Cooperation and polarisation beyond borders: The transnationalisation of Mexican environmental issues during the NAFTA negotiations

Third World Quarterly

Volumn 17, Issue 5, 1996, Pages 989-1006

  Hogenboom, Barbara ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF AMSTERDAM   (Netherlands)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

DEVELOPING COUNTRY; ENVIRONMENTAL NGOS; ENVIRONMENTAL POLITICS; INTERNATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT; NAFTA; NORTH AMERICAN FREE TRADE AGREEMENT; POLITICAL COOPERATION; TRANSNATIONAL RELATIONS;

MEXICO;

EID: 0030389892     PISSN: 01436597     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/01436599615227     Document Type: Article

References (50)

1. Jolle Demmers & Barbara Hogenboom, Popular Organization and Party Dominance, The Political Role of Environmental NGOS in Mexico, University of Amsterdam, masters thesis, 1992, pp 65-72.
2. Other scholars have described them as 'moderate' and Opposing' groups (Sofía Gallardo, 'El debate sobre el acuerdo de cooperación ambiental', Estados Unidos: Informe Trimestral, winter 1993, pp 34-38) or as 'accommodating' (or 'cooperating') and 'radical' groups (John J Audley, 'What environmentalists got in NAFTA; environmental participation in trade policy', paper presented at the 36th annual International Studies Association Conference, 21 February 1995). However, these designations are somewhat problematic. Critical groups did not completely oppose a free trade agreement - they did not agree with the governmental proposals. Their ideas were more radical, but their political behaviour could not be deemed as such. As for calling moderate groups accommodating, this seems to give them too little credit as independent political actors. Naming them cooperating is also somewhat mystifying - cooperating with whom for instance?
3. Guy Poitras & Raymond Robinson, 'The politics of NAFTA in Mexico.' Journal of InterAmerican Studies and World Affairs, Vol 36, No 1, 1994, p 25.
4. Predominantly these were Bioconservación, Comité Civico de Divulgación Ecológica, Enlace Ecológico and Proyecto Fronterizo de Educación Ambiental.
5. These ENGOS and universities were all members of the binational Red Fronteriza de Salud y Ambiente.
6. Regina Barba Pírez, 'La unión de grupos ambientalistas en el proceso de negociación del Tratado de Libre Comercio', Frontera None, Vol 5, No 10, 1993, pp 121-122.
7. Ibid p 121.
8. Ibid p 123.
9. Ibid pp 131-132.
10. The history of the Mexican environmental movement is characterised by internal conflicts and distrust in the context of a threat of negative state interference. Demmers & Hogenboom, Popular Organization and Party Dominance.
11. On the coalition of NAFTA proponents and their position on environmental agreements, see Barbara Hogenboom, 'NAFTA and the neoliberal discourse on Mexico's environmental policy', paper prepared for delivery at the 36th annual convention of the International Studies Association, Chicago, IL, 21-25 February 1995. Forthcoming in Journal of Environment and Development.
12. 12 Poitras & Robinson, 'The politics of NAFTA in Mexico', pp 21-26.
13. Critical organisations sometimes referred to them as the 'corporate seven'. Defenders of Wildlife left the group in the Summer of 1992. The NRDC was the most critical of the moderate organisations.
14. David Barkin & Stephen Mumme, 'US environmental NGOS in Mexico: their orientation, structure and impact', paper prepared for the ISA conference in Acapulco, Mexico, March 1992.
15. Texas Center for Policy Studies, Overview of environmental issues associated with maquiladora development along the Texas:Mexico border', October 1990; and Mary E Kelly & Dick Kamp, Mexico-US Free Trade Negotiations and the Environment: Exploring the Issues, Texas Center for Policy Studies and Border Ecology Project, discussion paper, research by Jan Rich, January 1991.
