The right to organise as mother of all rights: The experience of women in Tanzania

Journal of Modern African Studies

Volumn 34, Issue 1, 1996, Pages 143-162

  Tenga, Nakazael ^a   Peter, Chris Maina ^b  

^a University of Dar es Salaam ^*

^b UNIVERSITY OF DAR ES SALAAM   (Tanzania)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

DEVELOPING COUNTRY; MULTI-PARTY SYSTEM; POLITICAL CHANGE; POLITICAL PARTICIPATION; STATE ROLE; WOMEN'S ORGANISATION; WOMEN'S ROLE;

TANZANIA;

EID: 0030417476     PISSN: 0022278X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/s0022278x00055245     Document Type: Article

References (98)

1. Julius K. Nyerere, Freedom and Socialism/Uhuru na Ujamaa: a selection from writings and speeches, 1965-1967 (Dar es Salaam, 1968), p. 245.
2. Quoted by Audrey Wipper, 'Equal Rights for Women in Kenya?', in The Journal of Modern African Studies (Cambridge), 9, 3, October 1971, p. 433.
3. Claude E. Welch, Jr., 'The Right of Association in Ghana and Tanzania', in ibid. 16, 4, December 1978, p. 639.
4. See Osita C. Eze, Human Rights in Africa: some selected problems (Lagos, 1984); Nasila S. Rembe, Africa and Regional Protection of Human Rights: a study of the African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights - its effectiveness and impact on the African states (Rome, 1985); and Chris Maina Peter, Human Rights in Africa: a comparative study of the African Human and Peoples' Rights Charter and the new Tanzanian Bill of Rights (Westport, CT, 1990).
5. See Osita C. Eze, Human Rights in Africa: some selected problems (Lagos, 1984); Nasila S. Rembe, Africa and Regional Protection of Human Rights: a study of the African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights - its effectiveness and impact on the African states (Rome, 1985); and Chris Maina Peter, Human Rights in Africa: a comparative study of the African Human and Peoples' Rights Charter and the new Tanzanian Bill of Rights (Westport, CT, 1990).
6. See Osita C. Eze, Human Rights in Africa: some selected problems (Lagos, 1984); Nasila S. Rembe, Africa and Regional Protection of Human Rights: a study of the African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights - its effectiveness and impact on the African states (Rome, 1985); and Chris Maina Peter, Human Rights in Africa: a comparative study of the African Human and Peoples' Rights Charter and the new Tanzanian Bill of Rights (Westport, CT, 1990).
7. See Wolfgang Benedek, 'Peoples' Rights and Individual's Duties as Special Features of the African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights', in Philip Kunig et al. Regional Protection of Human Rights by International Law: the emerging African system (Baden-Baden, 1985), p. 59; Karl J. Partsch, 'Recent Developments in the Field of Peoples' Rights', in Human Rights Law Journal (Kehl am Rhein, Germany), 7, 1986, p. 177; and Richard N. Kiwanuka, 'The Meaning of "People" in the African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights', in American Journal of International Law (Washington, DC), 82, 1988, p. 80.
8. See Wolfgang Benedek, 'Peoples' Rights and Individual's Duties as Special Features of the African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights', in Philip Kunig et al. Regional Protection of Human Rights by International Law: the emerging African system (Baden-Baden, 1985), p. 59; Karl J. Partsch, 'Recent Developments in the Field of Peoples' Rights', in Human Rights Law Journal (Kehl am Rhein, Germany), 7, 1986, p. 177; and Richard N. Kiwanuka, 'The Meaning of "People" in the African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights', in American Journal of International Law (Washington, DC), 82, 1988, p. 80.
9. See Wolfgang Benedek, 'Peoples' Rights and Individual's Duties as Special Features of the African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights', in Philip Kunig et al. Regional Protection of Human Rights by International Law: the emerging African system (Baden-Baden, 1985), p. 59; Karl J. Partsch, 'Recent Developments in the Field of Peoples' Rights', in Human Rights Law Journal (Kehl am Rhein, Germany), 7, 1986, p. 177; and Richard N. Kiwanuka, 'The Meaning of "People" in the African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights', in American Journal of International Law (Washington, DC), 82, 1988, p. 80.
