Women and immigrants in the sweatshop: Categories of labor segmentation revisited

Comparative Studies in Society and History

Volumn 38, Issue 3, 1996, Pages 411-433

  Green, Nancy L ^a  

^a ÉCOLE DES HAUTES ÉTUDES EN SCIENCES SOCIALES   (France)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

GARMENT PRODUCTION; LABOUR SEGMENTATION; SEX DISCRIMINATION; TEXTILE INDUSTRY; WOMEN'S ISSUES;

EID: 0030391170     PISSN: 00104175     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/s0010417500020004     Document Type: Article

References (149)

1. The major contemporary works on the garment industry tend to treat primarily either women or immigrants. For example, see Judith Coffin, "Woman's Place and Women's Work in the Paris Clothing Trades, 1830-1914 (disser., Yale University, 1985), who does deal with immigrants, briefly, 149-155; Lorraine Coons, Women Home Workers in the Parisian Garment Industry, 1860-1915 (New York City: Garland Publishing, 1987); Roger D. Waldinger, Through the Eye of the Needle: Immigrants and Enterprise in New York's Garment Trades (New York: New York University Press, 1986) (most of the immigrant owners he interviewed were men). In the mid-1950s, two books came out almost simultaneously, one dealing with women homeworkers and the other with male immigrant homeworkers in Paris. Madeleine Guilbert and Viviane Isambert-Jamati, Travail féminin et travail à domicile (Paris: CNRS, 1956); Joseph Klatzmann, Le travail à domicile dańs l'industrie parisienne du vêtement (Paris: Armand Colin, 1957). Klatzmann simply notes that their book appeared just after his was completed. Some of the notable recent exceptions are Susan Glenn, Daughters of the Shtetl: Life and Labor in the Immigrant Generation (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1990); Miriam Cohen, Workshop to Office: Two Generations of Italian Women in New York City, 1900-1950 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1992); Annie Phizacklea, Unpacking the Fashion Industry (London: Routledge, 1990). For an excellent treatment of some of the methodological problems in analytical dualisms, particularly with regard to class and gender, see Lourdes Beneria and Martha Roldan, The Crossroads of Class and Gender: Industrial Homework, Subcontracting, and Household Dynamics in Mexico City (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987); and Joy Parr, The Gender of Breadwinners: Women, Men, and Change in Two Industrial Towns. 1880-1950 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1990), 7-9.
2. The major contemporary works on the garment industry tend to treat primarily either women or immigrants. For example, see Judith Coffin, "Woman's Place and Women's Work in the Paris Clothing Trades, 1830-1914 (disser., Yale University, 1985), who does deal with immigrants, briefly, 149-155; Lorraine Coons, Women Home Workers in the Parisian Garment Industry, 1860-1915 (New York City: Garland Publishing, 1987); Roger D. Waldinger, Through the Eye of the Needle: Immigrants and Enterprise in New York's Garment Trades (New York: New York University Press, 1986) (most of the immigrant owners he interviewed were men). In the mid-1950s, two books came out almost simultaneously, one dealing with women homeworkers and the other with male immigrant homeworkers in Paris. Madeleine Guilbert and Viviane Isambert-Jamati, Travail féminin et travail à domicile (Paris: CNRS, 1956); Joseph Klatzmann, Le travail à domicile dańs l'industrie parisienne du vêtement (Paris: Armand Colin, 1957). Klatzmann simply notes that their book appeared just after his was completed. Some of the notable recent exceptions are Susan Glenn, Daughters of the Shtetl: Life and Labor in the Immigrant Generation (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1990); Miriam Cohen, Workshop to Office: Two Generations of Italian Women in New York City, 1900-1950 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1992); Annie Phizacklea, Unpacking the Fashion Industry (London: Routledge, 1990). For an excellent treatment of some of the methodological problems in analytical dualisms, particularly with regard to class and gender, see Lourdes Beneria and Martha Roldan, The Crossroads of Class and Gender: Industrial Homework, Subcontracting, and Household Dynamics in Mexico City (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987); and Joy Parr, The Gender of Breadwinners: Women, Men, and Change in Two Industrial Towns. 1880-1950 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1990), 7-9.
3. The major contemporary works on the garment industry tend to treat primarily either women or immigrants. For example, see Judith Coffin, "Woman's Place and Women's Work in the Paris Clothing Trades, 1830-1914 (disser., Yale University, 1985), who does deal with immigrants, briefly, 149-155; Lorraine Coons, Women Home Workers in the Parisian Garment Industry, 1860-1915 (New York City: Garland Publishing, 1987); Roger D. Waldinger, Through the Eye of the Needle: Immigrants and Enterprise in New York's Garment Trades (New York: New York University Press, 1986) (most of the immigrant owners he interviewed were men). In the mid-1950s, two books came out almost simultaneously, one dealing with women homeworkers and the other with male immigrant homeworkers in Paris. Madeleine Guilbert and Viviane Isambert-Jamati, Travail féminin et travail à domicile (Paris: CNRS, 1956); Joseph Klatzmann, Le travail à domicile dańs l'industrie parisienne du vêtement (Paris: Armand Colin, 1957). Klatzmann simply notes that their book appeared just after his was completed. Some of the notable recent exceptions are Susan Glenn, Daughters of the Shtetl: Life and Labor in the Immigrant Generation (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1990); Miriam Cohen, Workshop to Office: Two Generations of Italian Women in New York City, 1900-1950 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1992); Annie Phizacklea, Unpacking the Fashion Industry (London: Routledge, 1990). For an excellent treatment of some of the methodological problems in analytical dualisms, particularly with regard to class and gender, see Lourdes Beneria and Martha Roldan, The Crossroads of Class and Gender: Industrial Homework, Subcontracting, and Household Dynamics in Mexico City (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987); and Joy Parr, The Gender of Breadwinners: Women, Men, and Change in Two Industrial Towns. 1880-1950 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1990), 7-9.
4. The major contemporary works on the garment industry tend to treat primarily either women or immigrants. For example, see Judith Coffin, "Woman's Place and Women's Work in the Paris Clothing Trades, 1830-1914 (disser., Yale University, 1985), who does deal with immigrants, briefly, 149-155; Lorraine Coons, Women Home Workers in the Parisian Garment Industry, 1860-1915 (New York City: Garland Publishing, 1987); Roger D. Waldinger, Through the Eye of the Needle: Immigrants and Enterprise in New York's Garment Trades (New York: New York University Press, 1986) (most of the immigrant owners he interviewed were men). In the mid-1950s, two books came out almost simultaneously, one dealing with women homeworkers and the other with male immigrant homeworkers in Paris. Madeleine Guilbert and Viviane Isambert-Jamati, Travail féminin et travail à domicile (Paris: CNRS, 1956); Joseph Klatzmann, Le travail à domicile dańs l'industrie parisienne du vêtement (Paris: Armand Colin, 1957). Klatzmann simply notes that their book appeared just after his was completed. Some of the notable recent exceptions are Susan Glenn, Daughters of the Shtetl: Life and Labor in the Immigrant Generation (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1990); Miriam Cohen, Workshop to Office: Two Generations of Italian Women in New York City, 1900-1950 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1992); Annie Phizacklea, Unpacking the Fashion Industry (London: Routledge, 1990). For an excellent treatment of some of the methodological problems in analytical dualisms, particularly with regard to class and gender, see Lourdes Beneria and Martha Roldan, The Crossroads of Class and Gender: Industrial Homework, Subcontracting, and Household Dynamics in Mexico City (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987); and Joy Parr, The Gender of Breadwinners: Women, Men, and Change in Two Industrial Towns. 1880-1950 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1990), 7-9.
5. The major contemporary works on the garment industry tend to treat primarily either women or immigrants. For example, see Judith Coffin, "Woman's Place and Women's Work in the Paris Clothing Trades, 1830-1914 (disser., Yale University, 1985), who does deal with immigrants, briefly, 149-155; Lorraine Coons, Women Home Workers in the Parisian Garment Industry, 1860-1915 (New York City: Garland Publishing, 1987); Roger D. Waldinger, Through the Eye of the Needle: Immigrants and Enterprise in New York's Garment Trades (New York: New York University Press, 1986) (most of the immigrant owners he interviewed were men). In the mid-1950s, two books came out almost simultaneously, one dealing with women homeworkers and the other with male immigrant homeworkers in Paris. Madeleine Guilbert and Viviane Isambert-Jamati, Travail féminin et travail à domicile (Paris: CNRS, 1956); Joseph Klatzmann, Le travail à domicile dańs l'industrie parisienne du vêtement (Paris: Armand Colin, 1957). Klatzmann simply notes that their book appeared just after his was completed. Some of the notable recent exceptions are Susan Glenn, Daughters of the Shtetl: Life and Labor in the Immigrant Generation (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1990); Miriam Cohen, Workshop to Office: Two Generations of Italian Women in New York City, 1900-1950 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1992); Annie Phizacklea, Unpacking the Fashion Industry (London: Routledge, 1990). For an excellent treatment of some of the methodological problems in analytical dualisms, particularly with regard to class and gender, see Lourdes Beneria and Martha Roldan, The Crossroads of Class and Gender: Industrial Homework, Subcontracting, and Household Dynamics in Mexico City (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987); and Joy Parr, The Gender of Breadwinners: Women, Men, and Change in Two Industrial Towns. 1880-1950 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1990), 7-9.