16. Texas Center for Policy Studies, Overview of environmental issues associated with maquiladora development along the Texas:Mexico border', October 1990; and Mary E Kelly & Dick Kamp, Mexico-US Free Trade Negotiations and the Environment: Exploring the Issues, Texas Center for Policy Studies and Border Ecology Project, discussion paper, research by Jan Rich, January 1991.
17. ; Geoffrey Land, 'North American Free Trade and the environment: border environmental groups and the NAFTA', Frontera Norte, Vol 5, No 10, 1993, pp 99-115.
18. Ibid pp 103-104.
19. Like RMALC, ART and CTC, its membership consists of unions, development organisations and other NGOS. Ferretti is now the Canadian director of MAFTA's North American Commission for Environmental Cooperation.
20. This was initiated by the Texas Center for Policy Studies.
21. Barkin & Mumme, 'US environmental NGOS in Mexico', pp 16-23.
22. Edith Kürzinger et al., Umweltpolitik in Mexiko: Die Rolle der Nicht-Regierungs-Organisationen, Berlin: Deutsches Institut für Entwicklungspolitik, 1990, p 120.
23. Maria Lorena Cook, 'Regional integration and transnational politics: the North American Free Trade agreement and popular sector strategies in Mexico', paper presented at the International Congress of the Latin American Studies Association, Atlanta, GA, 10-12 March 1994, p 28.
24. Barkin & Mumme, 'US environmental NGOS in Mexico', pp 20-21. The fact that few US ENGOS have established structural programmes for cooperation with Mexican groups, supports the idea that US cooperation with NGOS in Mexico arose mainly from NAFTA threats and was largely politically motivated. Mary Kelly, 'Cross-border NGO relations in the environmental arena', Enfoque (Center for US-Mexican studies, University of California, San Diego) Spring, 1993, pp 5, 10.
25. Barkin & Mumme, 'US environmental NGOS in Mexico', pp 20-21. The fact that few US ENGOS have established structural programmes for cooperation with Mexican groups, supports the idea that US cooperation with NGOS in Mexico arose mainly from NAFTA threats and was largely politically motivated. Mary Kelly, 'Cross-border NGO relations in the environmental arena', Enfoque (Center for US-Mexican studies, University of California, San Diego) Spring, 1993, pp 5, 10.
26. Next to the contributions of members, private funding forms a source of income for US ENGOS. Some moderate organisations in the USA are also supported by the private sector. In Canada, governmental subsidies are common for both moderate and critical groups. ENGOS in Mexico cannot count on structural resources and mainly depend on incidental support and the goodwill of active members who do not claim expenses.
27. Kathryn Sikkink, 'Human rights, principled issue-networks, and sovereignty in Latin America', International Organization, Vol 47, No 3, 1993, p 440.
28. 28 The main transnational events at this early stage were the 'Canada-Mexico Encuentro' in October 1990 in Mexico and the trinational public forum in January 1991 on Capitol Hill. At these meetings representatives of a variety of groups met and environmental protection was one of the issues of debate.
29. ENGO publications used for this analysis are: Homero Arídjis, 'Mexico's environmental movement and its influence on the NAFTA negotiations', 1993; Kelly & Kamp, Mexico-US Free Trade Negotiations and the Environment: Michael McClosky, chairman of Sierra Club, testimony to the Senate Committee on Foreign Relations, 22 March, 1991, on the Mexican Free Trade Negotiations; and Environmental concerns related to a United States-Mexico-Canada Free Trade Agreement, 6 February 91, endorsed by 10 US NGOS and one Canadian environmental organisation. In addition, the overview is based on the following studies: Barkin & Mumme, US Environmental NGOS in Mexico, pp 16-23; Gallardo, 'What environmentalists got in NAFTA'; Sophia Gallardo, 'Diferencias y posiciones en el movimiento ambientalista frente al Tratado de Libre Comercio de América del None', paper for LASA conference, 9-12 March 1994; Jan Gilbreath & John Benjamin Tonra, The environment: unwelcome guest at the free trade party', in M Delal Baer & Sidney Weintraub (eds), The NAFTA Debate. Grappling with Unconventional Trade Issues, Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner pp 80-86; Michael Gregory, 'Environment, sustainable development, public participation and the NAFTA: a retrospective', prepublication copy, scheduled to appear in Journal of Environmental Law and Litigation, Summer 1992; and Carlos Heredia Zubieta, 'Las organizaciones no gubernamentales y el medio ambiente ante el Tratado de Libre Comercio', paper presented to the Round Table 'El Tratado de Libre Comercio y el Medio Ambiente', UNAM, Mexico City 3 March 1991.
