. 40-47.
45. _ (1988). Primate social systems. - Chapman and Hall, London.
46. _ (1989). Social systems as optimal strategy sets: the costs and benefits of sociality. _ In: Comparative socioecology (V. Standen & R. Foley, eds). Blackwell, Oxford.
47. _ & Dunbar, E.P. (1974). Social organization and ecology of the klipspringer (Oreotragus oreotragus) in Ethiopia. - Z. Tierpsychol. 35, p. 481-493.
48. _ & _ (1980). The pairbond in klipspringer. - Anim. Behav. 28, p. 219-229.
49. East, R., Grubb, P. & Wilson, V.J. (1988). Classification of antelopes adopted for the antelope survey. - In: Antelopes: Global survey and regional action plan. Part 1: East and North-East Africa. IUCN/SSC, Gland.
50. Eccles, T.R. & Shackleton, D.M. (1986). Correlates and consequences of social status in female bighorn sheep. - Anim. Behav. 34, p. 1392-1401.
51. Emlen, S.T. & Oring, L.W. (1977). Ecology, sexual selection and the evolution of mating systems. - Science 197, p. 215-223.
52. Espmark, Y. (1964a). Rutting behaviour in reindeer (Rangifer tarandus L.). - Anim. Behav. 12, p. 159-163.
53. _ (1964b). Studies in dominance-subordination relationship in a group of semi-domestic reindeer (Rangifer tarandus L.). - Anim. Behav. 12, p. 420-426.
54. _ (1974). Dominance relationships as a possible regulating factor in roe deer and reindeer populations. - In: The behaviour of ungulates and its relation to management (V. Geist & F.R. Walther, eds). IUCN, Morges, p. 787-796.
55. Estes, R.D. (1972). The role of the vomeronasal organ in mammalian reproduction. -Mammalia 36, p. 315-341.
56. _ (1974). Social organization of the African Bovidae. - In: The behaviour of ungulates and its relation to management (V. Geist & F.R. Walther, eds). IUCN, Morges, p. 166-205.
57. _ (1991a). The significance of horns and other male secondary sexual characters in female bovids. - Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 29, p. 403-451.
58. _ (1991b). The behaviour guide to African mammals. - University of California Press, Los Angeles.
59. Foster, W.A. & Treherne, J.E. (1981). Evidence for the dilution effect in the selfish herd from fish predation on a marine insect. - Nature 293, p. 466-467.
60. Frick, C. (1937). Horned ruminants of North America. - Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. 69, p. 1-669.
61. Garber, P.A. (1988). Diet, foraging patterns, and resource defence in a mixed species troop of Saguinus mystax and Saguinus fuscicollis in Amazonian Peru. - Behaviour 105, p. 18-34.
62. Gatesy, J., Yelon, D., DeSalle, R. & Vrba, E.S. (1992). Phylogeny of the Bovidae (Artiodactyla, Mammalia), based on mitochondrial ribosomal DNA sequences. - Mol. Biol. Evol. 9, p. 433-446.
63. Geist, V. (1965). On the rutting behaviour of the mountain goat. - J. Mammal. 45, p. 551-568.
64. _ (1966). The evolution of horn-like organs. - Behaviour 27, p. 175-214.
65. _ (1968). On the interrelation of external appearance, social behaviour and social structure of mountain sheep. - Z. Tierpsychol. 25, p. 199-215.
66. _ (1971). Mountain sheep: a study in behaviour and evolution. - University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
67. _ (1974a). On the relationship of social evolution and ecology in ungulates. - Ann. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 8, p. 193-207.
68. _ (1974b). On the relationship of ecology and behaviour in the evolution of the ungulates: Theoretical considerations. - In: The behaviour of ungulates and its relation to management (V. Geist & F.R. Walther, eds). IUCN, Morges, p. 235-246.
69. _ (1977). A comparison of social adaptations in relation to ecology in gallinaceous bird and ungulate societies. - Ann. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 8, p. 193-208.
70. _ (1994). Why antlers branched out. - Nat. Hist. 103(4), p. 66-69.
71. _ & Bromley, P.T. (1978). Why deer shed antlers. - Z. Säugetierkde 43, p. 223-231.
72. van Gelder, R.G. (1977a). An eland × kudu hybrid, and the content of the genus Tragelaphus. - The Lammergeyer 23, p. 1-6.
73. _ (1977b). Mammalian hybrids and generic limits. - Amer. Mus. Novitat. 2635, p. 1-25.
