U.S. assistance to the former Soviet empire: Toward a rationale for foreign aid

Journal of Developing Areas

Volumn 30, Issue 4, 1996, Pages 493-524

  Zeuli, Kimberly A ^a   Ruttan, Vernon W ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

AID POLICY; SOVIET COLLAPSE; US AID;

EID: 0030390399     PISSN: 0022037X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article

References (170)

1. In the past, the magnitude of assistance flows reflected the intensity of the Cold War (Vernon W. Ruttan, United States Development Assistance Policy: The Domestic Politics of Foreign Economic Aid [Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996], pp. 253-332). If tensions between the Soviet Union and the United States were high, foreign aid increased. From the initial passage of the Mutual Security Act of 1957 three general objectives have been emphasized in foreign aid programs: "To protect nations threatened by communist or communist-inspired aggression; to encourage [friends] to grant military base and facility access rights to American forces; and to support countries with which the United States maintains a special political and security relationship"
2. (Larry Nowels, Economic Security Assistance as a Tool of American Foreign Policy [Washington, DC: National War College, 1987], p. 5.).
3. Curt Tarnoff and Larry Nowels, US Foreign Assistance: The Rationale, the Record and the Challenges in the Post-Cold War Era (Washington, DC: National Planning Association, 1994).
4. William Hyland, "The Case for Pragmatism," Foreign Affairs
5. [hereafter FA] 71, no. 1 (1991/92): 38-52.
6. Michael Mandelbaum, "The Bush Foreign Policy," FA 70, no. 1 (1990/91): 5-22.
7. Joseph Romm, Defining National Security (New York: Council on Foreign Relations, 1993).
8. Congressional Quarterly, January 14, 1995, p. 169.
9. Marshall Goldman, Lost Opportunity (New York: W.W. Norton, 1994), p. 3.
10. Richard Haass, "Paradigm Lost," FA 74 (January/February 1995): 45.
11. For an excellent discussion of this problem, see Haass, "Paradigm Lost," pp. 43-58.
12. See Zbigniew Brezezinski articles, including "A Plan for Europe," FA 74 (January/ February 1995);
13. and "Order, Disorder, and US Leadership," in US Security in an Uncertain Era, ed. Brad Roberts (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press).
14. Also, Andrei Kozyrev, "Partnership or Cold Peace?" Foreign Policy 99 (Summer 1995): 3-14.
15. For a discussion of the "new world disorder" see Harlan Cleveland, Birth of a New World Order: An Open Moment for International Leadership (San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, 1993).
16. Any future reference to U.S. foreign assistance or foreign aid means bilateral economic assistance unless otherwise noted.
17. Zoltan Barany, Soldiers and Politics in Eastern Europe: 1945-1990 (London: Macmillan, 1993).
18. Alexander Tomlinson, "Hungary's Ongoing Transition to a Free Market Economy," in The Former Soviet Republics and Eastern Europe: Struggling for Solutions, ed. Richard Belous and Sheila Cavanagh (Washington, DC: National Planning Association, 1993).
19. Alexander Tomlinson, The Former Soviet Republics and Eastern Europe: Struggling for Solutions, Ibid., p. 24.
20. Keith Lepak, Prelude to Solidarity: Poland and the Politics of the Gierek Regime (New York: Columbia University Press, 1988), p. 78.
21. Jeffrey Sachs and David Lipton, "Poland's Economic Reform," FA 69 (Summer 1990): 47-66.