30. ENGO publications used for this analysis are: Homero Arídjis, 'Mexico's environmental movement and its influence on the NAFTA negotiations', 1993; Kelly & Kamp, Mexico-US Free Trade Negotiations and the Environment: Michael McClosky, chairman of Sierra Club, testimony to the Senate Committee on Foreign Relations, 22 March, 1991, on the Mexican Free Trade Negotiations; and Environmental concerns related to a United States-Mexico-Canada Free Trade Agreement, 6 February 91, endorsed by 10 US NGOS and one Canadian environmental organisation. In addition, the overview is based on the following studies: Barkin & Mumme, US Environmental NGOS in Mexico, pp 16-23; Gallardo, 'What environmentalists got in NAFTA'; Sophia Gallardo, 'Diferencias y posiciones en el movimiento ambientalista frente al Tratado de Libre Comercio de América del None', paper for LASA conference, 9-12 March 1994; Jan Gilbreath & John Benjamin Tonra, The environment: unwelcome guest at the free trade party', in M Delal Baer & Sidney Weintraub (eds), The NAFTA Debate. Grappling with Unconventional Trade Issues, Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner pp 80-86; Michael Gregory, 'Environment, sustainable development, public participation and the NAFTA: a retrospective', prepublication copy, scheduled to appear in Journal of Environmental Law and Litigation, Summer 1992; and Carlos Heredia Zubieta, 'Las organizaciones no gubernamentales y el medio ambiente ante el Tratado de Libre Comercio', paper presented to the Round Table 'El Tratado de Libre Comercio y el Medio Ambiente', UNAM, Mexico City 3 March 1991.
31. ENGO publications used for this analysis are: Homero Arídjis, 'Mexico's environmental movement and its influence on the NAFTA negotiations', 1993; Kelly & Kamp, Mexico-US Free Trade Negotiations and the Environment: Michael McClosky, chairman of Sierra Club, testimony to the Senate Committee on Foreign Relations, 22 March, 1991, on the Mexican Free Trade Negotiations; and Environmental concerns related to a United States-Mexico-Canada Free Trade Agreement, 6 February 91, endorsed by 10 US NGOS and one Canadian environmental organisation. In addition, the overview is based on the following studies: Barkin & Mumme, US Environmental NGOS in Mexico, pp 16-23; Gallardo, 'What environmentalists got in NAFTA'; Sophia Gallardo, 'Diferencias y posiciones en el movimiento ambientalista frente al Tratado de Libre Comercio de América del None', paper for LASA conference, 9-12 March 1994; Jan Gilbreath & John Benjamin Tonra, The environment: unwelcome guest at the free trade party', in M Delal Baer & Sidney Weintraub (eds), The NAFTA Debate. Grappling with Unconventional Trade Issues, Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner pp 80-86; Michael Gregory, 'Environment, sustainable development, public participation and the NAFTA: a retrospective', prepublication copy, scheduled to appear in Journal of Environmental Law and Litigation, Summer 1992; and Carlos Heredia Zubieta, 'Las organizaciones no gubernamentales y el medio ambiente ante el Tratado de Libre Comercio', paper presented to the Round Table 'El Tratado de Libre Comercio y el Medio Ambiente', UNAM, Mexico City 3 March 1991.