6. The major contemporary works on the garment industry tend to treat primarily either women or immigrants. For example, see Judith Coffin, "Woman's Place and Women's Work in the Paris Clothing Trades, 1830-1914 (disser., Yale University, 1985), who does deal with immigrants, briefly, 149-155; Lorraine Coons, Women Home Workers in the Parisian Garment Industry, 1860-1915 (New York City: Garland Publishing, 1987); Roger D. Waldinger, Through the Eye of the Needle: Immigrants and Enterprise in New York's Garment Trades (New York: New York University Press, 1986) (most of the immigrant owners he interviewed were men). In the mid-1950s, two books came out almost simultaneously, one dealing with women homeworkers and the other with male immigrant homeworkers in Paris. Madeleine Guilbert and Viviane Isambert-Jamati, Travail féminin et travail à domicile (Paris: CNRS, 1956); Joseph Klatzmann, Le travail à domicile dańs l'industrie parisienne du vêtement (Paris: Armand Colin, 1957). Klatzmann simply notes that their book appeared just after his was completed. Some of the notable recent exceptions are Susan Glenn, Daughters of the Shtetl: Life and Labor in the Immigrant Generation (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1990); Miriam Cohen, Workshop to Office: Two Generations of Italian Women in New York City, 1900-1950 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1992); Annie Phizacklea, Unpacking the Fashion Industry (London: Routledge, 1990). For an excellent treatment of some of the methodological problems in analytical dualisms, particularly with regard to class and gender, see Lourdes Beneria and Martha Roldan, The Crossroads of Class and Gender: Industrial Homework, Subcontracting, and Household Dynamics in Mexico City (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987); and Joy Parr, The Gender of Breadwinners: Women, Men, and Change in Two Industrial Towns. 1880-1950 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1990), 7-9.
7. The major contemporary works on the garment industry tend to treat primarily either women or immigrants. For example, see Judith Coffin, "Woman's Place and Women's Work in the Paris Clothing Trades, 1830-1914 (disser., Yale University, 1985), who does deal with immigrants, briefly, 149-155; Lorraine Coons, Women Home Workers in the Parisian Garment Industry, 1860-1915 (New York City: Garland Publishing, 1987); Roger D. Waldinger, Through the Eye of the Needle: Immigrants and Enterprise in New York's Garment Trades (New York: New York University Press, 1986) (most of the immigrant owners he interviewed were men). In the mid-1950s, two books came out almost simultaneously, one dealing with women homeworkers and the other with male immigrant homeworkers in Paris. Madeleine Guilbert and Viviane Isambert-Jamati, Travail féminin et travail à domicile (Paris: CNRS, 1956); Joseph Klatzmann, Le travail à domicile dańs l'industrie parisienne du vêtement (Paris: Armand Colin, 1957). Klatzmann simply notes that their book appeared just after his was completed. Some of the notable recent exceptions are Susan Glenn, Daughters of the Shtetl: Life and Labor in the Immigrant Generation (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1990); Miriam Cohen, Workshop to Office: Two Generations of Italian Women in New York City, 1900-1950 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1992); Annie Phizacklea, Unpacking the Fashion Industry (London: Routledge, 1990). For an excellent treatment of some of the methodological problems in analytical dualisms, particularly with regard to class and gender, see Lourdes Beneria and Martha Roldan, The Crossroads of Class and Gender: Industrial Homework, Subcontracting, and Household Dynamics in Mexico City (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987); and Joy Parr, The Gender of Breadwinners: Women, Men, and Change in Two Industrial Towns. 1880-1950 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1990), 7-9.
8. The major contemporary works on the garment industry tend to treat primarily either women or immigrants. For example, see Judith Coffin, "Woman's Place and Women's Work in the Paris Clothing Trades, 1830-1914 (disser., Yale University, 1985), who does deal with immigrants, briefly, 149-155; Lorraine Coons, Women Home Workers in the Parisian Garment Industry, 1860-1915 (New York City: Garland Publishing, 1987); Roger D. Waldinger, Through the Eye of the Needle: Immigrants and Enterprise in New York's Garment Trades (New York: New York University Press, 1986) (most of the immigrant owners he interviewed were men). In the mid-1950s, two books came out almost simultaneously, one dealing with women homeworkers and the other with male immigrant homeworkers in Paris. Madeleine Guilbert and Viviane Isambert-Jamati, Travail féminin et travail à domicile (Paris: CNRS, 1956); Joseph Klatzmann, Le travail à domicile dańs l'industrie parisienne du vêtement (Paris: Armand Colin, 1957). Klatzmann simply notes that their book appeared just after his was completed. Some of the notable recent exceptions are Susan Glenn, Daughters of the Shtetl: Life and Labor in the Immigrant Generation (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1990); Miriam Cohen, Workshop to Office: Two Generations of Italian Women in New York City, 1900-1950 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1992); Annie Phizacklea, Unpacking the Fashion Industry (London: Routledge, 1990). For an excellent treatment of some of the methodological problems in analytical dualisms, particularly with regard to class and gender, see Lourdes Beneria and Martha Roldan, The Crossroads of Class and Gender: Industrial Homework, Subcontracting, and Household Dynamics in Mexico City (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987); and Joy Parr, The Gender of Breadwinners: Women, Men, and Change in Two Industrial Towns. 1880-1950 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1990), 7-9.
9. The major contemporary works on the garment industry tend to treat primarily either women or immigrants. For example, see Judith Coffin, "Woman's Place and Women's Work in the Paris Clothing Trades, 1830-1914 (disser., Yale University, 1985), who does deal with immigrants, briefly, 149-155; Lorraine Coons, Women Home Workers in the Parisian Garment Industry, 1860-1915 (New York City: Garland Publishing, 1987); Roger D. Waldinger, Through the Eye of the Needle: Immigrants and Enterprise in New York's Garment Trades (New York: New York University Press, 1986) (most of the immigrant owners he interviewed were men). In the mid-1950s, two books came out almost simultaneously, one dealing with women homeworkers and the other with male immigrant homeworkers in Paris. Madeleine Guilbert and Viviane Isambert-Jamati, Travail féminin et travail à domicile (Paris: CNRS, 1956); Joseph Klatzmann, Le travail à domicile dańs l'industrie parisienne du vêtement (Paris: Armand Colin, 1957). Klatzmann simply notes that their book appeared just after his was completed. Some of the notable recent exceptions are Susan Glenn, Daughters of the Shtetl: Life and Labor in the Immigrant Generation (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1990); Miriam Cohen, Workshop to Office: Two Generations of Italian Women in New York City, 1900-1950 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1992); Annie Phizacklea, Unpacking the Fashion Industry (London: Routledge, 1990). For an excellent treatment of some of the methodological problems in analytical dualisms, particularly with regard to class and gender, see Lourdes Beneria and Martha Roldan, The Crossroads of Class and Gender: Industrial Homework, Subcontracting, and Household Dynamics in Mexico City (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987); and Joy Parr, The Gender of Breadwinners: Women, Men, and Change in Two Industrial Towns. 1880-1950 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1990), 7-9.
10. The major contemporary works on the garment industry tend to treat primarily either women or immigrants. For example, see Judith Coffin, "Woman's Place and Women's Work in the Paris Clothing Trades, 1830-1914 (disser., Yale University, 1985), who does deal with immigrants, briefly, 149-155; Lorraine Coons, Women Home Workers in the Parisian Garment Industry, 1860-1915 (New York City: Garland Publishing, 1987); Roger D. Waldinger, Through the Eye of the Needle: Immigrants and Enterprise in New York's Garment Trades (New York: New York University Press, 1986) (most of the immigrant owners he interviewed were men). In the mid-1950s, two books came out almost simultaneously, one dealing with women homeworkers and the other with male immigrant homeworkers in Paris. Madeleine Guilbert and Viviane Isambert-Jamati, Travail féminin et travail à domicile (Paris: CNRS, 1956); Joseph Klatzmann, Le travail à domicile dańs l'industrie parisienne du vêtement (Paris: Armand Colin, 1957). Klatzmann simply notes that their book appeared just after his was completed. Some of the notable recent exceptions are Susan Glenn, Daughters of the Shtetl: Life and Labor in the Immigrant Generation (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1990); Miriam Cohen, Workshop to Office: Two Generations of Italian Women in New York City, 1900-1950 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1992); Annie Phizacklea, Unpacking the Fashion Industry (London: Routledge, 1990). For an excellent treatment of some of the methodological problems in analytical dualisms, particularly with regard to class and gender, see Lourdes Beneria and Martha Roldan, The Crossroads of Class and Gender: Industrial Homework, Subcontracting, and Household Dynamics in Mexico City (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987); and Joy Parr, The Gender of Breadwinners: Women, Men, and Change in Two Industrial Towns. 1880-1950 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1990), 7-9.
11. On fashion and flexibility, see my forthcoming book, Ready-to-Wear and Ready-to-Work: A Century of Industry and Immigrants in the Women's Trade Industry in Paris and New York (Durham: Duke University Press, 1997).
12. Ruth Milkman, Gender at Work: The Dynamics of Job Segregation by Sex During World War II (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1987); Sonya O. Rose, Limited Livelihoods: Gender and Class in Nineteenth-Century England (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991); Ava Baron, ed., Work Engendered: Toward a New History of American Labor (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1991); Mary H. Blewett, Men, Women and Work: Class, Gender, and Protest in the New England Shoe Industry, 1780-1910 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1988); Laura Lee Downs, Manufacturing Inequality: Gender Division in the French and British Metalworking Industries, 1914-1939 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1995); Joan Wallach Scott, Gender and the Politics of History (New York: Columbia University Press, 1988).
13. Ruth Milkman, Gender at Work: The Dynamics of Job Segregation by Sex During World War II (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1987); Sonya O. Rose, Limited Livelihoods: Gender and Class in Nineteenth-Century England (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991); Ava Baron, ed., Work Engendered: Toward a New History of American Labor (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1991); Mary H. Blewett, Men, Women and Work: Class, Gender, and Protest in the New England Shoe Industry, 1780-1910 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1988); Laura Lee Downs, Manufacturing Inequality: Gender Division in the French and British Metalworking Industries, 1914-1939 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1995); Joan Wallach Scott, Gender and the Politics of History (New York: Columbia University Press, 1988).
