Segmented work, race-conscious workers: Structure, agency and division in the CIO era

International Review of Social History

Volumn 41, Issue 3, 1996, Pages 389-405

  Sugrue, Thomas J ^a  

^a NONE

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 0030337128     PISSN: 00208590     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/s0020859000114075     Document Type: Article

References (97)

1. Executive Secretary's Report to the Executive Board of Directors, Detroit Branch NAACP, 8 September 1952, p. 2; National Association for the Advancement of Colored People Papers, Library of Congress, Washington, DC, Group II, Box C90, File: Detroit, Mich., July-Dec. 1952; Local 49 Shop Committee to Brother Oliver, n.d. [c. March-April 1950], and Malcolm Evans to William Oliver, 10 April 1950, United Automobile Workers, Local 49 Collection, Archives of Labor and Urban Affairs, Walter P. Reuther Library, Detroit, Michigan (hereafter ALUA).
2. "EXCELLO - Local 49 UAW-CIO", Report of H. Ross, 27 July 1951 in United Automobile Workers Fair Practices Department Collection, ALUA, Box 16, Folder 16-23; letter [unidentified], 9 July 1956, ibid.; Complaint Against Excello Corporation, 1962, Detroit Urban League Papers (hereafter DUL), Michigan Historical Collections, Bentley Library, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Box 48, Folder A12-25.
3. On Walter P. Reuther and the UAW's racial policies, see Kevin Boyle, The UAW and the Heyday of American Liberalism (Ithaca, 1995), esp. pp. 107-131; Boyle, "'There Are No Union Sorrows That the Union Can't Heal': The Struggle for Racial Equality in the United Automobile Workers, 1940-1960", Labor History, 36 (1995), pp. 5-23; Nelson Lichtenstein, The Most Dangerous Man in Detroit: Walter P. Reuther and the Fate of American Labor (New York, 1995), pp. 206-211, 315-317, 370-395.
4. On Walter P. Reuther and the UAW's racial policies, see Kevin Boyle, The UAW and the Heyday of American Liberalism (Ithaca, 1995), esp. pp. 107-131; Boyle, "'There Are No Union Sorrows That the Union Can't Heal': The Struggle for Racial Equality in the United Automobile Workers, 1940-1960", Labor History, 36 (1995), pp. 5-23; Nelson Lichtenstein, The Most Dangerous Man in Detroit: Walter P. Reuther and the Fate of American Labor (New York, 1995), pp. 206-211, 315-317, 370-395.
5. On Walter P. Reuther and the UAW's racial policies, see Kevin Boyle, The UAW and the Heyday of American Liberalism (Ithaca, 1995), esp. pp. 107-131; Boyle, "'There Are No Union Sorrows That the Union Can't Heal': The Struggle for Racial Equality in the United Automobile Workers, 1940-1960", Labor History, 36 (1995), pp. 5-23; Nelson Lichtenstein, The Most Dangerous Man in Detroit: Walter P. Reuther and the Fate of American Labor (New York, 1995), pp. 206-211, 315-317, 370-395.
6. For other examples of hate strikes in the auto industry after World War II, see Boyle, "There Are No Sorrows That the Union Cannot Heal'", pp. 15-16, 18, 21. For a discussion of race, homeownership and politics in post-war Detroit, see Thomas J. Sugrue, "Crabgrass-Roots Politics: Race, Rights, and the Reaction Against Liberalism in the Urban North, 1940-1964", Journal of American History, 82 (1995), pp. 551-578. On rates of residential segregation in Detroit, see Karl E. Taeuber and Alma F. Taeuber, Negroes in Cities: Residential Segregation and Neighborhood Change (Chicago, 1965), p. 39; for CIO members' attitudes on integration, see Arthur Kornhauser, Detroit as the People See It: A Survey of Attitudes in an Industrial City (Detroit, 1952), p. 91. On patterns of racial segregation generally, see Arnold R. Hirsch, "With or Without Jim Crow: Black Residential Segregation in the United States", in Arnold R. Hirsch and Raymond A. Mohl (eds.), Urban Policy in Twentieth-Century America (New Brunswick, NJ, 1993), pp. 65-99.
