Where is the third wave? A critical evaluation of Africa's non-transition to democracy

Africa Today

Volumn 43, Issue 4, 1996, Pages 343-368

  Ihonvbere, Julius O ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 0030353013     PISSN: 00019887     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Review

References (86)

1. Rene Lemarchand, "Four Models for Resolving Ethnic Conflicts: How Can Democratic Institutions Be Strengthened Where Conflict Threatens Their Survival?" African Voices 4, no. 2 (Summer 1995), p. 1. See also his "African Transitions to Democracy: An Interim (and Mostly Pessimistic) Assessment," Africa Insight 22, no. 3 (1992), pp. 178-185.
2. Rene Lemarchand, "Four Models for Resolving Ethnic Conflicts: How Can Democratic Institutions Be Strengthened Where Conflict Threatens Their Survival?" African Voices 4, no. 2 (Summer 1995), p. 1. See also his "African Transitions to Democracy: An Interim (and Mostly Pessimistic) Assessment," Africa Insight 22, no. 3 (1992), pp. 178-185.
3. Georges Nzongola-Ntalaja, "Democratic Transitions in Africa," Newsletter of the African Association of Political Science (New Series No. 9) (June-September 1995), p. 2.
4. See Claude Ake, "Is Africa Democratizing?" 1993 Annual Guardian Lecture, Lagos, 11 December 1993; "As Africa Democratises," Africa Forum 1, no. 2 (1991), pp. 13-16; and "Rethinking African Democracy," Journal of Democracy 2, no. 1 (1991), pp. 32-44.
5. See Claude Ake, "Is Africa Democratizing?" 1993 Annual Guardian Lecture, Lagos, 11 December 1993; "As Africa Democratises," Africa Forum 1, no. 2 (1991), pp. 13-16; and "Rethinking African Democracy," Journal of Democracy 2, no. 1 (1991), pp. 32-44.
6. See Claude Ake, "Is Africa Democratizing?" 1993 Annual Guardian Lecture, Lagos, 11 December 1993; "As Africa Democratises," Africa Forum 1, no. 2 (1991), pp. 13-16; and "Rethinking African Democracy," Journal of Democracy 2, no. 1 (1991), pp. 32-44.
7. Nzongola-Ntalaja, "Democratic Transitions in Africa," p. 1.
8. For details see "Africa's Democracy Movement: Suppose They Gave a Revolution and Everybody Came," Africa News 35, nos. 11-12 (23 December 1991-6 January 1992); Naomi Chazan, "Africa's Democratic Challenge," World Policy Journal 9, no. 2 (Spring 1992), pp. 279-307); and Richard Joseph, "Africa: The Rebirth of Political Freedom," Journal of Democracy 1, no. 4 (Fall 1991), pp. 32-44.
9. For details see "Africa's Democracy Movement: Suppose They Gave a Revolution and Everybody Came," Africa News 35, nos. 11-12 (23 December 1991-6 January 1992); Naomi Chazan, "Africa's Democratic Challenge," World Policy Journal 9, no. 2 (Spring 1992), pp. 279-307); and Richard Joseph, "Africa: The Rebirth of Political Freedom," Journal of Democracy 1, no. 4 (Fall 1991), pp. 32-44.
10. For details see "Africa's Democracy Movement: Suppose They Gave a Revolution and Everybody Came," Africa News 35, nos. 11-12 (23 December 1991-6 January 1992); Naomi Chazan, "Africa's Democratic Challenge," World Policy Journal 9, no. 2 (Spring 1992), pp. 279-307); and Richard Joseph, "Africa: The Rebirth of Political Freedom," Journal of Democracy 1, no. 4 (Fall 1991), pp. 32-44.
11. For some details on the liberalization (often erroneously called "democratization") processes, see Carol Lancaster, "Democratization in Sub-Saharan Africa," Survival 35, no. 3 (1993), pp. 38-50; and Christopher Clapham, "Democratization in Africa: Obstacles and Prospects," Third World Quarterly 14, no. 3 (1993).
