Plague without rats: The case of fifteenth-century Iceland

Journal of Medieval History

Volumn 22, Issue 3, 1996, Pages 263-284

  Karlsson, Gunnar ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF ICELAND   (Iceland)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

DISEASE DISSEMINATION; EPIDEMIC SPREAD; FIFTEENTH CENTURY; HISTORICAL STUDY;

ICELAND;

EID: 0030391304     PISSN: 03044181     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/S0304-4181(96)00017-6     Document Type: Article

References (133)

1. J. F. D. Shrewsbury, A History of Bubonic Plague in the British Isles (Cambridge, 1971), 2, 6, 23-36, 122-3.
2. Shrewsbury, Bubonic Plague, 104, 107, 110, 114, 124-5.
3. C. Morris, 'The Plague in Britain', The Historical Journal, 14 (1971), 207-9.
4. G. Twigg, The Black Death: a Biological Reappraisal (London, 1984), 161-70, 208-22.
5. O. J. Benedictow, Plague in the Late Medieval Nordic Countries. Epidemological Studies (Oslo, 1992), 25-32, 71-3, 123-5, 156-92, 214-64, 267-74.
6. The Black Death, ed. R. Horrox (Manchester, 1994), 6.
7. Morris, 'Plague in Britain', 207. Twigg, Black Death, 163.
8. Morris, 'Plague in Britain', 207. Twigg, Black Death, 163.
9. E.g. Shrewsbury, Bubonic Plague, 37. R. S. Gottfried, The Black Death: Natural and Human Disaster in Medieval Europe (New York, 1983), 58. - J. Steffensen, 'Plague in Iceland', Nordisk medicinhistorisk årsbok (1974), 42 and J. Steffensen, Menning og meinsemdir. Ritgeroasafn um mótunarsögu íslenzkrar pjóoar og baráttu hennar vio hungur og sóttir (Reykjavík, 1975), 325, traces the most likely origin of this misconception.
10. E.g. Shrewsbury, Bubonic Plague, 37. R. S. Gottfried, The Black Death: Natural and Human Disaster in Medieval Europe (New York, 1983), 58. - J. Steffensen, 'Plague in Iceland', Nordisk medicinhistorisk årsbok (1974), 42 and J. Steffensen, Menning og meinsemdir. Ritgeroasafn um mótunarsögu íslenzkrar pjóoar og baráttu hennar vio hungur og sóttir (Reykjavík, 1975), 325, traces the most likely origin of this misconception.
11. E.g. Shrewsbury, Bubonic Plague, 37. R. S. Gottfried, The Black Death: Natural and Human Disaster in Medieval Europe (New York, 1983), 58. - J. Steffensen, 'Plague in Iceland', Nordisk medicinhistorisk årsbok (1974), 42 and J. Steffensen, Menning og meinsemdir. Ritgeroasafn um mótunarsögu íslenzkrar pjóoar og baráttu hennar vio hungur og sóttir (Reykjavík, 1975), 325, traces the most likely origin of this misconception.
12. E.g. Shrewsbury, Bubonic Plague, 37. R. S. Gottfried, The Black Death: Natural and Human Disaster in Medieval Europe (New York, 1983), 58. - J. Steffensen, 'Plague in Iceland', Nordisk medicinhistorisk årsbok (1974), 42 and J. Steffensen, Menning og meinsemdir. Ritgeroasafn um mótunarsögu íslenzkrar pjóoar og baráttu hennar vio hungur og sóttir (Reykjavík, 1975), 325, traces the most likely origin of this misconception.
13. Steffensen, 'Plague in Iceland', 40-1, 44-5, 53-4. Steffensen, Menning og meinsemdir, 321, 323-30, 337-8. Ö. Thorlacius, 'Hvaoa drepsótt barst hingao ário 1402?' Lesbók Morgunblaosins, 65:23 (16 June, 1990), 4-7.
14. Steffensen, 'Plague in Iceland', 40-1, 44-5, 53-4. Steffensen, Menning og meinsemdir, 321, 323-30, 337-8. Ö. Thorlacius, 'Hvaoa drepsótt barst hingao ário 1402?' Lesbók Morgunblaosins, 65:23 (16 June, 1990), 4-7.