14. Ruth Milkman, Gender at Work: The Dynamics of Job Segregation by Sex During World War II (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1987); Sonya O. Rose, Limited Livelihoods: Gender and Class in Nineteenth-Century England (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991); Ava Baron, ed., Work Engendered: Toward a New History of American Labor (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1991); Mary H. Blewett, Men, Women and Work: Class, Gender, and Protest in the New England Shoe Industry, 1780-1910 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1988); Laura Lee Downs, Manufacturing Inequality: Gender Division in the French and British Metalworking Industries, 1914-1939 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1995); Joan Wallach Scott, Gender and the Politics of History (New York: Columbia University Press, 1988).
15. Ruth Milkman, Gender at Work: The Dynamics of Job Segregation by Sex During World War II (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1987); Sonya O. Rose, Limited Livelihoods: Gender and Class in Nineteenth-Century England (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991); Ava Baron, ed., Work Engendered: Toward a New History of American Labor (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1991); Mary H. Blewett, Men, Women and Work: Class, Gender, and Protest in the New England Shoe Industry, 1780-1910 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1988); Laura Lee Downs, Manufacturing Inequality: Gender Division in the French and British Metalworking Industries, 1914-1939 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1995); Joan Wallach Scott, Gender and the Politics of History (New York: Columbia University Press, 1988).
16. Ruth Milkman, Gender at Work: The Dynamics of Job Segregation by Sex During World War II (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1987); Sonya O. Rose, Limited Livelihoods: Gender and Class in Nineteenth-Century England (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991); Ava Baron, ed., Work Engendered: Toward a New History of American Labor (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1991); Mary H. Blewett, Men, Women and Work: Class, Gender, and Protest in the New England Shoe Industry, 1780-1910 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1988); Laura Lee Downs, Manufacturing Inequality: Gender Division in the French and British Metalworking Industries, 1914-1939 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1995); Joan Wallach Scott, Gender and the Politics of History (New York: Columbia University Press, 1988).
17. Ruth Milkman, Gender at Work: The Dynamics of Job Segregation by Sex During World War II (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1987); Sonya O. Rose, Limited Livelihoods: Gender and Class in Nineteenth-Century England (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991); Ava Baron, ed., Work Engendered: Toward a New History of American Labor (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1991); Mary H. Blewett, Men, Women and Work: Class, Gender, and Protest in the New England Shoe Industry, 1780-1910 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1988); Laura Lee Downs, Manufacturing Inequality: Gender Division in the French and British Metalworking Industries, 1914-1939 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1995); Joan Wallach Scott, Gender and the Politics of History (New York: Columbia University Press, 1988).
18. See the thoughtful reflection on this issue in Kathleen Conzen, David Gerber, Ewa Morawska, George Pozzetta, and Rudolph Vecoli, "The Invention of Ethnicity: A Perspective from the U.S.A.," Journal of American Ethnic History, 12:1 (Fall 1992), 4-5.
19. The classic analysis is that of Heidi Hartmann, "Capitalism, Patriarchy and Job Segregation by Sex," in Women and the Workplace: The Implications of Occupational Segregation, Martha Blaxall and Barbara Reagan, eds. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1976), 137-69.
20. For example, Diane Elson, "Nimble Fingers and Other Fables," in Of Common Cloth: Women in the Global Textile Industry, Wendy Chapkis and Cynthia Enloe, eds. (Amsterdam: Transnational Institute, 1983), 5-14. For an excellent discussion of images of sewing as women's work in nineteenth-century France, see Judith G. Coffin, "Credit, Consumption, and Images of Women's Desires: Selling the Sewing Machine in Late Nineteenth-Century France," French Historical Studies, 18:3 (Spring 1994), 749-83. Concerning notions of women as veritable "artists" in the French garment industry, see Nancy L. Green, "Art and Industry: The Language of Modernization in the Production of Fashion," French Historical Studies, 18:3 (Spring 1994), 722-48.
21. For example, Diane Elson, "Nimble Fingers and Other Fables," in Of Common Cloth: Women in the Global Textile Industry, Wendy Chapkis and Cynthia Enloe, eds. (Amsterdam: Transnational Institute, 1983), 5-14. For an excellent discussion of images of sewing as women's work in nineteenth-century France, see Judith G. Coffin, "Credit, Consumption, and Images of Women's Desires: Selling the Sewing Machine in Late Nineteenth-Century France," French Historical Studies, 18:3 (Spring 1994), 749-83. Concerning notions of women as veritable "artists" in the French garment industry, see Nancy L. Green, "Art and Industry: The Language of Modernization in the Production of Fashion," French Historical Studies, 18:3 (Spring 1994), 722-48.
22. For example, Diane Elson, "Nimble Fingers and Other Fables," in Of Common Cloth: Women in the Global Textile Industry, Wendy Chapkis and Cynthia Enloe, eds. (Amsterdam: Transnational Institute, 1983), 5-14. For an excellent discussion of images of sewing as women's work in nineteenth-century France, see Judith G. Coffin, "Credit, Consumption, and Images of Women's Desires: Selling the Sewing Machine in Late Nineteenth-Century France," French Historical Studies, 18:3 (Spring 1994), 749-83. Concerning notions of women as veritable "artists" in the French garment industry, see Nancy L. Green, "Art and Industry: The Language of Modernization in the Production of Fashion," French Historical Studies, 18:3 (Spring 1994), 722-48.
23. Eileen Boris, Home to Work: Motherhood and the Politics of Industrial Homework in the United States (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994); Eileen Boris and Cynthia R. Daniels, eds., Homework: Historical and Contemporary Perspectives on Paid Labor at Home (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1989); Klatzmann, Le Travail à domicile; Guilbert and Isambert-Jamati, Travail féminin; Coons, Women Home Workers; Marilyn Boxer, "Women in Industrial Homework: The Flowermakers of Paris in the Belle Epoque," French Historical Studies, 12:3 (Spring 1982), 401-23.
24. Eileen Boris, Home to Work: Motherhood and the Politics of Industrial Homework in the United States (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994); Eileen Boris and Cynthia R. Daniels, eds., Homework: Historical and Contemporary Perspectives on Paid Labor at Home (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1989); Klatzmann, Le Travail à domicile; Guilbert and Isambert-Jamati, Travail féminin; Coons, Women Home Workers; Marilyn Boxer, "Women in Industrial Homework: The Flowermakers of Paris in the Belle Epoque," French Historical Studies, 12:3 (Spring 1982), 401-23.
25. Eileen Boris, Home to Work: Motherhood and the Politics of Industrial Homework in the United States (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994); Eileen Boris and Cynthia R. Daniels, eds., Homework: Historical and Contemporary Perspectives on Paid Labor at Home (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1989); Klatzmann, Le Travail à domicile; Guilbert and Isambert-Jamati, Travail féminin; Coons, Women Home Workers; Marilyn Boxer, "Women in Industrial Homework: The Flowermakers of Paris in the Belle Epoque," French Historical Studies, 12:3 (Spring 1982), 401-23.
26. Eileen Boris, Home to Work: Motherhood and the Politics of Industrial Homework in the United States (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994); Eileen Boris and Cynthia R. Daniels, eds., Homework: Historical and Contemporary Perspectives on Paid Labor at Home (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1989); Klatzmann, Le Travail à domicile; Guilbert and Isambert-Jamati, Travail féminin; Coons, Women Home Workers; Marilyn Boxer, "Women in Industrial Homework: The Flowermakers of Paris in the Belle Epoque," French Historical Studies, 12:3 (Spring 1982), 401-23.
27. Eileen Boris, Home to Work: Motherhood and the Politics of Industrial Homework in the United States (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994); Eileen Boris and Cynthia R. Daniels, eds., Homework: Historical and Contemporary Perspectives on Paid Labor at Home (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1989); Klatzmann, Le Travail à domicile; Guilbert and Isambert-Jamati, Travail féminin; Coons, Women Home Workers; Marilyn Boxer, "Women in Industrial Homework: The Flowermakers of Paris in the Belle Epoque," French Historical Studies, 12:3 (Spring 1982), 401-23.
28. Eileen Boris, Home to Work: Motherhood and the Politics of Industrial Homework in the United States (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994); Eileen Boris and Cynthia R. Daniels, eds., Homework: Historical and Contemporary Perspectives on Paid Labor at Home (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1989); Klatzmann, Le Travail à domicile; Guilbert and Isambert-Jamati, Travail féminin; Coons, Women Home Workers; Marilyn Boxer, "Women in Industrial Homework: The Flowermakers of Paris in the Belle Epoque," French Historical Studies, 12:3 (Spring 1982), 401-23.
29. In addition to Hartmann, see Anne Phillips and Barbara Taylor, "Sex and Skill: Notes Towards a Feminist Economics," Feminist Review, no. 6 (1980), 79-88; and Christine Stansell, "The Origins of the Sweatshop: Women and Early Industrialization in New York City," in Working-Class America: Essays on Labor, Community, and American Society, Michael H. Frish and Daniel J. Walkowitz, eds. (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1983), 78-103, especially, 91; and idem, City of Women: Sex and Class in New York. 1789-1860 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1987).
30. In addition to Hartmann, see Anne Phillips and Barbara Taylor, "Sex and Skill: Notes Towards a Feminist Economics," Feminist Review, no. 6 (1980), 79-88; and Christine Stansell, "The Origins of the Sweatshop: Women and Early Industrialization in New York City," in Working-Class America: Essays on Labor, Community, and American Society, Michael H. Frish and Daniel J. Walkowitz, eds. (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1983), 78-103, especially, 91; and idem, City of Women: Sex and Class in New York. 1789-1860 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1987).