32. ENGO publications used for this analysis are: Homero Arídjis, 'Mexico's environmental movement and its influence on the NAFTA negotiations', 1993; Kelly & Kamp, Mexico-US Free Trade Negotiations and the Environment: Michael McClosky, chairman of Sierra Club, testimony to the Senate Committee on Foreign Relations, 22 March, 1991, on the Mexican Free Trade Negotiations; and Environmental concerns related to a United States-Mexico-Canada Free Trade Agreement, 6 February 91, endorsed by 10 US NGOS and one Canadian environmental organisation. In addition, the overview is based on the following studies: Barkin & Mumme, US Environmental NGOS in Mexico, pp 16-23; Gallardo, 'What environmentalists got in NAFTA'; Sophia Gallardo, 'Diferencias y posiciones en el movimiento ambientalista frente al Tratado de Libre Comercio de América del None', paper for LASA conference, 9-12 March 1994; Jan Gilbreath & John Benjamin Tonra, The environment: unwelcome guest at the free trade party', in M Delal Baer & Sidney Weintraub (eds), The NAFTA Debate. Grappling with Unconventional Trade Issues, Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner pp 80-86; Michael Gregory, 'Environment, sustainable development, public participation and the NAFTA: a retrospective', prepublication copy, scheduled to appear in Journal of Environmental Law and Litigation, Summer 1992; and Carlos Heredia Zubieta, 'Las organizaciones no gubernamentales y el medio ambiente ante el Tratado de Libre Comercio', paper presented to the Round Table 'El Tratado de Libre Comercio y el Medio Ambiente', UNAM, Mexico City 3 March 1991.
33. ENGO publications used for this analysis are: Homero Arídjis, 'Mexico's environmental movement and its influence on the NAFTA negotiations', 1993; Kelly & Kamp, Mexico-US Free Trade Negotiations and the Environment: Michael McClosky, chairman of Sierra Club, testimony to the Senate Committee on Foreign Relations, 22 March, 1991, on the Mexican Free Trade Negotiations; and Environmental concerns related to a United States-Mexico-Canada Free Trade Agreement, 6 February 91, endorsed by 10 US NGOS and one Canadian environmental organisation. In addition, the overview is based on the following studies: Barkin & Mumme, US Environmental NGOS in Mexico, pp 16-23; Gallardo, 'What environmentalists got in NAFTA'; Sophia Gallardo, 'Diferencias y posiciones en el movimiento ambientalista frente al Tratado de Libre Comercio de América del None', paper for LASA conference, 9-12 March 1994; Jan Gilbreath & John Benjamin Tonra, The environment: unwelcome guest at the free trade party', in M Delal Baer & Sidney Weintraub (eds), The NAFTA Debate. Grappling with Unconventional Trade Issues, Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner pp 80-86; Michael Gregory, 'Environment, sustainable development, public participation and the NAFTA: a retrospective', prepublication copy, scheduled to appear in Journal of Environmental Law and Litigation, Summer 1992; and Carlos Heredia Zubieta, 'Las organizaciones no gubernamentales y el medio ambiente ante el Tratado de Libre Comercio', paper presented to the Round Table 'El Tratado de Libre Comercio y el Medio Ambiente', UNAM, Mexico City 3 March 1991.
34. ENGO publications used for this analysis are: Homero Arídjis, 'Mexico's environmental movement and its influence on the NAFTA negotiations', 1993; Kelly & Kamp, Mexico-US Free Trade Negotiations and the Environment: Michael McClosky, chairman of Sierra Club, testimony to the Senate Committee on Foreign Relations, 22 March, 1991, on the Mexican Free Trade Negotiations; and Environmental concerns related to a United States-Mexico-Canada Free Trade Agreement, 6 February 91, endorsed by 10 US NGOS and one Canadian environmental organisation. In addition, the overview is based on the following studies: Barkin & Mumme, US Environmental NGOS in Mexico, pp 16-23; Gallardo, 'What environmentalists got in NAFTA'; Sophia Gallardo, 'Diferencias y posiciones en el movimiento ambientalista frente al Tratado de Libre Comercio de América del None', paper for LASA conference, 9-12 March 1994; Jan Gilbreath & John Benjamin Tonra, The environment: unwelcome guest at the free trade party', in M Delal Baer & Sidney Weintraub (eds), The NAFTA Debate. Grappling with Unconventional Trade Issues, Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner pp 80-86; Michael Gregory, 'Environment, sustainable development, public participation and the NAFTA: a retrospective', prepublication copy, scheduled to appear in Journal of Environmental Law and Litigation, Summer 1992; and Carlos Heredia Zubieta, 'Las organizaciones no gubernamentales y el medio ambiente ante el Tratado de Libre Comercio', paper presented to the Round Table 'El Tratado de Libre Comercio y el Medio Ambiente', UNAM, Mexico City 3 March 1991.