15. Steffensen, 'Plague in Iceland', 40-1, 44-5, 53-4. Steffensen, Menning og meinsemdir, 321, 323-30, 337-8. Ö. Thorlacius, 'Hvaoa drepsótt barst hingao ário 1402?' Lesbók Morgunblaosins, 65:23 (16 June, 1990), 4-7.
16. P. Oeding, 'Pest på Island i det 15. århundre', Tidsskrift for den Norske Lœgeforening, 108 (1988), 196-201.
17. G. Karlsson and H. S. Kjartansson, 'Plágurnar miklu á Ísland!', Saga, 32 (1994), 11-74.
18. Annálar 1400-1800, I (Reykjavík, 1922-27), 9-11.
19. J. Helgason, 'Tólf annálagreinar frá myrkum árum', in: Sjötíu ritgeroir helgaoar Jakobi Benediktssyni (1977), 399-418.
20. According to New Annal the shipowner's name was Hval-Einar, which is generally considered to be a misreading of the original, which would have said that to Hvalfjörour Einar came.
21. Diplomatarium Islandicum. Íslenzkt fornbréfasafn, vol. 3 (Kaupmannahöfn, 1896), 680 (no. 569), 682 (no. 571).
22. Helgason, 'Tólf annálagreinar', 407. According to the fragment this was in 1405, but it dates the whole course of the epidemic a year later than New Annal.
23. Diplomatarium Islandicum, vol. 3, 739 (no. 615), cf. vol. 3, 683 (no. 572), 715 (no. 591); vol. 4 (Kaupmannahöfn, 1897), 498 (no. 539), 533 (no. 567).
24. Diplomatarium Islandicum, vol. 3, 739 (no. 615), cf. vol. 3, 683 (no. 572), 715 (no. 591); vol. 4 (Kaupmannahöfn, 1897), 498 (no. 539), 533 (no. 567).
25. Diplomatarium Islandicum, vol. 3, 739 (no. 615), cf. vol. 3, 683 (no. 572), 715 (no. 591); vol. 4 (Kaupmannahöfn, 1897), 498 (no. 539), 533 (no. 567).
26. Benedictow, Plague, 46.
27. Islandske Annaler indtil 1578. Udgivne ved G. Storm (Christiania, 1888), 372. The terms denoting localities in the original are the roughly synonymous hreppr and sveit, which both refer to the smallest administrative units in the country.
28. Safn til sögu Íslands, vol. 1 (Kaupmannahöfn, 1856), 43-4. Annálar 1400-1800, vol. 1, 74-5; vol. 5 (Reykjavík, 1955-88), 484.
29. Safn til sögu Íslands, vol. 1 (Kaupmannahöfn, 1856), 43-4. Annálar 1400-1800, vol. 1, 74-5; vol. 5 (Reykjavík, 1955-88), 484.
30. Safn til sögu Íslands, vol. 1 (Kaupmannahöfn, 1856), 43-4. Annálar 1400-1800, vol. 1, 74-5; vol. 5 (Reykjavík, 1955-88), 484.
31. Diplomatarium Islandicum, vol. 7 (Reykjavík, 1903-07), 242-7 (no. 297), 256 (no. 307); vol. 14 (Reykjavík, 1944-49), 582-4 (no. 413), 609 (no. 430). Cf. Steffensen, 'Plague in Iceland', 51-2. Steffensen, Menning og meinsemdir, 335-6.
32. Diplomatarium Islandicum, vol. 7 (Reykjavík, 1903-07), 242-7 (no. 297), 256 (no. 307); vol. 14 (Reykjavík, 1944-49), 582-4 (no. 413), 609 (no. 430). Cf. Steffensen, 'Plague in Iceland', 51-2. Steffensen, Menning og meinsemdir, 335-6.
33. Diplomatarium Islandicum, vol. 7 (Reykjavík, 1903-07), 242-7 (no. 297), 256 (no. 307); vol. 14 (Reykjavík, 1944-49), 582-4 (no. 413), 609 (no. 430). Cf. Steffensen, 'Plague in Iceland', 51-2. Steffensen, Menning og meinsemdir, 335-6.
34. Diplomatarium Islandicum, vol. 7 (Reykjavík, 1903-07), 242-7 (no. 297), 256 (no. 307); vol. 14 (Reykjavík, 1944-49), 582-4 (no. 413), 609 (no. 430). Cf. Steffensen, 'Plague in Iceland', 51-2. Steffensen, Menning og meinsemdir, 335-6.