31. In addition to Hartmann, see Anne Phillips and Barbara Taylor, "Sex and Skill: Notes Towards a Feminist Economics," Feminist Review, no. 6 (1980), 79-88; and Christine Stansell, "The Origins of the Sweatshop: Women and Early Industrialization in New York City," in Working-Class America: Essays on Labor, Community, and American Society, Michael H. Frish and Daniel J. Walkowitz, eds. (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1983), 78-103, especially, 91; and idem, City of Women: Sex and Class in New York. 1789-1860 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1987).
32. Some production stayed in the home. Nancy Page Fernandez, "'If a Woman Had Taste . . . ': Home Sewing and the Making of Fashion, 1850-1910" (disser., University of California-Irvine, 1987). For France, see Joan Wallach Scott, "Men and Women in the Parisian Garment Trades: Discussions of Family and Work in the 1830s and 1840s," in The Power of the Past: Essays for Eric Hobsbawm, Pat Thane, Geoffrey Crossick, and Roderick Floud, eds. (Cambridge and Paris: Cambridge University Press and Editions de la Maison des Sciences de l'Homme, 1984); and Christopher H. Johnson, "Economic Change and Artisan Discontent: The Tailors' History, 1800-48," in Revolution and Reaction: 1848 and the 2d French Republic, Roger Price, ed (London: Croom Helm, 1975).
33. Some production stayed in the home. Nancy Page Fernandez, "'If a Woman Had Taste . . . ': Home Sewing and the Making of Fashion, 1850-1910" (disser., University of California-Irvine, 1987). For France, see Joan Wallach Scott, "Men and Women in the Parisian Garment Trades: Discussions of Family and Work in the 1830s and 1840s," in The Power of the Past: Essays for Eric Hobsbawm, Pat Thane, Geoffrey Crossick, and Roderick Floud, eds. (Cambridge and Paris: Cambridge University Press and Editions de la Maison des Sciences de l'Homme, 1984); and Christopher H. Johnson, "Economic Change and Artisan Discontent: The Tailors' History, 1800-48," in Revolution and Reaction: 1848 and the 2d French Republic, Roger Price, ed (London: Croom Helm, 1975).
34. Some production stayed in the home. Nancy Page Fernandez, "'If a Woman Had Taste . . . ': Home Sewing and the Making of Fashion, 1850-1910" (disser., University of California-Irvine, 1987). For France, see Joan Wallach Scott, "Men and Women in the Parisian Garment Trades: Discussions of Family and Work in the 1830s and 1840s," in The Power of the Past: Essays for Eric Hobsbawm, Pat Thane, Geoffrey Crossick, and Roderick Floud, eds. (Cambridge and Paris: Cambridge University Press and Editions de la Maison des Sciences de l'Homme, 1984); and Christopher H. Johnson, "Economic Change and Artisan Discontent: The Tailors' History, 1800-48," in Revolution and Reaction: 1848 and the 2d French Republic, Roger Price, ed (London: Croom Helm, 1975).
35. Jesse Pope, The Clothing Industry in New York (Columbia, Missouri: E. W. Stephens Publishing Co., 1905), 17; Wendy Gamber, The Female Economy: The Millinery and Dressmaking Trades, 1860-1930 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, forthcoming).
36. Jesse Pope, The Clothing Industry in New York (Columbia, Missouri: E. W. Stephens Publishing Co., 1905), 17; Wendy Gamber, The Female Economy: The Millinery and Dressmaking Trades, 1860-1930 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, forthcoming).
37. Stansell, "Origins"; Scott, "Men and Women"; Johnson, "Economic Change and Artisan Discontent"; Coffin, "Woman's Place"; Pierre du Maroussem, La Petite industrie (salaires et durée du travail), vol. 2, Le Vêtement à Paris (Paris: Imprimerie Nationale for the Office du Travail, 1896), 20, 301-6. On du Maroussem's method of investigation, see Judith Coffin, "Social Science Meets Sweated Labor: Reinventing Women's Work in Late Nineteenth-Century France," Journal of Modern History, 63:2 (June 1991), 230-70.
38. Stansell, "Origins"; Scott, "Men and Women"; Johnson, "Economic Change and Artisan Discontent"; Coffin, "Woman's Place"; Pierre du Maroussem, La Petite industrie (salaires et durée du travail), vol. 2, Le Vêtement à Paris (Paris: Imprimerie Nationale for the Office du Travail, 1896), 20, 301-6. On du Maroussem's method of investigation, see Judith Coffin, "Social Science Meets Sweated Labor: Reinventing Women's Work in Late Nineteenth-Century France," Journal of Modern History, 63:2 (June 1991), 230-70.
39. Stansell, "Origins," 91.
40. German tailor, speaking at a Senate investigating committee, quoted in Edith Abbott, Women in Industry, 1910 (Reprint; New York: Arno Press, 1969), 223; Stansell, "Origins," 92; Kathie Friedman Kasaba, "'A Tailor is Nothing Without a Wife, and Very Often a Child': Gender and Labor-Force Formation in the New York Garment Industry, 1880-1920," in Racism, Sexism, and the World-System, Joan Smith, et al., eds. (Westport: Greenwood Press, 1988).
41. German tailor, speaking at a Senate investigating committee, quoted in Edith Abbott, Women in Industry, 1910 (Reprint; New York: Arno Press, 1969), 223; Stansell, "Origins," 92; Kathie Friedman Kasaba, "'A Tailor is Nothing Without a Wife, and Very Often a Child': Gender and Labor-Force Formation in the New York Garment Industry, 1880-1920," in Racism, Sexism, and the World-System, Joan Smith, et al., eds. (Westport: Greenwood Press, 1988).
42. German tailor, speaking at a Senate investigating committee, quoted in Edith Abbott, Women in Industry, 1910 (Reprint; New York: Arno Press, 1969), 223; Stansell, "Origins," 92; Kathie Friedman Kasaba, "'A Tailor is Nothing Without a Wife, and Very Often a Child': Gender and Labor-Force Formation in the New York Garment Industry, 1880-1920," in Racism, Sexism, and the World-System, Joan Smith, et al., eds. (Westport: Greenwood Press, 1988).
43. Coffin, "Woman's Place," 212.
44. New York State Department of Labor, Annual Report (1911), 27; International Ladies' Garment Workers' Union (ILGWU), General Executive Board Report (1928), 261.
45. New York State Department of Labor, Annual Report (1911), 27; International Ladies' Garment Workers' Union (ILGWU), General Executive Board Report (1928), 261.
46. For example, Coffin, "Credit, Consumption"; "Woman's Place," 213. The process by which the sewing machine became a "female" item did not go uncontested. See Karin Hausen, "Technical Progress and Women's Labour in the Nineteenth Century: The Social History of the Sewing Machine," in The Social History of Politics, George Iggers, ed. (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1985), 259-81; and Karen Offen, "'Powered by a Woman's Foot': A Documentary Introduction to the Sexual Politics of the Sewing Machine in Nineteenth-Century France," Women's Studies International Forum, 11:2 (1988), 93-101, concerning medical reports about the treadle being dangerous to a woman's gynecological and sexual health. As Michelle Perrot has pointed out, the Singer ultimately became a "rêve subverti," "l'instrument de leur servitude: l'usine à domicile." Michelle Perrot, "La femme populaire rebelle," in Christiane Dufrancatel, et al., L'Histoire sans qualités (Paris: Galilée, 1979), 140.
47. For example, Coffin, "Credit, Consumption"; "Woman's Place," 213. The process by which the sewing machine became a "female" item did not go uncontested. See Karin Hausen, "Technical Progress and Women's Labour in the Nineteenth Century: The Social History of the Sewing Machine," in The Social History of Politics, George Iggers, ed. (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1985), 259-81; and Karen Offen, "'Powered by a Woman's Foot': A Documentary Introduction to the Sexual Politics of the Sewing Machine in Nineteenth-Century France," Women's Studies International Forum, 11:2 (1988), 93-101, concerning medical reports about the treadle being dangerous to a woman's gynecological and sexual health. As Michelle Perrot has pointed out, the Singer ultimately became a "rêve subverti," "l'instrument de leur servitude: l'usine à domicile." Michelle Perrot, "La femme populaire rebelle," in Christiane Dufrancatel, et al., L'Histoire sans qualités (Paris: Galilée, 1979), 140.
48. For example, Coffin, "Credit, Consumption"; "Woman's Place," 213. The process by which the sewing machine became a "female" item did not go uncontested. See Karin Hausen, "Technical Progress and Women's Labour in the Nineteenth Century: The Social History of the Sewing Machine," in The Social History of Politics, George Iggers, ed. (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1985), 259-81; and Karen Offen, "'Powered by a Woman's Foot': A Documentary Introduction to the Sexual Politics of the Sewing Machine in Nineteenth-Century France," Women's Studies International Forum, 11:2 (1988), 93-101, concerning medical reports about the treadle being dangerous to a woman's gynecological and sexual health. As Michelle Perrot has pointed out, the Singer ultimately became a "rêve subverti," "l'instrument de leur servitude: l'usine à domicile." Michelle Perrot, "La femme populaire rebelle," in Christiane Dufrancatel, et al., L'Histoire sans qualités (Paris: Galilée, 1979), 140.
49. For example, Coffin, "Credit, Consumption"; "Woman's Place," 213. The process by which the sewing machine became a "female" item did not go uncontested. See Karin Hausen, "Technical Progress and Women's Labour in the Nineteenth Century: The Social History of the Sewing Machine," in The Social History of Politics, George Iggers, ed. (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1985), 259-81; and Karen Offen, "'Powered by a Woman's Foot': A Documentary Introduction to the Sexual Politics of the Sewing Machine in Nineteenth-Century France," Women's Studies International Forum, 11:2 (1988), 93-101, concerning medical reports about the treadle being dangerous to a woman's gynecological and sexual health. As Michelle Perrot has pointed out, the Singer ultimately became a "rêve subverti," "l'instrument de leur servitude: l'usine à domicile." Michelle Perrot, "La femme populaire rebelle," in Christiane Dufrancatel, et al., L'Histoire sans qualités (Paris: Galilée, 1979), 140.