7. For other examples of hate strikes in the auto industry after World War II, see Boyle, "There Are No Sorrows That the Union Cannot Heal'", pp. 15-16, 18, 21. For a discussion of race, homeownership and politics in post-war Detroit, see Thomas J. Sugrue, "Crabgrass-Roots Politics: Race, Rights, and the Reaction Against Liberalism in the Urban North, 1940-1964", Journal of American History, 82 (1995), pp. 551-578. On rates of residential segregation in Detroit, see Karl E. Taeuber and Alma F. Taeuber, Negroes in Cities: Residential Segregation and Neighborhood Change (Chicago, 1965), p. 39; for CIO members' attitudes on integration, see Arthur Kornhauser, Detroit as the People See It: A Survey of Attitudes in an Industrial City (Detroit, 1952), p. 91. On patterns of racial segregation generally, see Arnold R. Hirsch, "With or Without Jim Crow: Black Residential Segregation in the United States", in Arnold R. Hirsch and Raymond A. Mohl (eds.), Urban Policy in Twentieth-Century America (New Brunswick, NJ, 1993), pp. 65-99.
8. For other examples of hate strikes in the auto industry after World War II, see Boyle, "There Are No Sorrows That the Union Cannot Heal'", pp. 15-16, 18, 21. For a discussion of race, homeownership and politics in post-war Detroit, see Thomas J. Sugrue, "Crabgrass-Roots Politics: Race, Rights, and the Reaction Against Liberalism in the Urban North, 1940-1964", Journal of American History, 82 (1995), pp. 551-578. On rates of residential segregation in Detroit, see Karl E. Taeuber and Alma F. Taeuber, Negroes in Cities: Residential Segregation and Neighborhood Change (Chicago, 1965), p. 39; for CIO members' attitudes on integration, see Arthur Kornhauser, Detroit as the People See It: A Survey of Attitudes in an Industrial City (Detroit, 1952), p. 91. On patterns of racial segregation generally, see Arnold R. Hirsch, "With or Without Jim Crow: Black Residential Segregation in the United States", in Arnold R. Hirsch and Raymond A. Mohl (eds.), Urban Policy in Twentieth-Century America (New Brunswick, NJ, 1993), pp. 65-99.
9. For other examples of hate strikes in the auto industry after World War II, see Boyle, "There Are No Sorrows That the Union Cannot Heal'", pp. 15-16, 18, 21. For a discussion of race, homeownership and politics in post-war Detroit, see Thomas J. Sugrue, "Crabgrass-Roots Politics: Race, Rights, and the Reaction Against Liberalism in the Urban North, 1940-1964", Journal of American History, 82 (1995), pp. 551-578. On rates of residential segregation in Detroit, see Karl E. Taeuber and Alma F. Taeuber, Negroes in Cities: Residential Segregation and Neighborhood Change (Chicago, 1965), p. 39; for CIO members' attitudes on integration, see Arthur Kornhauser, Detroit as the People See It: A Survey of Attitudes in an Industrial City (Detroit, 1952), p. 91. On patterns of racial segregation generally, see Arnold R. Hirsch, "With or Without Jim Crow: Black Residential Segregation in the United States", in Arnold R. Hirsch and Raymond A. Mohl (eds.), Urban Policy in Twentieth-Century America (New Brunswick, NJ, 1993), pp. 65-99.
10. For other examples of hate strikes in the auto industry after World War II, see Boyle, "There Are No Sorrows That the Union Cannot Heal'", pp. 15-16, 18, 21. For a discussion of race, homeownership and politics in post-war Detroit, see Thomas J. Sugrue, "Crabgrass-Roots Politics: Race, Rights, and the Reaction Against Liberalism in the Urban North, 1940-1964", Journal of American History, 82 (1995), pp. 551-578. On rates of residential segregation in Detroit, see Karl E. Taeuber and Alma F. Taeuber, Negroes in Cities: Residential Segregation and Neighborhood Change (Chicago, 1965), p. 39; for CIO members' attitudes on integration, see Arthur Kornhauser, Detroit as the People See It: A Survey of Attitudes in an Industrial City (Detroit, 1952), p. 91. On patterns of racial segregation generally, see Arnold R. Hirsch, "With or Without Jim Crow: Black Residential Segregation in the United States", in Arnold R. Hirsch and Raymond A. Mohl (eds.), Urban Policy in Twentieth-Century America (New Brunswick, NJ, 1993), pp. 65-99.