35. One of the stories may refer to another monastery, in which case Pykkvibaær would be a scribal error.
36. Diplomatarium Islandicum, vol. 8 (Reykjavík, 1906-13), 6 (no. 5).
37. Cf. P. Ziegler, The Black Death [London, 1982 (1st ed. 1969)], 52.
38. The number is highly problematic and refers to a somewhat earlier time, around 1200. At any rate, though, the Skálholt diocese was much larger and more populous than that of Hólar, and 200-300 parishes would not be an unlikely number.
39. Shrewsbury, Bubonic Plague, 77. Ziegler, Black Death, 236.
40. Shrewsbury, Bubonic Plague, 77. Ziegler, Black Death, 236.
41. B. Lárusson, The Old Icelandic Land Registers (Lund, 1967), 105-9.
42. Steffensen, 'Plague in Iceland', 41-2, 44-5, 49-50, 54. Steffensen, Menning og meinsemdir, 324-5, 328, 333-4, 338-9.
43. Steffensen, 'Plague in Iceland', 41-2, 44-5, 49-50, 54. Steffensen, Menning og meinsemdir, 324-5, 328, 333-4, 338-9.
44. Islandske Annaler, 223, 275, 404.
45. Annálar 1400-1800, 5, 276.
46. Diplomatarium Islandicum, vol. 4, 464-8 (no. 509), 511-4 (no. 550).
47. Diplomatarium Islandicum, vol. 4, 684-93 (no. 725).
48. Diplomatarium Islandicum, vol. 4, 699-700 (no. 732).
49. A comprehensive survey in English of the Icelandic system of land-hire can be found in Lárusson, Old Icelandic Land Registers, 28-82.
50. Diplomatarium Islandicum, vol. 4, 700-2 (no. 733).
51. Diplomatarium Islandicum, vol. 4, 710-2 (no. 743).
52. Diplomatarium Islandicum, vol. 5 (Kaupmannahöfn and Reykjavík, 1899-1902), 35-41 (no. 35).
53. Tölfræolhandbók 1984. Statistical Abstracts of Iceland 1984 (Hagskýrslur Íslands. Statistics of Iceland II:82) (Reykjavík, 1984), 8-9.
54. Íslenzk fornrit, vol. 1 (Reykjavík, 1968), 23 (Chap. 10).
55. B. Lárusson, Old Icelandic Land Registers, 25-7, 33.
56. B. M. Ólsen, 'Um skattbændatal 1311 og manntal á Íslandi fram ao peim tíma', Safn til sögu Íslands, 4 (1907-15), 295-309.
57. Ó. Lárusson, 'Befolkning i oldtiden. 5. Island', Nordisk kultur, 1 (1936), 134-5.
58. Ólsen, 'Um skattbændatal 1311', 341, 356.
59. Diplomatarium Islandicum, vol. 9 (Reykjavík, 1909-13), 293-334 (nos. 266-78).
60. Diplomatarium Islandicum, vol. 9, 301-2 (no. 266).
61. Diplomatarium Islandicum, vol. 9, 314 (no. 268), 321 (no. 270).
62. Annálar 1400-1800, 1, 75.
63. Ziegler, Black Death, 239. W. L. Langer, 'The Black Death', Scientific American, 210 (February, 1964), 114. Twigg, Black Death, 137. N. G. Siraisi, Medieval & Early Renaissance Medicine. An Introduction to Knowledge and Practice (Chicago, 1990), 42.
64. Ziegler, Black Death, 239. W. L. Langer, 'The Black Death', Scientific American, 210 (February, 1964), 114. Twigg, Black Death, 137. N. G. Siraisi, Medieval & Early Renaissance Medicine. An Introduction to Knowledge and Practice (Chicago, 1990), 42.
65. Ziegler, Black Death, 239. W. L. Langer, 'The Black Death', Scientific American, 210 (February, 1964), 114. Twigg, Black Death, 137. N. G. Siraisi, Medieval & Early Renaissance Medicine. An Introduction to Knowledge and Practice (Chicago, 1990), 42.
66. Ziegler, Black Death, 239. W. L. Langer, 'The Black Death', Scientific American, 210 (February, 1964), 114. Twigg, Black Death, 137. N. G. Siraisi, Medieval & Early Renaissance Medicine. An Introduction to Knowledge and Practice (Chicago, 1990), 42.