35. ENGO publications used for this analysis are: Homero Arídjis, 'Mexico's environmental movement and its influence on the NAFTA negotiations', 1993; Kelly & Kamp, Mexico-US Free Trade Negotiations and the Environment: Michael McClosky, chairman of Sierra Club, testimony to the Senate Committee on Foreign Relations, 22 March, 1991, on the Mexican Free Trade Negotiations; and Environmental concerns related to a United States-Mexico-Canada Free Trade Agreement, 6 February 91, endorsed by 10 US NGOS and one Canadian environmental organisation. In addition, the overview is based on the following studies: Barkin & Mumme, US Environmental NGOS in Mexico, pp 16-23; Gallardo, 'What environmentalists got in NAFTA'; Sophia Gallardo, 'Diferencias y posiciones en el movimiento ambientalista frente al Tratado de Libre Comercio de América del None', paper for LASA conference, 9-12 March 1994; Jan Gilbreath & John Benjamin Tonra, The environment: unwelcome guest at the free trade party', in M Delal Baer & Sidney Weintraub (eds), The NAFTA Debate. Grappling with Unconventional Trade Issues, Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner pp 80-86; Michael Gregory, 'Environment, sustainable development, public participation and the NAFTA: a retrospective', prepublication copy, scheduled to appear in Journal of Environmental Law and Litigation, Summer 1992; and Carlos Heredia Zubieta, 'Las organizaciones no gubernamentales y el medio ambiente ante el Tratado de Libre Comercio', paper presented to the Round Table 'El Tratado de Libre Comercio y el Medio Ambiente', UNAM, Mexico City 3 March 1991.
36. ENGO publications used for this analysis are: Homero Arídjis, 'Mexico's environmental movement and its influence on the NAFTA negotiations', 1993; Kelly & Kamp, Mexico-US Free Trade Negotiations and the Environment: Michael McClosky, chairman of Sierra Club, testimony to the Senate Committee on Foreign Relations, 22 March, 1991, on the Mexican Free Trade Negotiations; and Environmental concerns related to a United States-Mexico-Canada Free Trade Agreement, 6 February 91, endorsed by 10 US NGOS and one Canadian environmental organisation. In addition, the overview is based on the following studies: Barkin & Mumme, US Environmental NGOS in Mexico, pp 16-23; Gallardo, 'What environmentalists got in NAFTA'; Sophia Gallardo, 'Diferencias y posiciones en el movimiento ambientalista frente al Tratado de Libre Comercio de América del None', paper for LASA conference, 9-12 March 1994; Jan Gilbreath & John Benjamin Tonra, The environment: unwelcome guest at the free trade party', in M Delal Baer & Sidney Weintraub (eds), The NAFTA Debate. Grappling with Unconventional Trade Issues, Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner pp 80-86; Michael Gregory, 'Environment, sustainable development, public participation and the NAFTA: a retrospective', prepublication copy, scheduled to appear in Journal of Environmental Law and Litigation, Summer 1992; and Carlos Heredia Zubieta, 'Las organizaciones no gubernamentales y el medio ambiente ante el Tratado de Libre Comercio', paper presented to the Round Table 'El Tratado de Libre Comercio y el Medio Ambiente', UNAM, Mexico City 3 March 1991.