11. Lizabeth Cohen, Making a New Deal: Industrial Workers in Chicago, 1919-1939 (New York, 1989). On the routine segregation of blacks and whites in the North, see Thomas J. Sugrue, The Origins of the Urban Crisis: Race and Inequality in Postwar Detroit (Princeton, 1996), chs 2, 8 and 9; Arnold R. Hirsch, Making the Second Ghetto: Race and Housing in Chicago, 1940-1960 (Cambridge, 1983); on religious institutions, see John T. McGreevy, Parish Boundaries: The Catholic Encounter with Race in the Twentieth-Century North (Chicago, 1996). On the CIO and blacks in the North, see August Meier and Elliot Rudwick, Black Detroit and the Rise of the UAW (New York, 1979). On the CIO in the South, see Michael K. Honey, Southern Labor and Black Civil Rights: Organizing Memphis Workers (Urbana, 1993); for an excellent overview, see Rick Halpern, "Organized Labor, Black Workers, and the Twentieth-Century South: The Emerging Revision", in Melvyn Stokes and Rick Halpern (eds), Race and Class in the American South Since 1890 (Oxford and Providence, 1992), pp. 43-76; on the parallels between the CIO in the North and South, see Robert Korstad and Nelson Lichtenstein, "Opportunities Found and Lost: Labor Radicals and the Early Civil Rights Movement", Journal of American History, 75 (1988), pp. 786-811. See also Michael GoldHeld, "Race and the CIO: Possibilities for Racial Egalitarianism During the 1930s and 1940s", International Labor and Working-Class History, 44 (1993), pp. 1-32. The piece should be read in conjunction with the critical responses to it by Gary Gerstle, Robert Korstad, Marshall Stevenson and Judith Stein, in ibid., pp. 33-63.
12. Lizabeth Cohen, Making a New Deal: Industrial Workers in Chicago, 1919-1939 (New York, 1989). On the routine segregation of blacks and whites in the North, see Thomas J. Sugrue, The Origins of the Urban Crisis: Race and Inequality in Postwar Detroit (Princeton, 1996), chs 2, 8 and 9; Arnold R. Hirsch, Making the Second Ghetto: Race and Housing in Chicago, 1940-1960 (Cambridge, 1983); on religious institutions, see John T. McGreevy, Parish Boundaries: The Catholic Encounter with Race in the Twentieth-Century North (Chicago, 1996). On the CIO and blacks in the North, see August Meier and Elliot Rudwick, Black Detroit and the Rise of the UAW (New York, 1979). On the CIO in the South, see Michael K. Honey, Southern Labor and Black Civil Rights: Organizing Memphis Workers (Urbana, 1993); for an excellent overview, see Rick Halpern, "Organized Labor, Black Workers, and the Twentieth-Century South: The Emerging Revision", in Melvyn Stokes and Rick Halpern (eds), Race and Class in the American South Since 1890 (Oxford and Providence, 1992), pp. 43-76; on the parallels between the CIO in the North and South, see Robert Korstad and Nelson Lichtenstein, "Opportunities Found and Lost: Labor Radicals and the Early Civil Rights Movement", Journal of American History, 75 (1988), pp. 786-811. See also Michael GoldHeld, "Race and the CIO: Possibilities for Racial Egalitarianism During the 1930s and 1940s", International Labor and Working-Class History, 44 (1993), pp. 1-32. The piece should be read in conjunction with the critical responses to it by Gary Gerstle, Robert Korstad, Marshall Stevenson and Judith Stein, in ibid., pp. 33-63.
13. Lizabeth Cohen, Making a New Deal: Industrial Workers in Chicago, 1919-1939 (New York, 1989). On the routine segregation of blacks and whites in the North, see Thomas J. Sugrue, The Origins of the Urban Crisis: Race and Inequality in Postwar Detroit (Princeton, 1996), chs 2, 8 and 9; Arnold R. Hirsch, Making the Second Ghetto: Race and Housing in Chicago, 1940-1960 (Cambridge, 1983); on religious institutions, see John T. McGreevy, Parish Boundaries: The Catholic Encounter with Race in the Twentieth-Century North (Chicago, 1996). On the CIO and blacks in the North, see August Meier and Elliot Rudwick, Black Detroit and the Rise of the UAW (New York, 1979). On the CIO in the South, see Michael K. Honey, Southern Labor and Black Civil Rights: Organizing Memphis Workers (Urbana, 1993); for an excellent overview, see