10. This provision is elaborated in A Guide to the African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights (London, Amnesty International, 1991), p. 30.
11. On these forms of restrictions, see Nasila S. Rembe, The System of Protection of Human Rights under the African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights: problems and prospects (Roma, Institute of Southern African Studies, National University of Lesotho, 1991).
12. Fifth Constitutional Amendment Act, No. 15 of 1984, and the Constitution (Consequential, Transitional and Temporary Provisions) Act, No. 16 of 1984. See Damian Z. Lubuva, 'Reflections on Tanzanian Bill of Rights', in Commonwealth Law Bulletin (London), 14, 2, 1988, p. 853; Chris Maina Peter, 'Respect for Fundamental Rights and Freedoms: a new Bill of Rights for Tanzania', in Revue de droit international (Geneva), 67, 1989, p. 255; and Jwani T. Mwaikusa, 'Genesis of the Bill of Rights in Tanzania', in African Journal of International and Comparative Law (London), 3, 4, 1991, pp. 680-98.
13. Fifth Constitutional Amendment Act, No. 15 of 1984, and the Constitution (Consequential, Transitional and Temporary Provisions) Act, No. 16 of 1984. See Damian Z. Lubuva, 'Reflections on Tanzanian Bill of Rights', in Commonwealth Law Bulletin (London), 14, 2, 1988, p. 853; Chris Maina Peter, 'Respect for Fundamental Rights and Freedoms: a new Bill of Rights for Tanzania', in Revue de droit international (Geneva), 67, 1989, p. 255; and Jwani T. Mwaikusa, 'Genesis of the Bill of Rights in Tanzania', in African Journal of International and Comparative Law (London), 3, 4, 1991, pp. 680-98.
14. Fifth Constitutional Amendment Act, No. 15 of 1984, and the Constitution (Consequential, Transitional and Temporary Provisions) Act, No. 16 of 1984. See Damian Z. Lubuva, 'Reflections on Tanzanian Bill of Rights', in Commonwealth Law Bulletin (London), 14, 2, 1988, p. 853; Chris Maina Peter, 'Respect for Fundamental Rights and Freedoms: a new Bill of Rights for Tanzania', in Revue de droit international (Geneva), 67, 1989, p. 255; and Jwani T. Mwaikusa, 'Genesis of the Bill of Rights in Tanzania', in African Journal of International and Comparative Law (London), 3, 4, 1991, pp. 680-98.
15. See Chris Maina Peter, 'Five Years of Bill of Rights in Tanzania: drawing a balance-sheet', in African Journal of International and Comparative Law, 4, 1, 1992, pp. 156-61.
16. See Ministry of Community Development, Culture, Youth, and Sports, Situation of Women in Tanzania (Dar es Salaam, 1988), p. 55.
17. Marjorie Mbilinyi, 'This is Unforgettable Business: colonial state intervention in urban Tanzania', in Jane L. Parpart and Kathleen A. Staudt (eds.), Women and the State in Africa (Boulder and London, 1988), p. 125.
18. On the political struggles for independence and the growing importance of Tanu, see M. H. Y. Kaniki, 'TANU: the party of independence and national consolidation', in Gabriel Ruhumbika (ed.), Towards Ujamaa: twenty years of TANU leadership (Nairobi, 1974), pp. 1-30, and Cranford Pratt, The Critical Phase in Tanzania, 1945-1968: Nyerere and the emergence of a socialist strategy (Cambridge, 1976).
19. On the political struggles for independence and the growing importance of Tanu, see M. H. Y. Kaniki, 'TANU: the party of independence and national consolidation', in Gabriel Ruhumbika (ed.), Towards Ujamaa: twenty years of TANU leadership (Nairobi, 1974), pp. 1-30, and Cranford Pratt, The Critical Phase in Tanzania, 1945-1968: Nyerere and the emergence of a socialist strategy (Cambridge, 1976).
20. See Daria Ibrahim, 'The Dynamism of Feminism in a Socialist Transformation: the case of Tanzania', Institute of Social Studies, The Hague, pp. 18-20.