12. For some details on the liberalization (often erroneously called "democratization") processes, see Carol Lancaster, "Democratization in Sub-Saharan Africa," Survival 35, no. 3 (1993), pp. 38-50; and Christopher Clapham, "Democratization in Africa: Obstacles and Prospects," Third World Quarterly 14, no. 3 (1993).
13. For a discussion of these strategies, see Claude Ake, Revolutionary Pressures in Africa (London: Zed Books, 1978).
14. Samuel Huntington refers to this as "authoritarian nostalgia." See his The Third Wave: Democratization in the Late Twentieth Century (Norman: Oklahoma University Press, 1992).
15. For the lamentations of an early nationalist, see Oginga Odinga, Not Yet Uhuru (London: Heinemann, 1967). For an intellectual analysis of the failure of the inherited democratic experiments, see the contributions to Walter O. Oyugi, E. S. Ateino Odhiambo, Michael Chege, and Afrifa K. Gitonga, eds., Democratic Theory and Practice in Africa (Portsmouth, N.H., and London: Heinemann and James Currey, 1988).
16. For the lamentations of an early nationalist, see Oginga Odinga, Not Yet Uhuru (London: Heinemann, 1967). For an intellectual analysis of the failure of the inherited democratic experiments, see the contributions to Walter O. Oyugi, E. S. Ateino Odhiambo, Michael Chege, and Afrifa K. Gitonga, eds., Democratic Theory and Practice in Africa (Portsmouth, N.H., and London: Heinemann and James Currey, 1988).
17. See Ali A. Mazrui, "Eastern European Revolutions: African Origins?" TransAfrica Forum 7, no. 2 (Summer 1990), pp. 3-10.
18. Nzongola-Ntalaja, "Democratic Transitions in Africa," p. 2.
19. For a discussion of the problems of democratic transition and consolidation in Africa and other developing social formations, see Sahr J. Kpundeh, Jo L. Husbands, and Laura Bigman, eds., Research on Democratization in Africa (Washington, D.C.: National Research Council, Project on Democratization, 1992); and Tracy L. Brandt, ed., After the Transition: Problems of Newly Democratizing Countries (Washington, D.C.: National Research Council, 1992).
20. For a discussion of the problems of democratic transition and consolidation in Africa and other developing social formations, see Sahr J. Kpundeh, Jo L. Husbands, and Laura Bigman, eds., Research on Democratization in Africa (Washington, D.C.: National Research Council, Project on Democratization, 1992); and Tracy L. Brandt, ed., After the Transition: Problems of Newly Democratizing Countries (Washington, D.C.: National Research Council, 1992).
21. See Julius O. Ihonvbere, "The 'Irrelevant' State, Ethnicity, and the Quest for Nationhood in Africa," Ethnic and Racial Studies 17, no. 1 (January 1994), pp. 42-60.
22. See Adebayo Adedeji, ed., Africa Within the World: Beyond Dispossession and Dependence (London: Zed Books, 1993).
23. See Githu Muigai, "Kenya's Opposition and the Crisis of Governance," Issue: A Journal of Opinion 21, nos. 1-2, pp. 26-34; Jennifer Widner, "The 1990 Elections in Côte d'Ivoire," Issue 20, no. 1 (Winter 1991), pp. 31-40; and Chris Allen, "Restructuring an Authoritarian State: 'Democratic Renewal' in Benin," Review of African Political Economy no. 54 (1992), pp. 42-58.
24. See Githu Muigai, "Kenya's Opposition and the Crisis of Governance," Issue: A Journal of Opinion 21, nos. 1-2, pp. 26-34; Jennifer Widner, "The 1990 Elections in Côte d'Ivoire," Issue 20, no. 1 (Winter 1991), pp. 31-40; and Chris Allen, "Restructuring an Authoritarian State: 'Democratic Renewal' in Benin," Review of African Political Economy no. 54 (1992), pp. 42-58.
25. See Githu Muigai, "Kenya's Opposition and the Crisis of Governance," Issue: A Journal of Opinion 21, nos. 1-2, pp. 26-34; Jennifer Widner, "The 1990 Elections in Côte d'Ivoire," Issue 20, no. 1 (Winter 1991), pp. 31-40; and Chris Allen, "Restructuring an Authoritarian State: 'Democratic Renewal' in Benin," Review of African Political Economy no. 54 (1992), pp. 42-58.