22. Roger Kirk and Mircea Raceanu, Romania versus the United States (New York: St. Martin's, 1994), p. 1.
23. Joseph Harrington and Bruce Courtney, Tweaking the Nose of the Russians: Fifty Years of American-Romanian Relations: 1940-1990 (Boulder, CO: Eastern European Monographs, 1991), p. 605.
24. McGeorge Bundy, "From Cold War toward Trusting Peace," FA 69, no. 1 (1989/90): 208.
25. Mandelbaum, "Bush Foreign Policy," p. 5.
26. Mandelbaum, "Bush Foreign Policy," Ibid. p. 5.
27. Congressional Quarterly Almanac
28. [hereafter CQA], 1989, p. 505.
29. CQA, 1989, p. 505.
30. CQA, Ibid., p. 506.
31. CQA, Ibid., p. 507.
32. CQA, 1989, p. 503.
33. CQA, Ibid., p. 509.
34. CQA, Ibid. 509.
35. CQA, 1989, p. 510.
36. Initially the SEED program was set up to aid only Poland and Hungary. It was expanded to cover the rest of Eastern Europe in the Freedom Support Act in 1992.
37. The U.S. economic assistance programs in the former Soviet Union and Eastern Europe are now implemented by 12 U.S. government agencies including USAID, which manages the largest share of the programs.
38. U.S. Department of State, The SEED Act Implementation Report, FY 1992 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office [GPO], January 1993), p. 3.
39. David Gergen, "America's Missed Opportunities," FA 71, no. 1 (1991/92): 4.
40. CQA, 1990, p. 830.
41. CQA, Ibid.1990, p. 830.
42. Congressional Quarterly, June 22, 1991.
43. Congressional Quarterly, February 24, 1990, p. 609.
44. CQA, 1990, p. 204.
45. Irwin Stelzer, "A Marshall Plan for Eastern Europe?" Commentary, January 1990, pp. 17-22;
46. Nicholas Eberstadt, "How Not to Aid Eastern Europe," Commentary, November 1991, pp. 24-30;
47. Stephen Entin, "Aid to East Bloc - a Taxing Question," Wall Street Journal, 5 September 1991.
48. Stelzer, "Marshall Plan for Eastern Europe," p. 22.
49. Entin, "Aid to East Bloc."
50. CQA, 1991, p. 470.
51. The bill became embroiled in an administrative dispute with Israel over loan guarantees.
52. The EBRD commitment to the CEECs in FY 1991 totaled $70 million (U.S. Department of State, SEED Act Implementation Report, FY 1992).
53. Strobe Talbott, "Post-Victory Blues," FA 71, no. 1 (1991/92): 53-69;
54. Hyland, "Case for Pragmatism."
55. Gergen, "America's Missed Opportunities," p. 17.
56. Hyland, "Case for Pragmatism."
57. "Bad Times for Foreign Aid," US News and World Report, 9 September 1991, p. 11.
58. "Bad Times for Foreign Aid ," US News and World Report, Ibid. 1991, p. 11.
59. Congressional Quarterly, May 16, 1992, p. 1351.
60. CQA, 1992, p. 609.
61. The EBRD Commitment to the CEECs in FY 1992 increased to $1,426 million (U.S. Department of State, SEED Act Implementation Report, FY 1992). During 1991 and 1992, Poland was the largest recipient of bank financing, followed by Romania and Hungary.
62. CQA, 1992, p. 609.
63. U.S. Department of State, SEED Act Implementation Report, FY 1992, p. 1.
64. U.S. Department of State, SEED Act Implementation Report, FY 1992, p. 3.
65. CQA, 1993, p. 612.
66. U.S. Department of State, The SEED Act Implementation Report. FY 1993 (Washington, DC: GPO, January 1994), p. 1.
67. CQA, 1993, p. 405.
68. James Silberman, Charles Weiss, Jr., and Mark Dutz, "Jump-Starting Ex-Communist Economies," FA 73 (January/February 1994): 21.
69. U.S. Department of State, The SEED Act Implementation Report, FY 1994 (Washington, DC: GPO, January 1995), p. 2.
70. The SEED Act Implementation Report, FY 1994 ( Ibid. 1995), p. 2.
71. U.S. Department of State, SEED Act Implementation Report, FY 1994.