37. ENGO publications used for this analysis are: Homero Arídjis, 'Mexico's environmental movement and its influence on the NAFTA negotiations', 1993; Kelly & Kamp, Mexico-US Free Trade Negotiations and the Environment: Michael McClosky, chairman of Sierra Club, testimony to the Senate Committee on Foreign Relations, 22 March, 1991, on the Mexican Free Trade Negotiations; and Environmental concerns related to a United States-Mexico-Canada Free Trade Agreement, 6 February 91, endorsed by 10 US NGOS and one Canadian environmental organisation. In addition, the overview is based on the following studies: Barkin & Mumme, US Environmental NGOS in Mexico, pp 16-23; Gallardo, 'What environmentalists got in NAFTA'; Sophia Gallardo, 'Diferencias y posiciones en el movimiento ambientalista frente al Tratado de Libre Comercio de América del None', paper for LASA conference, 9-12 March 1994; Jan Gilbreath & John Benjamin Tonra, The environment: unwelcome guest at the free trade party', in M Delal Baer & Sidney Weintraub (eds), The NAFTA Debate. Grappling with Unconventional Trade Issues, Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner pp 80-86; Michael Gregory, 'Environment, sustainable development, public participation and the NAFTA: a retrospective', prepublication copy, scheduled to appear in Journal of Environmental Law and Litigation, Summer 1992; and Carlos Heredia Zubieta, 'Las organizaciones no gubernamentales y el medio ambiente ante el Tratado de Libre Comercio', paper presented to the Round Table 'El Tratado de Libre Comercio y el Medio Ambiente', UNAM, Mexico City 3 March 1991.
38. It turned out that 'included' can mean many things.
39. Cathryn L Thorup 'The politics of free trade and the dynamics of cross-border coalitions in the US-Mexican relations', Columbia Journal of World Business, Vol XXVI, No II, 1991, pp 19-23.
40. Bush transmitted the Response of the Administration to Issues Raised in Connection with the Negotiation of a North American Free Trade Agreement to Congress in an attempt to obtain enough support for an extension of the Fast Track authority. This authority provides the government with greater freedom vis-à-vis Congress in trade negotiations since Congress gives up its right to amend the outcome of the negotiations and can only accept or refuse it. Earlier on Congress had approved Fast Track authority for GATT negotiations, but as the authority was to expire Bush needed an extension for both the GATT and NAFTA negotiations.
41. The document announced that USTR was to coordinate an interagency review of US-Mexico environmental issues and that the USA would negotiate NAFTA with the principle of maintaining its environmental laws, regulations and standards. In addition, during negotiations the USA would stand for the inclusion of trade limits set under certain international environmental treaties, the right to prohibit the entry of goods which do not meet US environmental regulations, and cooperation with Mexico to enhance and enforce environmental standards.
42. 34 Barkin & Mumme, 'US environmental NGOS in Mexico', pp 21-22.
43. Representatives of the National Audubon Society, NRDC, NWF, WWF and the Nature Conservancy were invited by USTR. These were the same large organisations that, together with EDF, had started to support the trade initiative within days of the presentation of Bush's commitments.
44. Laura Macdonald, 'Globalising civil society: interpreting international NGOS in Central America', Millenium: Journal of International Studies, Vol 23, No 2, 1994, pp 267-285.
45. Ibid, pp 272-277, 283-285.
46. This was perceived by some moderate groups as staying at the margin.
47. Thorup 'The politics of free trade', p 22.
48. Alliance for Responsible Trade, Citizens Trade Campaign & The Mexican Action Network on Free Trade (also endorsed by the Action Canada Network), 'A just and sustainable trade and development initiative for North America' 1993.
49. 41 Audley, 'What environmentalists got in NAFTA', pp 21-22.
50. Barbara Hogenboom, 'Mexican environmental policy and NAFTA. an analysis of the transnationalization of politics and policy', paper prepared for delivery at the 35th annual convention of the International Studies Association, Washington, DC, 28 March-1 April 1994, pp 42-46.