26. See the contributions to Adedeji, ed., Africa Within the World; and William Minter, ed., U.S. Foreign Policy: An Africa Agenda (Washington, D.C.: Africa Policy Information Center, 1994).
27. See the contributions to Adedeji, ed., Africa Within the World; and William Minter, ed., U.S. Foreign Policy: An Africa Agenda (Washington, D.C.: Africa Policy Information Center, 1994).
28. As Terry Lynn Karl has noted, "What the literature has considered in the past to be the preconditions of democracy may be better conceived in the future as outcomes of democracy. Patterns of greater economic growth and more equitable income distribution, higher levels of literacy and education, and increases in social communication and media exposure may be better treated as the products of stable democratic processes rather than as prerequisites of its existence." See Karl's "Dilemmas of Democratization in Latin America," Comparative Politics no. 2 (October 1990), p. 5.
29. For some discussion of the new pessimism, see Harvey Glickman, "Editor's Introduction," Issue: A Journal of Opinion 21, no. 2 (1993), pp. 3-5, as well as the contributions of Guy Martin, Githu Muigai, and Masipula Sithole in that issue.
30. In a dramatic turn of events brought about largely by the bankruptcy of the Soglo dispensation - corruption, mismanagement, a poorly implemented adjustment, nepotism, aloofness from the people, etc. - Mathieu Kerekou was returned to power as president of Benin in 1996.
31. Yoweri Kaguta Museveni, Statement at the Kampala Forum, 19 May 1991, reproduced in Olusegun Obasanjo and Felix G. N. Mosha, eds., Africa: Rise to Challenge (New York: Africa Leadership Forum, 1993), pp. 265-270.
32. Yoweri Kaguta Museveni, Statement at the Kampala Forum, 19 May 1991, reproduced in Olusegun Obasanjo and Felix G. N. Mosha, eds., Africa: Rise to Challenge (New York: Africa Leadership Forum, 1993), pp. 265-270.
33. See Richard Sandbrook and Mohamed Halfani, eds., Empowering People: Building Community, Civic Associations and Legality in Africa (Toronto, Ont.: Centre for Urban and Community Studies, University of Toronto, 1993).
34. Jacques Mariel Nzouankeu, "The Role of the National Conference in the Transition to Democracy in Africa: The Cases of Benin and Mali," Issue: A Journal of Opinion 21, nos. 1-2 (1993), p. 44.
35. See "Political Violence: Darkness Over 3rd Republic," The African Guardian (29 July 1991), and "The IBB-Abacha Coup: How the Mafia Annulled June 12,"TELL (26 June 1995).
36. See "Political Violence: Darkness Over 3rd Republic," The African Guardian (29 July 1991), and "The IBB-Abacha Coup: How the Mafia Annulled June 12,"TELL (26 June 1995).
37. Peter Anyang'Nyongo, "Overview: Africa 2000!" Africa Demos 3, no. 4 (March 1995), p. 2.
38. "Commentary: Africa's Diehard Autocracies," Africa Demos 3, no. 2 (July-August 1993), p. 1. Africa Demos also noted: "While democracy continues on the upswing throughout Africa, leaders such as Babangida, Eyadema, Mobutu, and Savimbi continue to demonstrate that autocracy is far from vanquished."
39. For a detailed discussion, see Julius O. Ihonvbere, Fragile Democracies: The Legacy of Authoritarianism in Africa (forthcoming).
40. Jan Kees van Donge, "Kamuzu's Legacy: The Democratization of Malawi," African Affairs no. 94 (1995), pp. 236, 251.
41. See Julius O. Ihonvbere, "From Movement to Government: The Movement for Multiparty Democracy and the Crisis of Democratic Consolidation in Zambia," Canadian Journal of African Studies 29, no. 1 (1995), pp. 1-25; and Jan Kees van Donge, "Zambia: Kaunda and Chiluba," in John Wiseman, ed., Democracy and Political Change in Sub-Saharan Africa (London: Routledge, 1995), pp. 193-219.