50. Stansell "Origins"; cf. François Faraut, Histoire de la Belle Jardinière (Paris: Belin, 1987), for France.
51. Concerning the waist and dress trade. Ab. Baroff, "Our Union and its Problems," The Message, 1:10 (April 17, 1914), 4-5.
52. New York State Office of Factory Inspectors, 13th Annual Report (1898), 790.
53. Edith Abbott, Women in Industry, 242-45. The report is, of course, known for its racist bias. Cf. Mabel Hurd Willett, The Employment of Women in the Clothing Trade (New York: Columbia University Press, 1902), 33, 55, 72.
54. Edith Abbott, Women in Industry, 242-45. The report is, of course, known for its racist bias. Cf. Mabel Hurd Willett, The Employment of Women in the Clothing Trade (New York: Columbia University Press, 1902), 33, 55, 72.
55. Sholom Asch, The Mother (New York: Ams Press, 1970), 121; cf. Charlotte Baum, Paula Hyman and Sonya Michel, The Jewish Woman in America (New York: New American Library 1975), 197.
56. Sholom Asch, The Mother (New York: Ams Press, 1970), 121; cf. Charlotte Baum, Paula Hyman and Sonya Michel, The Jewish Woman in America (New York: New American Library 1975), 197.
57. The brochure was referring to cutting and pressing. ILGWU Educational Department, The Story of the ILGWU (New York: ILGWU, 1935), 21.
58. Résultats statistiques du recensement des industries et professions (1896), vol.I (Paris: Imprimerie nationale, 1899), 232, 246. As women moved into more diversified occupations in intenvar France, the garment industry, which had occupied a high of 27 percent of all women working outside of agriculture in 1906, dropped to 20 percent in 1921. Louise A. Tilly and Joan W. Scott, Women, Work and Family (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1978), 152-3, 197.
59. Résultats statistiques du recensement des industries et professions (1896), vol.I (Paris: Imprimerie nationale, 1899), 232, 246. As women moved into more diversified occupations in intenvar France, the garment industry, which had occupied a high of 27 percent of all women working outside of agriculture in 1906, dropped to 20 percent in 1921. Louise A. Tilly and Joan W. Scott, Women, Work and Family (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1978), 152-3, 197.
60. Résultats statistiques du recensement général de la population (1921), t. II (Paris: Imprimerie Nationale, 1925), 1-5 (recapitulating 1906); idem (1936), t. II (Imprimerie Nationale, 1941), p. 3; idem (1962), no. 75: Seine (Imprimerie Nationale, 1966), p. 43; Recensement de l'industrie 1963 (Résultats pour 1962), Série Structures, vol. 1, 10-11 (Imprimerie Nationale, 1967).
61. Résultats statistiques du recensement général de la population (1921), t. II (Paris: Imprimerie Nationale, 1925), 1-5 (recapitulating 1906); idem (1936), t. II (Imprimerie Nationale, 1941), p. 3; idem (1962), no. 75: Seine (Imprimerie Nationale, 1966), p. 43; Recensement de l'industrie 1963 (Résultats pour 1962), Série Structures, vol. 1, 10-11 (Imprimerie Nationale, 1967).
62. Résultats statistiques du recensement général de la population (1921), t. II (Paris: Imprimerie Nationale, 1925), 1-5 (recapitulating 1906); idem (1936), t. II (Imprimerie Nationale, 1941), p. 3; idem (1962), no. 75: Seine (Imprimerie Nationale, 1966), p. 43; Recensement de l'industrie 1963 (Résultats pour 1962), Série Structures, vol. 1, 10-11 (Imprimerie Nationale, 1967).
63. Résultats statistiques du recensement général de la population (1921), t. II (Paris: Imprimerie Nationale, 1925), 1-5 (recapitulating 1906); idem (1936), t. II (Imprimerie Nationale, 1941), p. 3; idem (1962), no. 75: Seine (Imprimerie Nationale, 1966), p. 43; Recensement de l'industrie 1963 (Résultats pour 1962), Série Structures, vol. 1, 10-11 (Imprimerie Nationale, 1967).
64. Abbott, Women in Industry, 241; cf. 231; David Montgomery, The Fall of the House of Labor (Cambridge, England, and Paris: Cambridge University Press and Editions de la Maison des Sciences de l'Homme, 1987), 118; ILGWU, The Story of the ILGWU, 21-23; Louis Levine, The Women's Garment Workers: A History of the International Ladies' Garment Workers' Union (New York: B. W. Huebesch Inc., 1924), p. 395.
65. Abbott, Women in Industry, 241; cf. 231; David Montgomery, The Fall of the House of Labor (Cambridge, England, and Paris: Cambridge University Press and Editions de la Maison des Sciences de l'Homme, 1987), 118; ILGWU, The Story of the ILGWU, 21-23; Louis Levine, The Women's Garment Workers: A History of the International Ladies' Garment Workers' Union (New York: B. W. Huebesch Inc., 1924), p. 395.
66. Abbott, Women in Industry, 241; cf. 231; David Montgomery, The Fall of the House of Labor (Cambridge, England, and Paris: Cambridge University Press and Editions de la Maison des Sciences de l'Homme, 1987), 118; ILGWU, The Story of the ILGWU, 21-23; Louis Levine, The Women's Garment Workers: A History of the International Ladies' Garment Workers' Union (New York: B. W. Huebesch Inc., 1924), p. 395.
67. Abbott, Women in Industry, 241; cf. 231; David Montgomery, The Fall of the House of Labor (Cambridge, England, and Paris: Cambridge University Press and Editions de la Maison des Sciences de l'Homme, 1987), 118; ILGWU, The Story of the ILGWU, 21-23; Louis Levine, The Women's Garment Workers: A History of the International Ladies' Garment Workers' Union (New York: B. W. Huebesch Inc., 1924), p. 395.
68. Derived from Report of Manufacturing Industries in the United States, At the 11th Census, 1890, Part II: Statistics of Cities (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1893), 395-6.
69. Derived from Population 1910 - Occupational Statistics, vol. IV of the 13th Census of the United States, (Washington: GPO, 1914), 572, 574; Population 1920, 14th Census (1923), 192.
70. Derived from Population 1910 - Occupational Statistics, vol. IV of the 13th Census of the United States, (Washington: GPO, 1914), 572, 574; Population 1920, 14th Census (1923), 192.
71. "Distribution of Male and Female Workers, Metropolitan Area, 1922, 1925, 1930, 1934," ILGWU Archives, Dress Joint Board, 30:7. In 1934, when women became a high percentage (77.9) of the dressworkers in the New York City area, men remained 100 percent of the cutters and 80.1 percent of the pressers, but only 17.9 percent of the operators. "Distribution of Male and Female Workers in Metropolitan Area, by Crafts, 1934," ILGWU Archives, Dress Joint Board, 30:7.
72. Florence S. Richards, The Ready-to-Wear Industry, 1900-1950 (New York: Fairchild Publishers, Inc., 1951), 19; Abbott, Women in Industry, 242; Levine, The Women's Garment Workers, 396. See also Judith Greenfeld, "The Role of the Jews in the Development of the Clothing Industry in the United States," YIVO Annual of Jewish Social Sciences, 2-3 (1947-48), 183: and J. M. Budish and George Soule, The New Unionism in the Clothing Industry (New York: Harcourt, Brace and Howe, 1920). 17-27. The figures for Paris are not detailed enough to chart a similar distribution.
73. Florence S. Richards, The Ready-to-Wear Industry, 1900-1950 (New York: Fairchild Publishers, Inc., 1951), 19; Abbott, Women in Industry, 242; Levine, The Women's Garment Workers, 396. See also Judith Greenfeld, "The Role of the Jews in the Development of the Clothing Industry in the United States," YIVO Annual of Jewish Social Sciences, 2-3 (1947-48), 183: and J. M. Budish and George Soule, The New Unionism in the Clothing Industry (New York: Harcourt, Brace and Howe, 1920). 17-27. The figures for Paris are not detailed enough to chart a similar distribution.
74. Florence S. Richards, The Ready-to-Wear Industry, 1900-1950 (New York: Fairchild Publishers, Inc., 1951), 19; Abbott, Women in Industry, 242; Levine, The Women's Garment Workers, 396. See also Judith Greenfeld, "The Role of the Jews in the Development of the Clothing Industry in the United States," YIVO Annual of Jewish Social Sciences, 2-3 (1947-48), 183: and J. M. Budish and George Soule, The New Unionism in the Clothing Industry (New York: Harcourt, Brace and Howe, 1920). 17-27. The figures for Paris are not detailed enough to chart a similar distribution.
75. Florence S. Richards, The Ready-to-Wear Industry, 1900-1950 (New York: Fairchild Publishers, Inc., 1951), 19; Abbott, Women in Industry, 242; Levine, The Women's Garment Workers, 396. See also Judith Greenfeld, "The Role of the Jews in the Development of the Clothing Industry in the United States," YIVO Annual of Jewish Social Sciences, 2-3 (1947-48), 183: and J. M. Budish and George Soule, The New Unionism in the Clothing Industry (New York: Harcourt, Brace and Howe, 1920). 17-27. The figures for Paris are not detailed enough to chart a similar distribution.