74. Gentry, A.W. (1976). Bovidae of the Omo Group deposits. - In: Earliest man and environments in the Lake Rudolf basin (Y. Coppens, F.C. Howell, G.L. Isaac & R.E.F. Leakey, eds). University of Chicago Press, Chicago, p. 275-292.
75. _(1978). Bovidae. - In: Evolution of African mammals (V.J. Maglio & H.B.S. Cooke, eds). Harvard University Press, Cambridge, p. 540-572.
76. _ (1990). Evolution and dispersal of African Bovidae. - In: Horns, pronghorns and antlers (G.A. Bubenik & A.B. Bubenik, eds). Springer-Verlag, New York, p. 195-227.
77. _ (1992). The subfamilies and tribes of the family Bovidae. - Mammal. Rev. 22, p. 1-32.
78. _ & Hooker, J.J. (1988). The phylogeny of the Artiodactyla. - In: The phylogeny and classification of the tetrapods, Vol. 2: Mammals (M.J. Benton, ed.). Systematics Association Special Vol. No. 35B. Clarendon Press, Oxford, p. 235-272.
79. Georgiadis, N.J., Kat, P.W., Oketch, H. & Patton, J. (1991). Allozyme divergence within the Bovidae. - Evolution 44, p. 2135-2149.
80. Gosling, L.M. (1974). The social behaviour of Coke's hartebeest (Alcephalus cokei). - In: The behaviour of ungulates and its relation to management (V. Geist & F.R. Walther, eds). IUCN, Morges, p. 488-511.
81. _ (1985). The even-toed ungulates: order Artiodactyla. - In: Social odours in mammals, Vol. 2 (R.E. Brown & D.W. Macdonald, eds). Oxford University Press, Oxford, p. 550-618.
82. _ (1986). The evolution of mating strategies in male antelope. - In: Ecological aspects of social evolution (D.I. Rubenstein & R.W. Wrangham, eds). Princeton University Press, Princeton, p. 244-281.
83. Green, W.C.H. & Rothstein, A. (1991). Trade-offs between growth and reproduction in female bison. - Oecologia 86, p. 521-527.
84. Greenwood, P.J. (1980). Mating systems, philopatry and dispersal in birds and mammals. - Anim. Behav. 28, p. 1140-1162.
85. Groves, C.P. & Grubb, P. (1987). Relationships of living deer. - In: Biology and management of the Cervidae (C. Wemmer, ed). Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, DC, p. 21-59.
86. Gustafson, E.P. (1985). Antlers of Bretzia and Odocoileus (Mammalia, Cervidae) and the evolution of New World deer. - Transact. Nebraska Acad. Sci. 13, p. 83-92.
87. Habibi, K., Thouless, C.R. & Lindsay, N. (1993). Comparative behaviour of sand and mountain gazelles. - J. Zool., Lond. 229, p. 41-53.
88. Hall, M.J. (1983). Social organization in an enclosed group of red deer (Cervus elaphus L.) on Rhum. I. The dominance hierarchy of females and their offspring. - Z. Tierpsychol. 61, p. 250-262.
89. Haltenorth, T. (1963). Klassifikation der Säugetiere: Artiodactyla. - Handbuch der Zoologie 8, p. 1-167.
90. Hamilton, W.D. (1971). Geometry for the selfish herd. - J. theor. Biol. 31, p. 295-311.
91. Hammerstein, P. (1981). The role of asymmetries in animal contests. - Anim. Behav. 29, p. 193-205.
92. Hanwell, A. & Peaker, M. (1977). Physiological effects of lactation on the mother. - Symp. Zool. Soc. Lond. 41, p. 297-312.
93. Harcourt, A.H. (1989). Environment, competition and reproductive performance of female monkeys. - Trends Ecol. Evol. 4, p. 101-105.
94. Harvey, P.H. & Pagel, M.D. (1991). The comparative method in evolutionary biology. -Oxford University Press, Oxford.
95. Heintz, E. (1969). Le dimorphisme sexuel des appendices frontaux chez Gazella deperdita Gervais (Bovidae, Artiodactyla, Mammalia) et sa signification phylogenique. - Mammalia 33, p. 626-629.
96. Hendrichs, H. (1975). Changes in a population of dikdik, Madoqua (Rhynchotragus) kirki (Günther, 1880). - Z. Tierpsychol. 38, p. 55-69.