42. See Julius O. Ihonvbere, "From Movement to Government: The Movement for Multiparty Democracy and the Crisis of Democratic Consolidation in Zambia," Canadian Journal of African Studies 29, no. 1 (1995), pp. 1-25; and Jan Kees van Donge, "Zambia: Kaunda and Chiluba," in John Wiseman, ed., Democracy and Political Change in Sub-Saharan Africa (London: Routledge, 1995), pp. 193-219.
43. Nzongola-Ntalaja, "Democratic Transitions in Africa," p. 2.
44. Nzongola-Ntalaja, "Democratic Transitions in Africa," p. 2.
45. Nzongola-Ntalaja, "Democratic Transitions in Africa," p. 3.
46. See Adedeji, ed., Africa Within the World; Julius O. Ihonvbere, ed., The Political Economy of Crisis and Underdevelopment in Africa: Selected Works of Claude Ake (Lagos: JAD Publishers, 1989); and Michael Clough, "Africa in the 1990s," CSIS Africa Notes no. 107 (29 January 1990), pp. 1-5.
47. See Adedeji, ed., Africa Within the World; Julius O. Ihonvbere, ed., The Political Economy of Crisis and Underdevelopment in Africa: Selected Works of Claude Ake (Lagos: JAD Publishers, 1989); and Michael Clough, "Africa in the 1990s," CSIS Africa Notes no. 107 (29 January 1990), pp. 1-5.
48. See Adedeji, ed., Africa Within the World; Julius O. Ihonvbere, ed., The Political Economy of Crisis and Underdevelopment in Africa: Selected Works of Claude Ake (Lagos: JAD Publishers, 1989); and Michael Clough, "Africa in the 1990s," CSIS Africa Notes no. 107 (29 January 1990), pp. 1-5.
49. Anyang'Nyongo, "Overview: Africa 2000!" p. 2.
50. See Nzouankeu, "The Role of the National Conference."
51. For a discussion of the national conference and how it operates, see Guy Martin, "Preface: Democratic Transitions in Africa," Issue: A Journal of Opinion 21, nos. 1-2 (1993), pp. 6-8.
52. Despite the election and functioning of all tiers of governance (local, state, and national), the fact that the presumed winner of the presidential election, Chief M. K. O. Abiola, was not sworn in and the republic itself not formally promulgated makes it difficult to talk of a Nigerian "third republic."
53. Interview with a prodemocracy leader, Lagos, December 1993.
54. See Abdulrazaq Magaji, "Law-Makers in Limbo," Newswatch (Lagos) (5 July 1993).
55. See "A Financial Sink-Hole," Newswatch (Lagos) (29 March 1993).
56. See Kunle Oyatomi, "National Assembly Gulps N .5 Billion ... Spends N 45 Million Weekly on Hotel Expenses," Sunday Vanguard (Lagos) (24 October 1993).
57. See "Now, the National Assembly - Puppets at Work," TELL (Lagos) (14 December 1992).
58. See Rose Tamfuh, "The State and Structural Adjustment: The Case of Cameroon," master's thesis, Department of Political Science, the University of Texas at Austin, August 1996.
59. J. D. Holm, "Rolling Back Autocracy in Africa: The Botswana Case," in Beyond Autocracy in Africa (Atlanta: The Carter Center, Emory University, 1989), p. 37. See also Patrick Molutsi, "Botswana's Democracy: Past and Future Struggles," Africa Demos 3, no. 4 (March 1995), pp. 16-17.
60. J. D. Holm, "Rolling Back Autocracy in Africa: The Botswana Case," in Beyond Autocracy in Africa (Atlanta: The Carter Center, Emory University, 1989), p. 37. See also Patrick Molutsi, "Botswana's Democracy: Past and Future Struggles," Africa Demos 3, no. 4 (March 1995), pp. 16-17.
61. Y. A. Faure, "L'économie politique d'une démocratization: Éléments d'analyse à propos de l'éxperience récent de la Côte d'Ivoire," Politique Africaine no. 43 (October 1991), p. 46.
62. See Julius O. Ihonvbere, Economic Crisis, Civil Society and Democratization: The Case of Zambia (Lawrenceville, N.J.: Africa World Press, 1996); and "The Crisis of Democratic Consolidation in Zambia," Civilisations 43, no. 2 (1996), pp. 83-109.