21. See John Iliffe, A Modern History of Tanganyika (Cambridge, 1979), p. 530.
22. See Susan Geiger, 'Women in the Nationalist Struggle: TANU activists in Dar es Salaam', in International Journal of African Historical Studies (Boston), 20. 1, 1987, p. 1, quoted in Mbilinyi, loc. cit. p. 124.
23. See Susan Geiger, 'Women in the Nationalist Struggle: TANU activists in Dar es Salaam', in International Journal of African Historical Studies (Boston), 20. 1, 1987, p. 1, quoted in Mbilinyi, loc. cit. p. 124.
24. Mbilinyi, loc. cit. pp. 123-4.
25. Iliffe, op. cit. p. 531.
26. Kurt Glaser and Stefan T. Possony, Victims of Politics: the state of human rights (New York, 1979), p. 369.
27. Joel Samoff, Tanzania: local politics and the structure of power (Madison, 1974), pp. 182-3.
28. Ilifle, op. cit. p. 532.
29. See also, Henry Bienen, Tanzania: party transformation and economic development (Princeton, 1967), p. 187.
30. Edward B. M. Barongo, Mkiki Mkiki wa Siasa Tanganyika (Dar es Salaam, 1966), quoted in Iliffe, op. cit. p. 532.
31. Edward B. M. Barongo, Mkiki Mkiki wa Siasa Tanganyika (Dar es Salaam, 1966), quoted in Iliffe, op. cit. p. 532.
32. Michaela von Freyhold, 'Kitumbi-Chanika and Kitumbi-Tibili: two ujamaa villages that refused to become one', in Andrew Coulson (ed.), African Socialism in Practice: the Tanzanian experience (Nottingham, 1979), pp. 75 and 77.
33. Quoted in Janet Bujra, 'Taxing Development in Tanzania: why must women pay?', in Review of African Political Economy (Sheffield), 47, 1990, p. 57.
34. On the dramatisation of their plight by rural women themselves, see Marjorie Mbilinyi, 'Structural Adjustment and Agribusiness in Tanzania: struggles over the labour of women peasants and farm workers', in Taamuli (Dar es Salaam), 1, 1-2, 1990, p. 76.
35. In fact, Nyerere always ensured that the leader of the national women's organisation was one of the 9-10 appointed members of TANU's central committee, starting with the first holder of that post, Bibi Titi Mohamed.
36. Constitution of the Umoja wa Wanawake wa Tanganyika, 1962.
37. The Articles of the Union are reproduced in International Legal Materials (Washington, DC), 3, 1964, pp. 763-9. See also, Michael F. Lofchie, Zanzibar: background to revolution (Princeton, 1965), and Y. Vonhoff, 'Union Without Unity: the case of Tanganyika and Zanzibar', Master of Laws dissertation, University of Leiden, 1987.
38. The Articles of the Union are reproduced in International Legal Materials (Washington, DC), 3, 1964, pp. 763-9. See also, Michael F. Lofchie, Zanzibar: background to revolution (Princeton, 1965), and Y. Vonhoff, 'Union Without Unity: the case of Tanganyika and Zanzibar', Master of Laws dissertation, University of Leiden, 1987.
39. The Articles of the Union are reproduced in International Legal Materials (Washington, DC), 3, 1964, pp. 763-9. See also, Michael F. Lofchie, Zanzibar: background to revolution (Princeton, 1965), and Y. Vonhoff, 'Union Without Unity: the case of Tanganyika and Zanzibar', Master of Laws dissertation, University of Leiden, 1987.
40. See, inter alia, J. P. W. B. McAuslan and Yash P. Ghai, 'Constitutional Innovation and Political Stability in Tanzania: a preliminary assessment', in The Journal of Modern African Studies, 4, 4, December 1966, pp. 479-515, and Kurt Rabl, 'Constitutional Development and the Law of the United Republic of Tanzania: an outline', in Jahrbuch des Öffentlichen Rechts der Gegenwart (Tübingen), 16, 1967, p. 567.
41. See, inter alia, J. P. W. B. McAuslan and Yash P. Ghai, 'Constitutional Innovation and Political Stability in Tanzania: a preliminary assessment', in The Journal of Modern African Studies, 4, 4, December 1966, pp. 479-515, and Kurt Rabl, 'Constitutional Development and the Law of the United Republic of Tanzania: an outline', in Jahrbuch des Öffentlichen Rechts der Gegenwart (Tübingen), 16, 1967, p. 567.