72. CQA, 1989, p. 503.
73. Arnold Horelick, "U.S.-Soviet Relations: Threshold of a New Era," FA 69, no. 1 (1989/ 90): 58.
74. CQA, 1989, p. 477.
75. Jeane Kirkpatrick, "Beyond the Cold War," FA 69, no. 1 (1989/90): 1-16.
76. Richard Nixon, "American Foreign Policy: The Bush Agenda," FA 68, no. 1 (1988/89): 200.
77. For an excellent discussion regarding Nixon's role in foreign policy, see Marvin Kalb, The Nixon Memo (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1994).
78. This sentiment was shared by Frank Gaffney, Jr. (CQA, 1989, p. 479).
79. Nixon, "American Foreign Policy," p. 204.
80. CQA, 1989, p. 479.
81. Valery d'Estaing, Yasuhiro Nakasone, and Henry Kissinger, "East-West Relations," FA 68 (Summer 1988/89): 1-21.
82. Valery d'Estaing, Yasuhiro Nakasone, and Henry Kissinger, "East-West Relations ," FA Ibid., p. 2.
83. Foreign Policy Bulletin, November/December 1990, p. 17.
84. Foreign Policy Bulletin, May/June 1991, p. 53.
85. Curt Tarnoff, U.S. and International Assistance to the Former Soviet Union, CRS Issue Brief (Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service, 24 March 1994).
86. CQA, 1990, p. 204.
87. CQA, 1990, p. 758.
88. CQA, Ibid., p. 759.
89. CQA, Ibid. p. 759.
90. Stelzer, "Marshall Plan for Eastern Europe," p. 22.
91. CQA, 1991, p. 464.
92. CQA, 1992, p. 524.
93. Foreign Policy Bulletin, May/June 1991, p. 56.
94. Steven Roberts, "But Will It Play in Peoria - or on Capitol Hill?" US News and World Report, 1 July 1991, p. 38;
95. and CQA, 1991, p. 464.
96. CQA, 1991, p. 464.
97. House Committee on Armed Services, The Grand Bargain - Should the West Bankroll the Soviet Transformation to a Free Market Economy?: The Hearings before the Defense Policy Panel, 102d Cong., 1st sess., 30 July-1 August 1991.
98. Graham Allison and Robert Blackwill, "America's Stake in the Soviet Future," FA 70 (Summer 1991): 77-97.
99. CQA, 1991, p. 465.
100. CQA, Ibid. 1991, p. 465.
101. CQA, 1991, p. 465.
102. House, Preventing Chaos in the Former Soviet Union: The Debate on Providing Aid, Report, 102d Cong., 2d sess., 17 January 1991 (Y4.AR 5/2: So 814).
103. CQA, 1991, p. 465.
104. Mortimer Zuckerman, "How to Help the Russians," US News and World Report, 23 December 1991, p. 72;
105. Washington Post, 11 September 1991.
106. House, Preventing Chaos in the Former Soviet Union, p. 1.
107. Sam Nunn and Richard Lugar, "Dismantling the Soviet Arsenal," Washington Post, 22 November 1991.
108. Congressional Quarterly, June 22, 1991, p. 1680.
109. Congressional Quarterly, September 7, 1991, p. 2567.
110. Goldman, Lost Opportunity, p. 78.
111. Marin Malia, "Yeltsin and Us," Commentary, April 1992, pp. 21-28.
112. Carla Robbins, "A Slow Start for Russian Aid," US News and World Report, 17 February 1992, p. 37;
113. and, "The President's News Conference on Aid to the NIS," Weekly Compilation of Presidential Documents, 6 April 1992, p. 566.
114. CQA, 1992, p. 521;
115. also see Hyland, "Case for Pragmatism."
116. See Hyland, "Case for Pragmatism";
117. Richard Pipes, "Russia's Chance," Commentary, March 1992, pp. 28-33;
118. Malia, "Yeltsin and Us."
119. Excerpt from the Nixon memo, Facts on File, 2 April 1992, p. 221.
120. Richard Nixon, Seize the Moment: America's Challenge in a One-Superpower World (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1992).
121. Hyland, "Case for Pragmatism," p. 48.
122. Malia, "Yeltsin and Us."
123. John Edwin Mroz, "Russia and Eastern Europe: Will the West Let Them Fail?" FA 72, no. 1 (1992/93): 44-57.