76. Florence S. Richards, The Ready-to-Wear Industry, 1900-1950 (New York: Fairchild Publishers, Inc., 1951), 19; Abbott, Women in Industry, 242; Levine, The Women's Garment Workers, 396. See also Judith Greenfeld, "The Role of the Jews in the Development of the Clothing Industry in the United States," YIVO Annual of Jewish Social Sciences, 2-3 (1947-48), 183: and J. M. Budish and George Soule, The New Unionism in the Clothing Industry (New York: Harcourt, Brace and Howe, 1920). 17-27. The figures for Paris are not detailed enough to chart a similar distribution.
77. See, for example, New York State Factory Investigating Commission, Reports, 1915, 2:178.
78. Levine, The Women's Garment Workers, Appendix I, Table X, p. 521.
79. Klatzmann, Le travail à domicile, 29, 81. The statistics group habillement and ameublement together, however habillement alone accounts for 90 percent of this category according to Klatzmann.
80. Baum, Hyman, and Michel, The Jewish Woman in America, 146.
81. Boris, Home to Work; Tilly and Scott, Women, Work, and Family, 152-53. On homework legislation in comparative perspective, see Miriam Cohen and Michael Hanagan, "The Political Economy of Social Reform: The Case of Homework in New York and Paris, 1900-1940," French Politics and Society, 6:4 (October 1988), 31-38; idem, "The Politics of Gender and the Making of the Welfare State, 1900-1940: A Comparative Perspective," Journal of Social History, 24:3 (Spring 1991), 469-84; Mary Lynn Stewart, Women, Work and the French State: Labour Protection and Social Patriarchy, 1879-1919 (Kingston: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1989); Jane Jenson, "Representations of Gender: Policies to 'Protect' Women Workers and Infants in France and the United States before 1914," in Women, the State, and Welfare, Linda Gordon, ed. (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1990), 152-72; Alisa Klaus, Every Child a Lion: The Origins of Infant Health Policy in the United States and France, 1890-1920 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1993); and Green, Ready-to-Wear.
82. Boris, Home to Work; Tilly and Scott, Women, Work, and Family, 152-53. On homework legislation in comparative perspective, see Miriam Cohen and Michael Hanagan, "The Political Economy of Social Reform: The Case of Homework in New York and Paris, 1900-1940," French Politics and Society, 6:4 (October 1988), 31-38; idem, "The Politics of Gender and the Making of the Welfare State, 1900-1940: A Comparative Perspective," Journal of Social History, 24:3 (Spring 1991), 469-84; Mary Lynn Stewart, Women, Work and the French State: Labour Protection and Social Patriarchy, 1879-1919 (Kingston: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1989); Jane Jenson, "Representations of Gender: Policies to 'Protect' Women Workers and Infants in France and the United States before 1914," in Women, the State, and Welfare, Linda Gordon, ed. (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1990), 152-72; Alisa Klaus, Every Child a Lion: The Origins of Infant Health Policy in the United States and France, 1890-1920 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1993); and Green, Ready-to-Wear.
83. Boris, Home to Work; Tilly and Scott, Women, Work, and Family, 152-53. On homework legislation in comparative perspective, see Miriam Cohen and Michael Hanagan, "The Political Economy of Social Reform: The Case of Homework in New York and Paris, 1900-1940," French Politics and Society, 6:4 (October 1988), 31-38; idem, "The Politics of Gender and the Making of the Welfare
84. Boris, Home to Work; Tilly and Scott, Women, Work, and Family, 152-53. On homework legislation in comparative perspective, see Miriam Cohen and Michael Hanagan, "The Political Economy of Social Reform: The Case of Homework in New York and Paris, 1900-1940," French Politics and Society, 6:4 (October 1988), 31-38; idem, "The Politics of Gender and the Making of the Welfare State, 1900-1940: A Comparative Perspective," Journal of Social History, 24:3 (Spring 1991), 469-84; Mary Lynn Stewart, Women, Work and the French State: Labour Protection and Social Patriarchy, 1879-1919 (Kingston: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1989); Jane Jenson, "Representations of Gender: Policies to 'Protect' Women Workers and Infants in France and the United States before 1914," in Women, the State, and Welfare, Linda Gordon, ed. (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1990), 152-72; Alisa Klaus, Every Child a Lion: The Origins of Infant Health Policy in the United States and France, 1890-1920 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1993); and Green, Ready-to-Wear.
85. Boris, Home to Work; Tilly and Scott, Women, Work, and Family, 152-53. On homework legislation in comparative perspective, see Miriam Cohen and Michael Hanagan, "The Political Economy of Social Reform: The Case of Homework in New York and Paris, 1900-1940," French Politics and Society, 6:4 (October 1988), 31-38; idem, "The Politics of Gender and the Making of the Welfare State, 1900-1940: A Comparative Perspective," Journal of Social History, 24:3 (Spring 1991), 469-84; Mary Lynn Stewart, Women, Work and the French State: Labour Protection and Social Patriarchy, 1879-1919 (Kingston: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1989); Jane Jenson, "Representations of Gender: Policies to 'Protect' Women Workers and Infants in France and the United States before 1914," in Women, the State, and Welfare, Linda Gordon, ed. (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1990), 152-72; Alisa Klaus, Every Child a Lion: The Origins of Infant Health Policy in the United States and France, 1890-1920 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1993); and Green, Ready-to-Wear.
86. Boris, Home to Work; Tilly and Scott, Women, Work, and Family, 152-53. On homework legislation in comparative perspective, see Miriam Cohen and Michael Hanagan, "The Political Economy of Social Reform: The Case of Homework in New York and Paris, 1900-1940," French Politics and Society, 6:4 (October 1988), 31-38; idem, "The Politics of Gender and the Making of the Welfare State, 1900-1940: A Comparative Perspective," Journal of Social History, 24:3 (Spring 1991), 469-84; Mary Lynn Stewart, Women, Work and the French State: Labour Protection and Social Patriarchy, 1879-1919 (Kingston: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1989); Jane Jenson, "Representations of Gender: Policies to 'Protect' Women Workers and Infants in France and the United States before 1914," in Women, the State, and Welfare, Linda Gordon, ed. (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1990), 152-72; Alisa Klaus, Every Child a Lion: The Origins of Infant Health Policy in the United States and France, 1890-1920 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1993); and Green, Ready-to-Wear.
87. Boris, Home to Work; Tilly and Scott, Women, Work, and Family, 152-53. On homework legislation in comparative perspective, see Miriam Cohen and Michael Hanagan, "The Political Economy of Social Reform: The Case of Homework in New York and Paris, 1900-1940," French Politics and Society, 6:4 (October 1988), 31-38; idem, "The Politics of Gender and the Making of the Welfare State, 1900-1940: A Comparative Perspective," Journal of Social History, 24:3 (Spring 1991), 469-84; Mary Lynn Stewart, Women, Work and the French State: Labour Protection and Social Patriarchy, 1879-1919 (Kingston: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1989); Jane Jenson, "Representations of Gender: Policies to 'Protect' Women Workers and Infants in France and the United States before 1914," in Women, the State, and Welfare, Linda Gordon, ed. (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1990), 152-72; Alisa Klaus, Every Child a Lion: The Origins of Infant Health Policy in the United States and France, 1890-1920 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1993); and Green, Ready-to-Wear.
88. Larry Smith and Company, Garment District Study, 2 vols. (New York: Larry Smith and Co., 1957), 2:33; Nathan Belfer, "Section Work in the Women's Garment Industry," The Southern Economic Journal, 21:2 (October 1954), 188-200, 192-3.
89. Larry Smith and Company, Garment District Study, 2 vols. (New York: Larry Smith and Co., 1957), 2:33; Nathan Belfer, "Section Work in the Women's Garment Industry," The Southern Economic Journal, 21:2 (October 1954), 188-200, 192-3.
90. Solange Montagné-Villette, Le Sentier. Un espace ambigu (Paris: Masson, 1990), 74. By one estimate, there may be up to 40 percent of the men working in Los Angeles industry today. James Loucky, et al., "Immigrant Enterprise and Labor in the Los Angeles Garment Industry," in Global Production, Edna Bonacich et al., eds. (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1994), 352.
91. Solange Montagné-Villette, Le Sentier. Un espace ambigu (Paris: Masson, 1990), 74. By one estimate, there may be up to 40 percent of the men working in Los Angeles industry today. James Loucky, et al., "Immigrant Enterprise and Labor in the Los Angeles Garment Industry," in Global Production, Edna Bonacich et al., eds. (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1994), 352.
92. Riva Kastoryano, Etre turc en France (Paris: L'Harmattan, 1986), 132.
93. Willett, The Employment of Women, 53, 65-67.
94. John R. Commons, Races and Immigrants, 133, cited in Levine, The Women's Garment Workers, 23.
95. John R. Commons, Races and Immigrants, 133, cited in Levine, The Women's Garment Workers, 23.
96. United States Industrial Commission, Reports of the Industrial Commission, 19 vols. (Washington: GPO, 1900-02), 15:326.
97. Glenn, Daughters of the Shtetl, 49.
98. Aristide Zolberg, "International Migrations in Political Perspective," in Global Trends in Migration: Theory and Research on International Population Movements, Mary M. Kritz, et al., eds. (New York: Center for Migration Studies, 1983), 3-27.
99. Waldinger, Through the Eye of the Needle; Mirjana Morokvasic, Roger Waldinger, and Annie Phizacklea, "Business on the Ragged Edge: Immigrant and Minority Business in the Garment Industries of Paris, London, and New York," in Ethnic Entrepreneurs: Immigrant Business in Industrial Societies, Roger Waldinger, Howard Aldrich and Robin Ward, eds. (Newbury Park, CA: Sage Press, 1990), 157-76; Edna Bonacich, "A Theory of Middleman Minorities," American Sociological Review, 38 (October 1973), 583-95; Ivan Light, Ethnic Enterprise in America: Business and Welfare among Chinese, Japanese and Blacks (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1972).