42. Constitution of the Jumuiya wa Wanawake wa Tanzania, 1978. For some of the objectives of the UWT, see Taasisi ya Elimu ya Watu Wazima, Zijue Haki za Wanawake Tanzania (Dar es Salaam, 1984), pp. 22-8,
43. and Situation of Women in Tanzania, pp. 55-9.
44. This was part of the strategy to ensure that the ruling party had total control over all politics in the country. See Pius Msekwa, Towards Party Supremacy (Arusha, 1977), and the Constitution of Chama Cha Mapinduzi, 1982.
45. The Marriage and the Matrimonial Causes Ordinances were based on the English Matrimonial Causes Act of 1937, although Christians could resort to the Common Law if the need arose.
46. The Marriage, Divorce, and Succession (Non-Christian Asiatics) Ordinance empowered the High Court to apply the laws of the religion of Muslims and Hindus to marriage. Islamic law could also be applied by virtue of Section 14 of the Magistrates' Court Act, 1963, and by Proviso (ii) to Section 9 of the Judicature and Application of Laws Ordinance. It was also recognised in the Mohammedan Estates (Benevolent Payments) Ordinance and the Land (Law of Property and Conveyancing) Ordinance.
47. Section 9 of the Judicature and Application of Laws Ordinance enabled 'Natives' to be married and divorced according to their customary rules, subject to the clause that restricted the application of those considered to be repugnant to natural justice or morality. Most of the customary laws relating to marriage and divorce were later unified and codified under the Local Customary (Declaration) Order, 1963. See B. A. Rwezaura, State Law and Customary Law: reflections on their relationship in contemporary Tanzania (Saarbrücken, Europa-Institut der Universität des Saarlandes, 1987).
48. For a thorough analysis of this legislation, see Wilhelm Wengler, 'Ein neues Ehegesetz für Tanganjika', in Zeitschrift für das gesamte Familienrecht (Bielefeld-Bethel, Germany), 18, November 1971, p. 545; James S. Read, 'A Milestone in the Integration of Personal Laws: the new law of marriage and divorce in Tanzania', in Journal of African Law (London), 16, 1, 1972, p. 19; and Yash P. Ghai, 'The New Marriage Law in Tanzania', in Africa Quarterly (New Delhi), 11, 1971, p. 101.
49. For a thorough analysis of this legislation, see Wilhelm Wengler, 'Ein neues Ehegesetz für Tanganjika', in Zeitschrift für das gesamte Familienrecht (Bielefeld-Bethel, Germany), 18, November 1971, p. 545; James S. Read, 'A Milestone in the Integration of Personal Laws: the new law of marriage and divorce in Tanzania', in Journal of African Law (London), 16, 1, 1972, p. 19; and Yash P. Ghai, 'The New Marriage Law in Tanzania', in Africa Quarterly (New Delhi), 11, 1971, p. 101.
50. For a thorough analysis of this legislation, see Wilhelm Wengler, 'Ein neues Ehegesetz für Tanganjika', in Zeitschrift für das gesamte Familienrecht (Bielefeld-Bethel, Germany), 18, November 1971, p. 545; James S. Read, 'A Milestone in the Integration of Personal Laws: the new law of marriage and divorce in Tanzania', in Journal of African Law (London), 16, 1, 1972, p. 19; and Yash P. Ghai, 'The New Marriage Law in Tanzania', in Africa Quarterly (New Delhi), 11, 1971, p. 101.
51. The 1971 Law of Marriage Act also affected the following Ordinances: Adoption, Cap. 335; District Courts (Separation and Maintenance), Cap. 335; Maintenance Orders (Enforcement), Cap. 275; and Affiliation, Cap. 278.
52. See, for example, the judgement of Chief Justice Hamilton in the Kenyan case of R. vs. Amkeyo, No. 7 of 1917, in East African Law Reports (Nairobi), p. 14, whose decision was in a way supported much later by the reference to African marriage as being simply 'concubinage' by the East African Court of Appeal in Abdul Rahman Bin Mohammed and Another vs. R. [1968] E. A. 188. On this, see Eugene Cotran. 'The Changing Nature of African Marriage', in J. N. D. Anderson led.), Family Law in Asia and Africa (London, 1968), pp. 15-33.