67. Benedictow, Plague, 157-60, 219.
68. Twigg, Black Death, 75-89.
69. Shrewsbury, Bubonic Plague, 8. Twigg, Black Death, 79, 133.
70. Shrewsbury, Bubonic Plague, 8. Twigg, Black Death, 79, 133.
71. Twigg, Black Death, 114-7, 172. Cf. Benedictow, Plague, 165-8. Shrewsbury, Bubonic Plague, 3.
72. Twigg, Black Death, 114-7, 172. Cf. Benedictow, Plague, 165-8. Shrewsbury, Bubonic Plague, 3.
73. Twigg, Black Death, 114-7, 172. Cf. Benedictow, Plague, 165-8. Shrewsbury, Bubonic Plague, 3.
74. Benedictow, Plague, 170.
75. Benedictow, Plague, 73-102, 267.
76. E. Ulsig, 'Plague in the Late Medieval Nordic Countries', Historisk tidsskrift [norsk], 73 (1994), 97-99.
77. Diplomatarium Islandicum, vol. 3, 682 (no. 571). j mote peim hrœdeliga mandavda sem pa stod hardaz yfer....
78. M. Á. Einarsson, Veourfar á Íslandi (Reykjavík, 1976), 58, 70-1.
79. Diplomatarium Islandicum, vol. 7, 242-7 (no. 297).
80. Diplomatarium Islandicum, vol. 7, 256 (no. 307).
81. Diplomatarium Islandicum, vol. 14, 582-4 (no. 413), 609 (no. 430).
82. Benedictow, Plague, 180-92, 270-2.
83. Biskupa sögur, gefnar út af Hinu íslenzka bókmentafélagi, vol. 2 (Kaupmannahöfn, 1878), 5 (Saga Guomundar Arasonar, Prologus).
84. Benedictow, Plague, 75-6.
85. Benedictow, Plague, 80.
86. The assumed division into communes is based on Árni Magnússon's and Páll Vídalín's Land Register from the first decade of the eighteenth century. See Á. Magnússon and P. Vídalín, Jaroabók, vols 4, 8 (Kaupmannahöfn, 1925-27).
87. Twigg, Black Death, 129.
88. Benedictow, Plague, 160.
89. T. Amorosi, 'Contributions to the Zooarchaeology of Iceland: Some Preliminary Notes', in: The Anthropology of Iceland, ed. E. P. Durrenberger and G. Pálsson (Iowa, 1989), 208-9.
90. Norse and Later Settlement and Subsistence in the North Atlantic, ed. C. D. Morris and D. J. Rackham (Glasgow, 1992), 123, 172-3.
91. J. Fritzner, Ordbog over Det garnie norske Sprog, vols 2-3 (Kristiania, 1891-96); vol. 4, Rettelser og tillegg ved Finn Hödnebö (Oslo, 1972). S. Egilsson, Lexicon Poeticum Antiquœ Linguœ Septentrionalis. Ordbog over det norsk-islandske skjaldesprog. Oprindelig forfattet af Sveinbjörn Egilsson, forøget og påny udgivet for Det kongelige nordiske oldskriftselskab. 2. udgave ved Finnur Jónsson (København, 1931). Eva Rode, editor at the Dictionary of Old Norse Prose of the Arnamagnœan Commission in Copenhagen, personal communication.
92. J. Fritzner, Ordbog over Det garnie norske Sprog, vols 2-3 (Kristiania, 1891-96); vol. 4, Rettelser og tillegg ved Finn Hödnebö (Oslo, 1972). S. Egilsson, Lexicon Poeticum Antiquœ Linguœ Septentrionalis. Ordbog over det norsk-islandske skjaldesprog. Oprindelig forfattet af Sveinbjörn Egilsson, forøget og påny udgivet for Det kongelige nordiske oldskriftselskab. 2. udgave ved Finnur Jónsson (København, 1931). Eva Rode, editor at the Dictionary of Old Norse Prose of the Arnamagnœan Commission in Copenhagen, personal communication.
93. J. Fritzner, Ordbog over Det garnie norske Sprog, vols 2-3 (Kristiania, 1891-96); vol. 4, Rettelser og tillegg ved Finn Hödnebö (Oslo, 1972). S. Egilsson, Lexicon Poeticum Antiquœ Linguœ Septentrionalis. Ordbog over det norsk-islandske skjaldesprog. Oprindelig forfattet af Sveinbjörn Egilsson, forøget og påny udgivet for Det kongelige nordiske oldskriftselskab. 2. udgave ved Finnur Jónsson (København, 1931). Eva Rode, editor at the Dictionary of Old Norse Prose of the Arnamagnœan Commission in Copenhagen, personal communication.