97. _ & Hendrichs, U. (1971). Dikdik und Elefanten: Ökologie und Soziologie zweier afrikanischer Huftiere. - R. Piper, Munich.
98. Henshaw, J. (1968). A theory for the occurrence of antlers in females cf the genus Rangifer. _ Deer 1, p. 222-226.
99. _ (1969). Antlers - The bones of contention. - Nature 224, p. 1036-1037.
100. Herbert, H.J. (1972). The population dynamics of the waterbuck Kobus ellipsiprymnus (Ogilby, 1833) in the Sabi-Sand Wildtuin. - Mammalia depicta. Verlag Paul Parey, Hamburg.
101. Heydon, M.J., Loudon, A.S.I., Milne, J.A. & Brinklow, B.R. (1992). Influence of plane of nutrition on seasonal changes in food intake and reproduction in grazing Red deer. -In: The biology of deer (R.D. Brown, ed.). Springer-Verlag, New York, p. 293-299.
102. Hillman, J.C. (1986) Aspects of the biology of the bongo antelope Tragelaphus eurycerus (Ogilby, 1836) in south west Sudan. - Biol. Conserv. 38, p. 255-272.
103. Hixon, M.A. (1980). Food production and competitor density as the determinants of feeding territory size. - Am. Nat. 115, p. 510-530.
104. Houston, D.B. (1974). Aspects of the social organization of moose. - In: The behaviour of ungulates and its relation to management (V. Geist & F.R. Walther, eds). IUCN, Morges, p. 690-696.
105. Ingold, P. & Marbacher, H. (1991). Dominance relationships and competition for resources among chamois Rupicapra rupicapra rupicapra in female social groups. -Z. Säugetierkde 56, p. 88-93.
106. Jaccard, J. & Becker, M.A. (1990). Statistics for the Behavioural Sciences. - Wadsworth, California.
107. Janis, C.M. (1982). Evolution of horns in ungulates: ecology and palaeoecology. - Biol. Rev. Cambridge Phil. Soc. 57, p. 261-318.
108. _ (1990). Correlation of reproductive and digestive strategies in the evolution of cranial appendages. - In: Horns, pronghorns and antlers (G.A. Bubenik & A.B. Bubenik, eds). Springer-Verlag, New York, p. 114-133.
109. _ & Scott, K.M. (1987). The interrelationships of higher ruminant families with special emphasis on the members of the Cervoidea. - Amer. Mus. Novitates 2893, p. 1-85.
110. Jarman, M.V. (1979). Impala social behaviour. - Z. Tierpsychol. (Suppl.) 21, p. 1-93.
111. Jarman, P.J. (1974). The social organization of antelope in relation to their ecology. -Behaviour 48, p. 215-267.
112. Jenkins, A. (1929). Horned female waterbuck. - The Field 153, p. 395.
113. Jennings, T. & Evans, S.M. (1980). Influence of position in the flock and flock size on vigilance in the starling, Sturnus vulgaris. - Anim. Behav. 28, p. 634-645.
114. Jensen, W.F., Seabloom, R.W. & McKenzie, J.V. (1988). Aberrant horn growth and masculine behaviour in a female bighorn sheep from the North Dakota badlands. - Can. J. Zool. 67, p. 1602-1604.
115. Joubert, C.J. (1974). The social organization of the roan antelope Hippotragus equinus and its influence on the spatial distribution of herds in the Kruger National Park. - In: The behaviour of ungulates and its relation to management (V. Geist & F.R. Walther, eds). IUCN, Morges, p. 661-676.
116. Jungius, H. (1971). The biology and behaviour of the reedbuck (Redunca arundinum Boddaert, 1785) in the Kruger National Park. - Mammalia depicta. Verlag Paul Parey, Hamburg.
117. Kiltie, R.A. (1985). Evolution and function of horns and hornlike organs in female ungulates. _ Biol. J. Linn. Soc. 24, p. 299-320.
118. Kingdon, J. (1982). East African Mammals, III, Parts C & D (Bovids). - Academic Press, London.
119. Kojola, I. (1989). Mother's dominance status and different investment in reindeer calves. _ Anim. Behav. 38, p. 177-185.
120. Koopman, K.F. (1967). Artiodactyls. - In: Recent mammals of the world. A synopsis of families (S. Anderson & J. Knox Jones Jr, eds). Ronald Press Co., New York, p. 385-406.
121. Lande, R. (1980). Sexual dimorphism, sexual selection, and adaptation in polygenic characters. - Evolution 34, p. 292-307.