63. See Julius O. Ihonvbere, Economic Crisis, Civil Society and Democratization: The Case of Zambia (Lawrenceville, N.J.: Africa World Press, 1996); and "The Crisis of Democratic Consolidation in Zambia," Civilisations 43, no. 2 (1996), pp. 83-109.
64. See Michael Chege, "The African Economic Crisis and the Fate of Democracy in Sub-Saharan Africa," in Oyugi et al., eds., Democratic Theory and Practice in Africa, pp. 191-205.
65. For details on the elections and the performance of the candidates, see van Donge, "Kamuzu's Legacy."
66. See "Zambia: Kaunda Deportation Talk Prompts Disturbances," London, BBC World Service in English, 18 October 1995; and "Zambia: Government Halts Arrest, Questioning of Kaunda," Johannesburg, SAfm Radio Network in English, 20 October 1995.
67. See "Zambia: Kaunda Deportation Talk Prompts Disturbances," London, BBC World Service in English, 18 October 1995; and "Zambia: Government Halts Arrest, Questioning of Kaunda," Johannesburg, SAfm Radio Network in English, 20 October 1995.
68. See Jowie Mwiinga, "Chill for Chiluba," Africa Report 39, no. 2 (March-April 1994).
69. Ernest Wamba-dia-Wamba, "Beyond Elite Politics of Democracy in Africa," Quest: Philosophical Discussions 6, no. 1 (June 1992), pp. 28-43.
70. See Denis Venter, "Malawi - The Transition to Multiparty Politics," in John Wiseman, ed., Democracy and Political Change in Sub-Saharan Africa (London: Routledge, 1994), pp. 152-192.
71. See Michael Bratton, "Economic Crisis and Political Realignment in Zambia," in Jennifer Widner, ed., Economic Change and Political Liberalization in Sub-Saharan Africa (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994), pp. 101-128.
72. Bratton, "Economic Crisis," p. 139.
73. Bratton, "Economic Crisis," p. 120.
74. Van Donge, "Kamuzu's Legacy," p. 229.
75. Marina Ottaway, "Democracy and the Challenge of Ethnicity," Africa Demos 3, no. 4 (March 1995), p. 22.
76. Lemarchand, "Four Models for Resolving Ethnic Conflict," p. 1.
77. See van Donge, "Kamuzu's Legacy"; and "AFORD's Chakufwa Chihana, Who Is He?" Malawi Democrat (6-7 April 1994).
78. See van Donge, "Kamuzu's Legacy"; and "AFORD's Chakufwa Chihana, Who Is He?" Malawi Democrat (6-7 April 1994).
79. Nzongola-Ntalaja, "Democratic Transitions in Africa," p. 3.
80. See Herman J. Cohen, "Good Governance, Democracy and 'Citizen Expectations' in Africa," Africa Demos 3, no. 4 (March 1995), pp. 5-6;
81. and Mamadou Diouf, "Senegal's Uncertain Democracy: The 1993 Elections," Africa Demos 3, no. 3 (September 1994), pp. 10-12.
82. For a discussion of defensive radicalism, ideological containment, and depoliticization, see Claude Ake, Revolutionary Pressures in Africa (London: Zed Books, 1978).
83. Anyang'Nyongo, "Overview: Africa 2000!" p. 3.
84. Masipula Sithole, "Is Zimbabwe Poised on a Liberal Path? The State and Prospects of the Parties," Issue: A Journal of Opinion 21, nos. 1-2 (1993), p. 40.
85. "Nigeria: Oil Embargo Called Unlikely," Dallas Morning News (6 December 1995). Vice President Al Gore and Secretary of Commerce Ron Brown of the United States went all the way to South Africa to declare this position, which contradicted Nelson Mandela's call for an oil embargo against Nigeria for executing nine environmentalists after a flawed trial.
86. Olusegun Obasanjo, "Prospects for Peace," in William Minter, ed., U.S. Foreign Policy: An Africa Agenda (Washington, D.C.: Africa Policy Information Center, 1994).