124. Curt Tarnoff, The Former Soviet Union and US Foreign Assistance in 1992: The Role of Congress, A CRS Report for Congress (Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service, 12 October 1993), p. 1.
125. Tarnoff, Former Soviet Union, p. 1.
126. CQA, 1992, p. 521.
127. Tarnoff, Former Soviet Union.
128. CQA, 1992, p. 523.
129. CQA, 1992, p. 523.
130. CQA, Ibid. 1992, p. 523.
131. George Weigel, "Creeping Talbottism," Commentary, March 1994, pp. 36-45.
132. Foreign Policy Bulletin, November/December 1994, p. 61.
133. See Weigel, "Creeping Talbottism"; and Charles Flickner, "The Russian Aid Mess," National Interest, Winter 1994/95.
134. "Testimony of Strobe Talbott before the House Foreign Affairs Committee, January 25, 1994," Foreign Policy Bulletin, January-April 1994, pp. 38-42.
135. Curt Tarnoff, U.S. and International Assistance to the Former Soviet Union, A CRS Issue Brief (Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service, 1 December 1994).
136. Curt Tarnoff, U.S. and International Assistance to the Former Soviet Union, Ibid. 1994).
137. Almost all of the $1.8 billion proposal was funded through an FY 1993 supplemental attached to the FY 1994 foreign aid bill; Tarnoff, U.S. and International Assistance (1 December 1994).
138. CQA, 1993, p. 509.
139. CQA, 1993, p. 509.
140. CQA, Ibid. 1993, p. 509.
141. CQA, Ibid. 1993, p. 509.
142. CQA, 1993, p. 509.
143. CQA, Ibid. 1993, p. 509.
144. CQA, 1994, p. 467.
145. Tarnoff, U.S. and International Assistance (1 December 1994).
146. U.S. Department of State, US Assistance and Related Programs for the NIS of the former Soviet Union: 1994 Annual Report (Washington, DC: GPO, January 1995), p. 5.
147. "Aid to Former Soviet Union Called Mismanaged," Time, 10 January 1994, p. 11.
148. CQA, 1994, p. 466.
149. Tarnoff, U.S. and International Assistance (1 December 1994).
150. Tarnoff, U.S. and International Assistance Ibid. 1994).
151. Flickner, "Russian Aid Mess."
152. Tarnoff, U.S. and International Assistance (1 December 1994).
153. U.S. Department of State, US Assistance and Related Programs for the NIS.
154. Tarnoff, U.S. and International Assistance (1 December 1994).
155. Tarnoff, U.S. and International Assistance Ibid. 1994).
156. Congressional Quarterly, 11 February 1995, p. 423.
157. Weigel, "Creeping Talbottism," p. 36.
158. Michael McFaul, "Why Russia's Politics Matter," FA 74 (January/February 1995): 89.
159. Michael McFaul, " FA Ibid., p. 99.
160. Congressional Quarterly, March 4, 1995, p. 698.
161. Congressional Quarterly, Ibid. 1995, p. 698.
162. Congressional Quarterly, January 6, 1996, p. 13.
163. Congressional Quarterly, February 11, 1995, p. 423.
164. Steven Kull, "What the Public Knows that Washington Doesn't,"Foreign Policy (Winter 1995/96): 102-15.
165. Robert A. Packenham, Liberal America and the Third World: Political Development Ideas in Foreign Aid and Social Sciences (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1973), p. 25.
166. John Sewell, "Foreign Aid for a New World Order," in U.S. Foreign Policy after the Cold War, ed. Brad Roberts (Cambridge, MA: MIT, 1992), p. 182;
167. see also Ruttan, United States Development Assistance Policy, pp. 472-91.
168. "Aid: Back to the Drawing Board," Washington Post, 1 April 1993, A-22.
169. "A Face Lift for Foreign Aid," Washington Post, 18 February 1994, A-24.
170. Michael Mandelbaum, "Foreign Policy as Social Work," FA 75 (January/February 1996): 16-32.