100. Waldinger, Through the Eye of the Needle; Mirjana Morokvasic, Roger Waldinger, and Annie Phizacklea, "Business on the Ragged Edge: Immigrant and Minority Business in the Garment Industries of Paris, London, and New York," in Ethnic Entrepreneurs: Immigrant Business in Industrial Societies, Roger Waldinger, Howard Aldrich and Robin Ward, eds. (Newbury Park, CA: Sage Press, 1990), 157-76; Edna Bonacich, "A Theory of Middleman Minorities," American Sociological Review, 38 (October 1973), 583-95; Ivan Light, Ethnic Enterprise in America: Business and Welfare among Chinese, Japanese and Blacks (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1972).
101. Waldinger, Through the Eye of the Needle; Mirjana Morokvasic, Roger Waldinger, and Annie Phizacklea, "Business on the Ragged Edge: Immigrant and Minority Business in the Garment Industries of Paris, London, and New York," in Ethnic Entrepreneurs: Immigrant Business in Industrial Societies, Roger Waldinger, Howard Aldrich and Robin Ward, eds. (Newbury Park, CA: Sage Press, 1990), 157-76; Edna Bonacich, "A Theory of Middleman Minorities," American Sociological Review, 38 (October 1973), 583-95; Ivan Light, Ethnic Enterprise in America: Business and Welfare among Chinese, Japanese and Blacks (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1972).
102. Waldinger, Through the Eye of the Needle; Mirjana Morokvasic, Roger Waldinger, and Annie Phizacklea, "Business on the Ragged Edge: Immigrant and Minority Business in the Garment Industries of Paris, London, and New York," in Ethnic Entrepreneurs: Immigrant Business in Industrial Societies, Roger Waldinger, Howard Aldrich and Robin Ward, eds. (Newbury Park, CA: Sage Press, 1990), 157-76; Edna Bonacich, "A Theory of Middleman Minorities," American Sociological Review, 38 (October 1973), 583-95; Ivan Light, Ethnic Enterprise in America: Business and Welfare among Chinese, Japanese and Blacks (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1972).
103. Waldinger, Through the Eye of the Needle; and more generally, Suzanne Model, "A Comparative Perspective on the Ethnic Enclave: Blacks, Italians, and Jews in New York City," International Migration Review, 19:1 (Spring 1985), 64-81; Stanley Lieberson, A Piece of the Pie: Blacks and White Immigrants since 1880 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980); Olivier Zunz, The Changing Face of Inequality: Urbanization, Industrial Development, and Immigrants in Detroit, 1880-1920 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982), John Bodnar, Immigration and Industrialization: Ethnicity in an American Mill Town, 1870-1940 (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1977).
104. Waldinger, Through the Eye of the Needle; and more generally, Suzanne Model, "A Comparative Perspective on the Ethnic Enclave: Blacks, Italians, and Jews in New York City," International Migration Review, 19:1 (Spring 1985), 64-81; Stanley Lieberson, A Piece of the Pie: Blacks and White Immigrants since 1880 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980); Olivier Zunz, The Changing Face of Inequality: Urbanization, Industrial Development, and Immigrants in Detroit, 1880-1920 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982), John Bodnar, Immigration and Industrialization: Ethnicity in an American Mill Town, 1870-1940 (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1977).
105. Waldinger, Through the Eye of the Needle; and more generally, Suzanne Model, "A Comparative Perspective on the Ethnic Enclave: Blacks, Italians, and Jews in New York City," International Migration Review, 19:1 (Spring 1985), 64-81; Stanley Lieberson, A Piece of the Pie: Blacks and White Immigrants since 1880 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980); Olivier Zunz, The Changing Face of Inequality: Urbanization, Industrial Development, and Immigrants in Detroit, 1880-1920 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982), John Bodnar, Immigration and Industrialization: Ethnicity in an American Mill Town, 1870-1940 (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1977).
106. Waldinger, Through the Eye of the Needle; and more generally, Suzanne Model, "A Comparative Perspective on the Ethnic Enclave: Blacks, Italians, and Jews in New York City," International Migration Review, 19:1 (Spring 1985), 64-81; Stanley Lieberson, A Piece of the Pie: Blacks and White Immigrants since 1880 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980); Olivier Zunz, The Changing Face of Inequality: Urbanization, Industrial Development, and Immigrants in Detroit, 1880-1920 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982), John Bodnar, Immigration and Industrialization: Ethnicity in an American Mill Town, 1870-1940 (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1977).
107. Waldinger, Through the Eye of the Needle; and more generally, Suzanne Model, "A Comparative Perspective on the Ethnic Enclave: Blacks, Italians, and Jews in New York City," International Migration Review, 19:1 (Spring 1985), 64-81; Stanley Lieberson, A Piece of the Pie: Blacks and White Immigrants since 1880 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980); Olivier Zunz, The Changing Face of Inequality: Urbanization, Industrial Development, and Immigrants in Detroit, 1880-1920 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982), John Bodnar, Immigration and Industrialization: Ethnicity in an American Mill Town, 1870-1940 (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1977).
108. Nancy L. Green, The Pletzl of Paris: Jewish Immigrant Workers in the Belle Epoque (New York: Holmes and Meier, 1986).
109. "The ILGWU is a great melting pot." ILGWU, Equal Opportunity Union Made (New York: ILGWU Educational Department, n.d.), 7.
110. See, most recently, however, Kathleen Canning, "Gender and the Politics of Class Formation: Rethinking German Labor History," American Historical Review, 97 (June 1992), 736-68; and Alice Kessler-Harris, "Women and Welfare: Public Interventions in Private Lives," Radical History Review, 56(1993), 127-36.
111. See, most recently, however, Kathleen Canning, "Gender and the Politics of Class Formation: Rethinking German Labor History," American Historical Review, 97 (June 1992), 736-68; and Alice Kessler-Harris, "Women and Welfare: Public Interventions in Private Lives," Radical History Review, 56(1993), 127-36.
112. Mirjana Morokvasic, "Birds of Passage Are Also Women," International Migration Review, 18:4 (Winter 1984), 886-907; Donna Gabaccia, "Immigrant Women: Nowhere at Home," Journal of American Ethnic History, 10:4 (Summer 1991), 61-87; idem, From the Other Side: Women, Gender, and Immigrant Life in the U.S., 1820-1890 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1994); Annie Phizacklea, ed., One Way Ticket: Migration and Female Labour (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1983). Several recent monographs besides Glenn and Cohen include Hasia R. Diner, Erin's Daughters in America: Irish Immigrant Women in the Nineteenth Century (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1983); Elizabeth Ewen, Immigrant Women in the Land of Dollars: Life and Culture on the Lower East Side, 1890-1925 (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1985). On the importance of women as part of the international migration streams, see Marion F. Houston, Roger G. Kramer and Joan M. Barrett, "Female Predominance of Immigration to the United States Since 1930: A First Look," International Migration Review, 18 (Winter 1984), 908-63.
113. Mirjana Morokvasic, "Birds of Passage Are Also Women," International Migration Review, 18:4 (Winter 1984), 886-907; Donna Gabaccia, "Immigrant Women: Nowhere at Home," Journal of American Ethnic History, 10:4 (Summer 1991), 61-87; idem, From the Other Side: Women, Gender, and Immigrant Life in the U.S., 1820-1890 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1994); Annie Phizacklea, ed., One Way Ticket: Migration and Female Labour (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1983). Several recent monographs besides Glenn and Cohen include Hasia R. Diner, Erin's Daughters in America: Irish Immigrant Women in the Nineteenth Century (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1983); Elizabeth Ewen, Immigrant Women in the Land of Dollars: Life and Culture on the Lower East Side, 1890-1925 (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1985). On the importance of women as part of the international migration streams, see Marion F. Houston, Roger G. Kramer and Joan M. Barrett, "Female Predominance of Immigration to the United States Since 1930: A First Look," International Migration Review, 18 (Winter 1984), 908-63.
114. Mirjana Morokvasic, "Birds of Passage Are Also Women," International Migration Review, 18:4 (Winter 1984), 886-907; Donna Gabaccia, "Immigrant Women: Nowhere at Home," Journal of American Ethnic History, 10:4 (Summer 1991), 61-87; idem, From the Other Side: Women, Gender, and Immigrant Life in the U.S., 1820-1890 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1994); Annie Phizacklea, ed., One Way Ticket: Migration and Female Labour (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1983). Several recent monographs besides Glenn and Cohen include Hasia R. Diner, Erin's Daughters in America: Irish Immigrant Women in the Nineteenth Century (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1983); Elizabeth Ewen, Immigrant Women in the Land of Dollars: Life and Culture on the Lower East Side, 1890-1925 (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1985). On the importance of women as part of the international migration streams, see Marion F. Houston, Roger G. Kramer and Joan M. Barrett, "Female Predominance of Immigration to the United States Since 1930: A First Look," International Migration Review, 18 (Winter 1984), 908-63.
115. Mirjana Morokvasic, "Birds of Passage Are Also Women," International Migration Review, 18:4 (Winter 1984), 886-907; Donna Gabaccia, "Immigrant Women: Nowhere at Home," Journal of American Ethnic History, 10:4 (Summer 1991), 61-87; idem, From the Other Side: Women, Gender, and Immigrant Life in the U.S., 1820-1890 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1994); Annie Phizacklea, ed., One Way Ticket: Migration and Female Labour (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1983). Several recent monographs besides Glenn and Cohen include Hasia R. Diner, Erin's Daughters in America: Irish Immigrant Women in the Nineteenth Century (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1983); Elizabeth Ewen, Immigrant Women in the Land of Dollars: Life and Culture on the Lower East Side, 1890-1925 (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1985). On the importance of women as part of the international migration streams, see Marion F. Houston, Roger G. Kramer and Joan M. Barrett, "Female Predominance of Immigration to the United States Since 1930: A First Look," International Migration Review, 18 (Winter 1984), 908-63.