94. J. Fritzner, Ordbog over Det garnie norske Sprog, vols 2-3 (Kristiania, 1891-96); vol. 4, Rettelser og tillegg ved Finn Hödnebö (Oslo, 1972). S. Egilsson, Lexicon Poeticum Antiquœ Linguœ Septentrionalis. Ordbog over det norsk-islandske skjaldesprog. Oprindelig forfattet af Sveinbjörn Egilsson, forøget og påny udgivet for Det kongelige nordiske oldskriftselskab. 2. udgave ved Finnur Jónsson (København, 1931). Eva Rode, editor at the Dictionary of Old Norse Prose of the Arnamagnœan Commission in Copenhagen, personal communication.
95. J. Fritzner, Ordbog over Det garnie norske Sprog, vols 2-3 (Kristiania, 1891-96); vol. 4, Rettelser og tillegg ved Finn Hödnebö (Oslo, 1972). S. Egilsson, Lexicon Poeticum Antiquœ Linguœ Septentrionalis. Ordbog over det norsk-islandske skjaldesprog. Oprindelig forfattet af Sveinbjörn Egilsson, forøget og påny udgivet for Det kongelige nordiske oldskriftselskab. 2. udgave ved Finnur Jónsson (København, 1931). Eva Rode, editor at the Dictionary of Old Norse Prose of the Arnamagnœan Commission in Copenhagen, personal communication.
96. J. Fritzner, Ordbog over Det garnie norske Sprog, vols 2-3 (Kristiania, 1891-96); vol. 4, Rettelser og tillegg ved Finn Hödnebö (Oslo, 1972). S. Egilsson, Lexicon Poeticum Antiquœ Linguœ Septentrionalis. Ordbog over det norsk-islandske skjaldesprog. Oprindelig forfattet af Sveinbjörn Egilsson, forøget og påny udgivet for Det kongelige nordiske oldskriftselskab. 2. udgave ved Finnur Jónsson (København, 1931). Eva Rode, editor at the Dictionary of Old Norse Prose of the Arnamagnœan Commission in Copenhagen, personal communication.
97. Íslenzk fornrit, vol. 35 (Reykjavík, 1982), 197-8 (Chap. 61).
98. Shrewsbury, Bubonic Plague, 12.
99. P. Porláksson, Ísland. Stutt lanalýsing og söguyfirlit. Ljósprentun frumútgáfunnar í Wittenberg 1666, ásamt íslenzkri Pýoingu (Reykjavík, 1982), 38-9.
100. P. Thoroddsen, Landfrœoissaga Íslands. Hugmyndir manna um Ísland, náttúruskooun og rannsóknir, fyrr og síoar, vol. 2 (Kaupmannahöfn, 1898), 183, 186.
101. E. Ólafsson, Vice-Lavmand Eggert Olafsens og Land-Physici Biarne Povelsens Reise igiennem Island, foranstaltet af Videnskabernes Sœlskab i Kiöbenhavn, vol. 1 (Soröe, 1772), 354.
102. B. Sæmundsson, Spendýrin (Mammalia Islandiœ) (Reykjavík, 1932), 278-83.
103. Twigg, Black Death, 211-22.
104. Steffensen, 'Plague in Iceland', 44-5, 53. Steffensen, Menning og meinsemdir, 324-5, 338.
105. Steffensen, 'Plague in Iceland', 44-5, 53. Steffensen, Menning og meinsemdir, 324-5, 338.
106. Islandske Annaler, 275-6, cf. 224, 404. The spelling is normalised here and italics added.
107. Steffensen, 'Plague in Iceland', 43. My italics.
108. Benedictow, Plague, 226.
109. R. Cleasby and G. Vigfusson, Icelandic-English Dictionary, based on the ms. collections of the late Richard Cleasby, enlarged and completed by Gudbrand Vigfusson (Oxford, 1874).
110. I. Reichborn-Kjennerud, Vår gamle trolldomsmedisin, vol. 4 (Oslo, 1944) (Skrifter utgitt av Det Norske Videnskaps-Akademi i Oslo. II. Hist.-Filos. Klasse. 1943. No. 2), 92.