53. See, for example, the judgement of Chief Justice Hamilton in the Kenyan case of R. vs. Amkeyo, No. 7 of 1917, in East African Law Reports (Nairobi), p. 14, whose decision was in a way supported much later by the reference to African marriage as being simply 'concubinage' by the East African Court of Appeal in Abdul Rahman Bin Mohammed and Another vs. R. [1968] E. A. 188. On this, see Eugene Cotran. 'The Changing Nature of African Marriage', in J. N. D. Anderson led.), Family Law in Asia and Africa (London, 1968), pp. 15-33.
54. According to Patricia Caplan, 'Cognatic Descent, Islamic Law and Woman's Property in the East African Coast', in Renée Hirschon (ed.), Women and Property - Women as Property (London and Canberra, 1984), p. 32, 'In Islamic societies marriage is a contract between two individuals, not a religious sacrament. A marriage ceremony includes very little religious ritual, apart from a few prayers. The Kadhi asks the couple if they are willing to marry, declares the amount of marriage payment (mahari) which the groom promises the bride, and then tells them "live together with goodness, and if you divorce, do this also with goodness". Right at the time of inception of the contract, then, the possibility of its being broken is foreseen.'
55. Pamela Landberg, 'Widows and Divorced Women in Swahili Society', in Betty Potash (ed.), Widows in African Societies: choices and constraints (Stanford, 1986), p. 114.
56. Quoted in Winston E. Langley, Women's Rights in International Documents: a source-book with commentary (Jafferson, NC, and London, 1991), p. 89.
57. See Jane Connors, 'Legal Position of Women', in Edda Ivan-Smith, Nidhi Tandon, and Connors, Women in Sub-Saharan Africa (London, The Minority Rights Group, 1988), p. 12.
58. Ibid.
59. Civil Appeal No. 70 of 1989 is analysed fully by Palamagamba John Kabudi, 'The Judiciary and Human Rights in Tanzania: domestic application of international human rights norms', in Verfassung und Recht in Übersee (Hamburg), 24, 3, 1991, p. 271. See also, Rose Mtengeti-Migiro, 'Legal Developments on Women's Rights to Inherit Land under Customary Law in Tanzania', in ibid. 24, 4, 1991, pp. 368-9.
60. Civil Appeal No. 70 of 1989 is analysed fully by Palamagamba John Kabudi, 'The Judiciary and Human Rights in Tanzania: domestic application of international human rights norms', in Verfassung und Recht in Übersee (Hamburg), 24, 3, 1991, p. 271. See also, Rose Mtengeti-Migiro, 'Legal Developments on Women's Rights to Inherit Land under Customary Law in Tanzania', in ibid. 24, 4, 1991, pp. 368-9.
61. The Standard (Dar es Salaam), 22 January 1971, quoted in Mbilinyi, loc. cit. p. 67.
62. The Standard (Dar es Salaam), 22 January 1971, quoted in Mbilinyi, loc. cit. p. 67.
63. Ibid.
64. See Nakazael L. Tenga, 'Women's Access to and Control of Land in Tanzania', in Wildaf (ed.), Women, Law and Development in Africa -WILDAF: origins and issues (Washington, DC, OEF International, 1992), p. 181.
65. Bujra, loc. cit. p. 56.
66. See B. A. Rwezaura, 'Division of Matrimonial Assets Under the Tanzania Marriage Law', in Verfassung und Recht in Übersee, 17, 1984, p. 179.
67. For instance, in Oman Oberi vs. Maria Nyakagere, High Court of Tanzania (HCT) at Mwanza, Civil Appeal No. 181 of 1973, Justice Maganga upheld the decision of a lower court which had awarded the sum of TShs.4,4.00 to a former wife because she had contributed TShs.200 as far back as 1942 towards the establishment of a fishing business which had turned out to be a success.