122. Langbein, J. & Putman, R. (1992). Reproductive success of female fallow deer in relation to age and condition. - In: The biology of deer (R.D. Brown, ed.). Springer-Verlag, New York, p. 293-299.
123. Leader-Williams, N. (1988). Reindeer on South Georgia. - Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
124. Leinders, J.J.M. (1983). Hoplitomerycidae fam. nov. (Ruminantia, Mammalia), from Neogene fissure fillings in Gargano (Italy). - Scripta Geol. 70, p. 1-51.
125. Lent, P.C.L. (1965a). Observations on antler shedding by female barren-ground caribou. -Can. J. Zool. 43, p. 553-558.
126. _ (1965b). Rutting behaviour in a barren-ground caribou population. - Anim. Behav. 13, p. 259-264.
127. Lincoln, G.A. & Tyler, N.J.C. (1992). Antler growth in male and female reindeer calves occurs in the absence of the gonads. - In: The biology of deer (R.D. Brown, ed.). Springer-Verlag, New York, p. 493-498.
128. Locati, M. & Lovari, S. (1990). Sexual differences in aggressive behaviour of the Apennine chamois. - Ethology 84, p. 295-306.
129. Lovari, S. (1985). Behavioural repertoire of the Abruzzo Chamois, Rupicapra pyrenaica ornata Neumann, 1899 (Artiodactyla: Bovidae). - Säugetierkde. Mitt. 32, p. 113-136.
130. Lovari, S. & Locati, M. (1993). Intrasexual social behaviour of female Apennine chamois Rupicapra pyrenaica ornata (Neumann, 1899). - Ethol. Ecol. Evol. 5, p. 347-356.
131. Lowenstein, J.M. (1986). Bovid relations based on serum immunology. - S. Afr. J. Sci. 82, p. 77-78.
132. Macdonald, D.W. (1984). The encyclopaedia of mammals. - Facts on File, NY.
133. Mace, R. & Pagel, M. (1995). The comparative method in anthropology. - Current Anthropology.
134. Marier, P. (1956). Studies of fighting in chaffinches. III. Proximity as a cause of aggression. _ Brit. J. Anim. Behav. 6, p. 23-30.
135. Maynard Smith, J. (1982). Evolution and the theory of games. - Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
136. _ & Parker, G.A. (1976). The logic of asymmetric contests. - Anim. Behav. 24, p. 159-175.
137. _ & Price, G.R. (1973). The logic of animal conflict. - Nature 246, p. 15-18.
138. Meester, J. & Setzer, H.W. (1971). The mammals of Africa. An identification manual. -Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, DC.
139. Miyamoto, M.M., Tanhauser, S.M. & Laipis, P.J. (1989). Systematic relationships in the artiodactyl tribe Bovini (family Bovidae), as determined from mitochondrial DNA sequences. - Syst. Zool. 38, p. 342-349.
140. Morris, D. (1965). The mammals: a guide to the living species. - Hodder & Stoughton, London.
141. Mourik, S.V. (1985). Expression and relevance of dominance in farmed Rusa deer (Cervus rusa timorensis). - Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 14, p. 275-287.
142. Murie, O.J. (1951). The elk of North America. - Stackpole, Harrisburg.
143. Murray, M.G. (1981). Structure of association in impala, Aepyceros melampus. - Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 9, p. 23-33.
144. Norton, P.M. (1980) The habitat and feeding ecology of the klipspringer Oreotragus oreotragus (Zimmerman, 1783) in two areas of the Cape Province. - MSc thesis, University of Pretoria, SA.
145. Novellie, P.A., Manson, J. & Bigalke, R.C. (1984). Behavioural ecology and communication in the Cape grysbok. - S. Afr. J. Zool. 19, p. 22-30.
146. Nowak, R.M. & Paradiso, J.L. (1983). Walker's mammals of the world. Vol. 2 (4th edn). _ John Hopkins University Press.
147. Oftedal, O.T. (1985). Pregnancy and lactation. - In: The bioenergetics of herbivores (R.J. Hudson & R.G. White, eds). CRC Press, Boca Raton, p. 215-238.
148. O'Gara, B. (1969). Horn casting by female pronghorns. - J. Mammal. 50, p. 373-375.
149. Packer, C. (1983). Sexual dimorphism: the horns of African antelopes. - Science 221, p. 1191-1193.
150. _ (1986). The ecology of sociality in felids. - In: Ecological aspects of social evolution (D.I. Rubenstein & R.W. Wrangham, eds). Princeton University Press, Princeton, p. 429-451.