111. I. Reichborn-Kjennerud, Vår gamle trolldomsmedisin, vol. 4 (Oslo, 1944) (Skrifter utgitt av Det Norske Videnskaps-Akademi i Oslo. II. Hist.-Filos. Klasse. 1943. No. 2), 92.
112. Fritzner, Ordbog. Egilsson, Lexicon. Eva Rode, editor at the Dictionary of Old Norse Prose of the Arnamagnœan Commission in Copenhagen, personal communication.
113. Fritzner, Ordbog. Egilsson, Lexicon. Eva Rode, editor at the Dictionary of Old Norse Prose of the Arnamagnœan Commission in Copenhagen, personal communication.
114. Fritzner, Ordbog. Egilsson, Lexicon. Eva Rode, editor at the Dictionary of Old Norse Prose of the Arnamagnœan Commission in Copenhagen, personal communication.
115. Norges garnie Love indtil 1387, udgivne ved R. Keyser og P.A. Munch, vol. 1 (Christiania, 1846), 29, 182. In the orginal: vid stiarva oc via stinga and vio stinga oc vio stiarva.
116. Reichborn-Kjennerud, Vår gamle trolldomsmedisin, IV, 92.
117. Biskupa sögur, vols 1 and 2 (Kaupmannahöfn, 1858), 182 (Jóns saga helga, Chap. 29: hann hafoi stínga tekit svá hœttligan, at hann mátti varia draga öndina firir sárleikinum, peim er fylgoi. Verkrinn lá mest í síounni ok fyrir brjóstinu...). Íslenzk fornrit, vol. 7 (Reykjavík, 1936), 360 (Bandamanna saga, Chap. 12: kennir Hermundr, at stingi kemr undir höndina...).
118. Biskupa sögur, vols 1 and 2 (Kaupmannahöfn, 1858), 182 (Jóns saga helga, Chap. 29: hann hafoi stínga tekit svá hœttligan, at hann mátti varia draga öndina firir sárleikinum, peim er fylgoi. Verkrinn lá mest í síounni ok fyrir brjóstinu...). Íslenzk fornrit, vol. 7 (Reykjavík, 1936), 360 (Bandamanna saga, Chap. 12: kennir Hermundr, at stingi kemr undir höndina...).
119. Biskupa sögur, vols 1 and 2 (Kaupmannahöfn, 1858), 182 (Jóns saga helga, Chap. 29: hann hafoi stínga tekit svá hœttligan, at hann mátti varia draga öndina firir sárleikinum, peim er fylgoi. Verkrinn lá mest í síounni ok fyrir brjóstinu...). Íslenzk fornrit, vol. 7 (Reykjavík, 1936), 360 (Bandamanna saga, Chap. 12: kennir Hermundr, at stingi kemr undir höndina...).
120. Alfrœoi íslenzk. Islandsk encyklopœdisk litteratur, vol. 3, Landalýsingar m.fl. Udgivet ved Kr. Kålund (København, 1917-18), 78: Item fyst madr kennir sig tekinn vera i pessare sottenne, sem hann kann at marka af stinga innan tu edr utan med œse-verk ok sull....
121. Benedictow, Plague, 226.
122. Benedictow, Plague, 31, 45, 71.
123. Benedictow, Plague, 27, 32, 72, 220, 259, 267.
124. Twigg, Black Death, 195-6.
125. Morris, 'Plague in Britain', 208-9.
126. L. F. Hirst, The Conquest of Plague. A Study of the Evolution of Epidemiology (Oxford, 1953), 111-20.
127. Twigg, Black Death, 197.
128. N. G. Siraisi, 'Introduction', The Black Death. The Impact of the Fourteenth-Century Plague. Papers of the Eleventh Annual Conference of the Center for Medieval & Early Renaissance Studies, ed. D. Williman, Medieval & Renaissance Texts & Studies, 13 (New York, 1982), 11.
129. R. E. Lenski, 'Evolution of plague virulence', Nature, 334 (11 August, 1988), 473-4.
130. Twigg, Black Death, 209-10.
131. Steffensen, 'Plague in Iceland', 41, 53. Steffensen, Menning og meinsemdir, 338.
132. Steffensen, 'Plague in Iceland', 41, 53. Steffensen, Menning og meinsemdir, 338.
133. Benedictow, Plague, 224.