68. Law; Reports of Tanzania (Dar es Salaam), No. 55, 1977.
69. High Court Digest (Dar es Salaam), No. 175, 1971.
70. HCT at Dar es Salaam, Civil Appeal No. 10 of 1980.
71. HCT at Dar es Salaam, Matrimonial Case No. 6 of 1977, unreported.
72. HCT at Mtwara, Civil Appeal No. 28 of 1975, unreported.
73. HCT at Dodoma, Civil Appeal No. 28 of 1975, unreported.
74. Court of Appeal of Tanzania at Dar es Salaam, Civil Appeal No. 9 of 1983.
75. See Chris Maina Peter and Michael K. B. Wambali, 'Independence of the Judiciary in Tanzania: a critique', in Verfassung und Recht in Übersee, 21, 1, 1988, p. 86.
76. Rwezaura, loc. cit. p. 193.
77. See M. A. Ismail, 'Public Interest Litigation', Tanganyika Law Society Seminar, Dar es Salaam, January 1984.
78. (1979) Weekly Law Reports (London), 377.
79. See 'Law and Society: division of matrimonial assets', in Sunday News (Dar es Salaam), 22 January 1985. Also, Legal Aid Committee, Essays on Law and Society (Kampala, 1985), ch. 11.
80. See 'Law and Society: division of matrimonial assets', in Sunday News (Dar es Salaam), 22 January 1985. Also, Legal Aid Committee, Essays on Law and Society (Kampala, 1985), ch. 11.
81. See B. A. Rwezaura, 'Presumption of Marriage in Tanzania', in Verfassung und Recht in Übersee, 18, 1985, p. 169.
82. See Ulrike Wanitzek, 'The Situation of Unmarried Mothers and Their Children in Tanzania - Protective Legislation and Social Reality', in Franz von Benda-Beckman et al. (eds.), Between Kinship and the State: social security and law in developing countries (Dordrecht, 1988), pp. 317-38.
83. If a woman gets pregnant before the expiration of the three years she is not entitled to any maternity leave, and must either resort to her annual leave which is 28 days, or else take leave without pay.
84. See also Article 11(2) of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women that was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly in December 1979.
85. See Deborah Fahy Bryceson, 'The Proletarianization of Women in Tanzania', in Review of African Political Economy, 17, January-April 1980, p. 21.
86. Andrew Coulson, Tanzania: a political economy (Oxford, 1982), pp. 205 and 342, fn. 10.
87. For further information concerning these higher education entry conditions and their effects on the economy, see Enos S. Bukuku, The Tanzanian Economy: income distribution and economic growth (Westport, CT, and London, 1993), p. 191.
88. This explanation is, in fact, misleading. The actual aim was to check radicalism in institutions of higher learning, not least since these were the only sources of challenge to the almighty party and its government, and hence had to be controlled. On the 1974 Musoma resolution and its background, see Chris Maina Peter and Sengondo Mvungi, 'The State and Student Struggles', in Issa G. Shivji (ed.), The State and the Working People in Tanzania (Dakar, 1985), pp. 155-94.
89. Idrian N. Resnick, The Long Transition: building socialism in Tanzania (New York and London, 1981), p. 116.
90. Julius K. Nyerere, The Arusha Declaration: ten years after (Dar es Salaam, 1977), p. 13.
91. According to Maura Rafferty, 'Women, Development and Adult Education in Tanzania', in Michael Hodd (ed.), Tanzania after Nyerere (London, 1988), p. 128, this helpful academic concession was one of the successes of the UWT.
92. See Natalie Kaufman Hevener, International Law and the Status of Women (Boulder, CO, 1983), p. 215.
93. 'Tanzania', in Africa South of the Sahara, 1994 (London, 1993), p. 886.
94. Commission's Report, Vol. 1, para. 386, p. 113.
95. See the Constitution of Jumuyia ya Wanawake Tanzania (UWT), 1978.
96. Daily News (Dar es Salaam), 27 July 1994.
97. Elimu ya Uraia Kwa Wanawake Wapiga Kura na Agenda ya Wanawake Katika Uchaguzi Mkuu wa Mwaka 1995, Dar es Salaam, July 1995.
98. See 'BAWATA waonywa: Acheni Kujihusisha na Siasa - Mwinyi', in Uhuru (Dar es Salaam), 19 September 1995.