151. Pagel, M.D. & Harvey, P.H. (1988). Recent developments in the analysis of comparative data. - Q. Rev. Biol. 63, p. 413-440.
152. _ & _ (1989). Comparative methods for examining adaptation depend on evolutionary models. - Folia Primatol. 53, p. 203-220.
153. Patterson, I.J. (1965). Timing and spacing of broods in the black-headed gull, Larus ridibundus. - Ibis 107, p. 433-460.
154. Parker, G.A. (1984). Evolutionarily stable strategies. - In: Behavioural ecology: an evolutionary approach. 2nd edn (J.R. Krebs & N.B. Davies, eds). Blackwell, Oxford, p. 30-61.
155. Peek, J.M., Leresche, R.E. & Stevens, D.R. (1974). Dynamics of moose aggregations in Alaska, Minnesota and Montana. - J. Mammal. 55, p. 126-134.
156. Popp, J.W. (1985). Horn size and body size among antelope. - Sàugetierkde. Mitt. 32, p. 245-248.
157. Prins, H.H.T. (1989). Buffalo herd structure and its repercussions for condition of individual African buffalo cows. - Ethology 81, p. 47-71.
158. _ & Iason, G.R. (1989). Dangerous lions and nonchalant buffalo. - Behaviour 108, p. 262-296.
159. Pusey, A.E. (1987). Sex-biased dispersal and inbreeding avoidance in birds and mammals. _ Trends Ecol. Evol. 2, p. 295-299.
160. Putman, R. & Langbein, J. (1992). Effects of stocking density, feeding and herd management on mortality of park deer. - In: The biology of deer (R.D. Brown, ed.). Springer-Verlag, New York, p. 180-188.
161. Ralls, K. (1973). Cephalophus maxwelli. - In: Mammalian species 31, p. 1-4.
162. _ (1974). Scent marking in captive Maxwell's duikers. - In: The behaviour of ungulates and its relation to management (V. Geist & F.R. Walther, eds). IUCN, Morges, p. 114-132.
163. Rauch, N. (1988). Competition of marine iguana females (Amblyrhynchus cristatus) for egg-laying sites. - Behaviour 107, p. 91-106.
164. Reimers, E. (1993). Antlerless females among reindeer and caribou. - Can. J. Zool. 71, p. 1319-1325.
165. Risenhoover, K.L. & Bailey, J.A. (1985). Relationships between group size, feeding time, and agonistic behaviour of mountain goats. - Can. J. Zool. 63, p. 2501-2506.
166. Roberts, S.C. (1994). Mechanics and function of territorial behaviour in klipspringer. -PhD thesis, University of London.
167. Robinson, J.G. (1981). Spatial structure in foraging groups of wedge-capped capuchin monkeys Cebus nigrivittatus. - Anim. Behav. 29, p. 1036-1056.
168. Roosevelt, T. & Heller, E. (1915). Life histories of African game animals, Vol. 2. - John Murray, London.
169. Rubenstein, D.I. (1986). Ecology and sociality in horses and zebras. - In: Ecological aspects of social evolution (D.I. Rubenstein & R.W. Wrangham, eds). Princeton University Press, Princeton, p. 282-302.
170. _ & Wrangham, R.W. (1986). Ecological aspects of social evolution. - Princeton University Press, Princeton.
171. Rutberg, A.T. (1983). Factors influencing dominance status in American bison cows (Bison bison). - Z. Tierpsychol. 63, p. 206-212.
172. van Schaik, C.P. (1989). The ecology of social relationships among female primates. - In: Comparative socioecology (V. Standen & R.A. Foley, eds). Blackwell, Oxford.
173. Schaller, G.B. (1977). Mountain monarchs. - Chicago University Press, Chicago.
174. Schein, M.W. & Fohrmann, M.M. (1955). Social dominance relationships in a herd of dairy cattle. - Brit. J. Anim. Behav. 3, p. 45-55.
175. Scotcher, J.S.B. (1980). Status of klipspringer in the Drakensberg Game Reserves. - The Lammergeyer 28, p. 33-39.
176. Scott, K.M. & Janis, C.M. (1987). The phylogenetic position of the Cervidae, and the case for a superfamily Cervoidea. - In: The biology and management of the Cervidae (C. Wemmer, ed.). Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, DC.