116. Mirjana Morokvasic, "Birds of Passage Are Also Women," International Migration Review, 18:4 (Winter 1984), 886-907; Donna Gabaccia, "Immigrant Women: Nowhere at Home," Journal of American Ethnic History, 10:4 (Summer 1991), 61-87; idem, From the Other Side: Women, Gender, and Immigrant Life in the U.S., 1820-1890 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1994); Annie Phizacklea, ed., One Way Ticket: Migration and Female Labour (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1983). Several recent monographs besides Glenn and Cohen include Hasia R. Diner, Erin's Daughters in America: Irish Immigrant Women in the Nineteenth Century (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1983); Elizabeth Ewen, Immigrant Women in the Land of Dollars: Life and Culture on the Lower East Side, 1890-1925 (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1985). On the importance of women as part of the international migration streams, see Marion F. Houston, Roger G. Kramer and Joan M. Barrett, "Female Predominance of Immigration to the United States Since 1930: A First Look," International Migration Review, 18 (Winter 1984), 908-63.
117. Mirjana Morokvasic, "Birds of Passage Are Also Women," International Migration Review, 18:4 (Winter 1984), 886-907; Donna Gabaccia, "Immigrant Women: Nowhere at Home," Journal of American Ethnic History, 10:4 (Summer 1991), 61-87; idem, From the Other Side: Women, Gender, and Immigrant Life in the U.S., 1820-1890 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1994); Annie Phizacklea, ed., One Way Ticket: Migration and Female Labour (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1983). Several recent monographs besides Glenn and Cohen include Hasia R. Diner, Erin's Daughters in America: Irish Immigrant Women in the Nineteenth Century (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1983); Elizabeth Ewen, Immigrant Women in the Land of Dollars: Life and Culture on the Lower East Side, 1890-1925 (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1985). On the importance of women as part of the international migration streams, see Marion F. Houston, Roger G. Kramer and Joan M. Barrett, "Female Predominance of Immigration to the United States Since 1930: A First Look," International Migration Review, 18 (Winter 1984), 908-63.
118. Mirjana Morokvasic, "Birds of Passage Are Also Women," International Migration Review, 18:4 (Winter 1984), 886-907; Donna Gabaccia, "Immigrant Women: Nowhere at Home," Journal of American Ethnic History, 10:4 (Summer 1991), 61-87; idem, From the Other Side: Women, Gender, and Immigrant Life in the U.S., 1820-1890 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1994); Annie Phizacklea, ed., One Way Ticket: Migration and Female Labour (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1983). Several recent monographs besides Glenn and Cohen include Hasia R. Diner, Erin's Daughters in America: Irish Immigrant Women in the Nineteenth Century (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1983); Elizabeth Ewen, Immigrant Women in the Land of Dollars: Life and Culture on the Lower East Side, 1890-1925 (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1985). On the importance of women as part of the international migration streams, see Marion F. Houston, Roger G. Kramer and Joan M. Barrett, "Female Predominance of Immigration to the United States Since 1930: A First Look," International Migration Review, 18 (Winter 1984), 908-63.
119. Morokvasic, Phizacklea, and Rudolph, "Small Firms and Minority Groups: Contradictory Trends in the French, German, and British Clothing Industries," International Sociology, 1 (December 1986), 397-419.
120. Phizacklea, One Way Ticket; idem, Unpacking; Gabaccia, "Immigrant Women."
121. Phizacklea, One Way Ticket; idem, Unpacking; Gabaccia, "Immigrant Women."
122. Phizacklea, One Way Ticket; idem, Unpacking; Gabaccia, "Immigrant Women."
123. Phizacklea, One Way Ticket, 108.
124. Morokvasic, "Birds of Passage."
125. Alice Kessler-Harris, "Organizing the Unorganizable: Three Jewish Women and Their Union," in Class, Sex, and the Woman Worker, Milton Cantor and Brace Laurie, eds. (Westport: Greenwood Press, 1977), 144-65; idem, "Problems of Coalition-Building: Women and Trade Unions in the 1920s," in Women, Work and Protest, Ruth Milkman, ed. (Boston: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1985), 110-38; Rose Pesotta, Bread Upon the Waters (Ithaca: ILR Press, 1987).
126. Alice Kessler-Harris, "Organizing the Unorganizable: Three Jewish Women and Their Union," in Class, Sex, and the Woman Worker, Milton Cantor and Brace Laurie, eds. (Westport: Greenwood Press, 1977), 144-65; idem, "Problems of Coalition-Building: Women and Trade Unions in the 1920s," in Women, Work and Protest, Ruth Milkman, ed. (Boston: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1985), 110-38; Rose Pesotta, Bread Upon the Waters (Ithaca: ILR Press, 1987).
127. Alice Kessler-Harris, "Organizing the Unorganizable: Three Jewish Women and Their Union," in Class, Sex, and the Woman Worker, Milton Cantor and Brace Laurie, eds. (Westport: Greenwood Press, 1977), 144-65; idem, "Problems of Coalition-Building: Women and Trade Unions in the 1920s," in Women, Work and Protest, Ruth Milkman, ed. (Boston: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1985), 110-38; Rose Pesotta, Bread Upon the Waters (Ithaca: ILR Press, 1987).
128. Glenn, Daughters of the Shtetl, 114, and more generally, 106-122.
129. Thomas Kessner and Betty Boyd Caroli, "New Immigrant Women at Work: Italians and Jews in New York City, 1880-1905," Journal of Ethnic Studies, 5:4 (Winter 1978), 19-31.
130. Ewen, Immigrant Women.
131. Cohen, Workshop to Office, 93; and Miriam Cohen, "From Workshop to Office: Italian Women and Family Strategies in New York City, 1900-1950" (PhD disser., University of Michigan, 1978), 91, 96.
132. Cohen, Workshop to Office, 93; and Miriam Cohen, "From Workshop to Office: Italian Women and Family Strategies in New York City, 1900-1950" (PhD disser., University of Michigan, 1978), 91, 96.
133. On the secondary labor market, see most notably Michael J. Piore, Birds of Passage: Migrant Labor and Industrial Societies (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1979); David M. Gordon, Richard Edwards, and Michael Reich, Segmented Work, Divided Workers: The Historical Transformation of Labor in the United States (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982). For divisions within that secondary sphere, see Phizacklea, One-Way Ticket and Unpacking.
134. On the secondary labor market, see most notably Michael J. Piore, Birds of Passage: Migrant Labor and Industrial Societies (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1979); David M. Gordon, Richard Edwards, and Michael Reich, Segmented Work, Divided Workers: The Historical Transformation of Labor in the United States (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982). For divisions within that secondary sphere, see Phizacklea, One-Way Ticket and Unpacking.
135. On the secondary labor market, see most notably Michael J. Piore, Birds of Passage: Migrant Labor and Industrial Societies (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1979); David M. Gordon, Richard Edwards, and Michael Reich, Segmented Work, Divided Workers: The Historical Transformation of Labor in the United States (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982). For divisions within that secondary sphere, see Phizacklea, One-Way Ticket and Unpacking.
136. See Kessler-Harris, "Problems of Coalition-Building" on conflicts within the ILGWU; Green, Ready-to-Wear, ch. 9.
137. Catherine Collomp, "Syndicats ouvriers et immigration aux Etats-Unis, 1881-1900" (thèse d'état, Université de Paris-VIII, 1985); Gwendolyn Mink, Old Labor and New Immigrants in American Political Development: Union, Party, and State, 1875-1920 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1986).
138. Catherine Collomp, "Syndicats ouvriers et immigration aux Etats-Unis, 1881-1900" (thèse d'état, Université de Paris-VIII, 1985); Gwendolyn Mink, Old Labor and New Immigrants in American Political Development: Union, Party, and State, 1875-1920 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1986).
139. Parr, The Gender of Breadwinners, 234.
140. Morokvasic, Phizacklea and Rudolph, "Small Firms."
141. Beatrice Webb, "How to Do Away with the Sweating System," in Sidney and Beatrice Webb, Problems of Modern Industry (New York: Longmans, Green and Co., 1902). 143, n. 1.
142. Abbott, Women in Industry, 216.
143. Ruth Milkman, "Gender and Trade Unionism in Historical Perspective," in Women, Politics, and Change, Louise Tilly and Patricia Gurin, eds. (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1990), 87-107.
144. Annie Phizacklea and Robert Miles, Labour and Racism (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1980), 14, quoted in Phizacklea, One Way Ticket, 5.
145. Annie Phizacklea and Robert Miles, Labour and Racism (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1980), 14, quoted in Phizacklea, One Way Ticket, 5.
146. Parr, "Disaggregating the Sexual Division of Labour: A Transatlantic Case Study," Comparative Studies in Society and History, 30:3 (July 1988), 532; idem, The Gender of Breadwinnners; citing Jill Rubery, "Structured Labour Markets, Workers Organisation and Low Pay," in The Economics of Women and Work, Alice Arnusden, ed. (Hammondsworth, 1980).
147. Parr, "Disaggregating the Sexual Division of Labour: A Transatlantic Case Study," Comparative Studies in Society and History, 30:3 (July 1988), 532; idem, The Gender of Breadwinnners; citing Jill Rubery, "Structured Labour Markets, Workers Organisation and Low Pay," in The Economics of Women and Work, Alice Arnusden, ed. (Hammondsworth, 1980).
148. Parr, "Disaggregating the Sexual Division of Labour: A Transatlantic Case Study," Comparative Studies in Society and History, 30:3 (July 1988), 532; idem, The Gender of Breadwinnners; citing Jill Rubery, "Structured Labour Markets, Workers Organisation and Low Pay," in The Economics of Women and Work, Alice Arnusden, ed. (Hammondsworth, 1980).
149. With thanks to Beneria and Roldan for their title.