177. Siegel, S. & Castellan, N.J. (1988). Nonparametric statistics. - McGraw-Hill, Singapore.
178. Sigg, H. (1980). Differentiation of female positions in hamadryas one-male units. -Z. Tierpsychol. 53, p. 265-302.
179. Simpson, G.G. (1945). The principles of classification and a classification of mammals. -Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. 85, p. 1-350.
180. Sinclair, A.R.E. (1974). The social organisation of the African buffalo. - In: The behaviour of ungulates and its relation to management, Vol. 2 (V. Geist & F.R. Walther, eds). IUCN, Morges, p. 676-689.
181. Stevenson-Hamilton, J. (1947). Wildlife in South Africa. - Cassell & Co. Ltd.
182. Tegner, H. (1951). The roe deer. - Batchworth, London.
183. Tenaza, R. (1971). Behaviour and nesting success relative to nest location in Adelie penguins (Pygoscelis adeliae). - Condor 73, p. 81-89.
184. Thompson, K.V. (1993). Aggressive behaviour and dominance hierarchies in female sable antelope, Hippotragus niger - Implications for captive management. Zoo Biology 12, p. 189-202.
185. Thouless, C.R. (1990). Feeding competition between grazing red deer hinds. - Anim. Behav. 40, p. 105-111.
186. _ & Guinness, F.E. (1986). Conflict between red deer hinds: the winner always wins. _ Anim. Behav. 34, p. 1166-1171.
187. Tilson, R.L. (1980). Klipspringer (Oreotragus oreotragus) social structure and predator avoidance in a desert canyon. - Madoqua 11, p. 303-314.
188. _ & Tilson, J.W. (1986). Population turnover in a monogamous antelope (Madoqua kirki) in Namibia. - J. Mammal. 67, p. 610-613.
189. Underwood, R. (1982). Vigilance behaviour in grazing African antelopes. - Behaviour 108, p. 81-107.
190. Venter, J. (1984). Occurrence of horns in an adult female common reedbuck Redunca arundinum. - Lammergeyer 34, p. 62.
191. Vestal, B.M. & Vander-Stoep, A. (1978). Effect of distance between feeders on aggression in captive chamois (Rupicapra rupicapra). - Appl. Anim. Ethol. 4, p. 253-260.
192. Vrba, E.S. (1979). Phylogenetic analysis and classification of fossil and recent Alcelaphini (Mammalia: Bovidae). - Biol. J. Linn. Soc. 11, p. 207-228.
193. _ (1984). Evolutionary pattern and process in the sister-group Alcelaphini-Aepycerotini (Mammalia: Bovidae). - In: Living fossils (N. Eldridge & S.M. Stanley, eds). Springer-Verlag, New York, p. 62-79.
194. Walther, F.R. (1966). Mit horn und huf. - P. Parey, Berlin.
195. Warrick, G.D. & Krausman, P.R. (1987). Foraging behaviour of female mountain sheep in Western Arizona. - J. Wildl. Man. 51, p. 99-104.
196. Waser, P.M. (1976). Cercocebus albigena: site attachment, avoidance and intergroup spacing. - Am. Nat. 110, p. 911-935.
197. Webb, S.D. & Taylor, B.E. (1980). The phylogeny of hornless ruminants and a description of the cranium of Archaeomeryx. - Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist. 167, p. 121-157.
198. Wickler, W. (1967). Socio-sexual signals and their intraspecific imitation among primates. _ In: Primate ethology (D. Morris, ed.). Weidenfeld & Nicholson, London.
199. Williamson, D.T. (1991). Condition, growth and reproduction in female red lechwe (Kobus leche leche Gray 1850). - Afr. J. Ecol. 29, p. 105-117.
200. Wislocki, G.B. (1954). Antlers in female deer, with a report of three cases in Odocoileus. _ J. Mammal. 35, p. 486-495.
201. _ (1956). Further notes on antlers in female deer of the genus Odocoileus. - J. Mammal 37, p. 231-235.
202. Wrangham, R.W. (1979). On the evolution of ape social systems. - Soc. Sci. Inform. 18, p. 335-368.
203. _ (1980). An ecological model of female-bonded primate groups. - Behaviour 75, p. 262-300.
204. Zucker, N. (1974). Shelter building as a means of reducing territory size in the fiddler crab Uca terpsichores (Crustacea: Ocypodidae). - Am. Midi. Nat. 91, p. 224-235.