Rick Halpern, "Organized Labor, Black Workers, and the Twentieth-Century South: The Emerging Revision", in Melvyn Stokes and Rick Halpern (eds), Race and Class in the American South Since 1890 (Oxford and Providence, 1992), pp. 43-76; on the parallels between the CIO in the North and South, see Robert Korstad and Nelson Lichtenstein, "Opportunities Found and Lost: Labor Radicals and the Early Civil Rights Movement", Journal of American History, 75 (1988), pp. 786-811. See also Michael GoldHeld, "Race and the CIO: Possibilities for Racial Egalitarianism During the 1930s and 1940s", International Labor and Working-Class History, 44 (1993), pp. 1-32. The piece should be read in conjunction with the critical responses to it by Gary Gerstle, Robert Korstad, Marshall Stevenson and Judith Stein, in ibid., pp. 33-63.
14. Lizabeth Cohen, Making a New Deal: Industrial Workers in Chicago, 1919-1939 (New York, 1989). On the routine segregation of blacks and whites in the North, see Thomas J. Sugrue, The Origins of the Urban Crisis: Race and Inequality in Postwar Detroit (Princeton, 1996), chs 2, 8 and 9; Arnold R. Hirsch, Making the Second Ghetto: Race and Housing in Chicago, 1940-1960 (Cambridge, 1983); on religious institutions, see John T. McGreevy, Parish Boundaries: The Catholic Encounter with Race in the Twentieth-Century North (Chicago, 1996). On the CIO and blacks in the North, see August Meier and Elliot Rudwick, Black Detroit and the Rise of the UAW (New York, 1979). On the CIO in the South, see Michael K. Honey, Southern Labor and Black Civil Rights: Organizing Memphis Workers (Urbana, 1993); for an excellent overview, see Rick Halpern, "Organized Labor, Black Workers, and the Twentieth-Century South: The Emerging Revision", in Melvyn Stokes and Rick Halpern (eds), Race and Class in the American South Since 1890 (Oxford and Providence, 1992), pp. 43-76; on the parallels between the CIO in the North and South, see Robert Korstad and Nelson Lichtenstein, "Opportunities Found and Lost: Labor Radicals and the Early Civil Rights Movement", Journal of American History, 75 (1988), pp. 786-811. See also Michael GoldHeld, "Race and the CIO: Possibilities for Racial Egalitarianism During the 1930s and 1940s", International Labor and Working-Class History, 44 (1993), pp. 1-32. The piece should be read in conjunction with the critical responses to it by Gary Gerstle, Robert Korstad, Marshall Stevenson and Judith Stein, in ibid., pp. 33-63.
15. Lizabeth Cohen, Making a New Deal: Industrial Workers in Chicago, 1919-1939 (New York, 1989). On the routine segregation of blacks and whites in the North, see Thomas J. Sugrue, The Origins of the Urban Crisis: Race and Inequality in Postwar Detroit (Princeton, 1996), chs 2, 8 and 9; Arnold R. Hirsch, Making the Second Ghetto: Race and Housing in Chicago, 1940-1960 (Cambridge, 1983); on religious institutions, see John T. McGreevy, Parish Boundaries: The Catholic Encounter with Race in the Twentieth-Century North (Chicago, 1996). On the CIO and blacks in the North, see August Meier and Elliot Rudwick, Black Detroit and the Rise of the UAW (New York, 1979). On the CIO in the South, see Michael K. Honey, Southern Labor and Black Civil Rights: Organizing Memphis Workers (Urbana, 1993); for an excellent overview, see Rick Halpern, "Organized Labor, Black Workers, and the Twentieth-Century South: The Emerging Revision", in Melvyn Stokes and Rick Halpern (eds), Race and Class in the American South Since 1890 (Oxford and Providence, 1992), pp. 43-76; on the parallels between the CIO in the North and South, see Robert Korstad and Nelson Lichtenstein, "Opportunities Found and Lost: Labor Radicals and the Early Civil Rights Movement", Journal of American History, 75 (1988), pp. 786-811. See also Michael GoldHeld, "Race and the CIO: Possibilities for Racial Egalitarianism During the 1930s and 1940s", International Labor and Working-Class History, 44 (1993), pp. 1-32. The piece should be read in conjunction with the critical responses to it by Gary Gerstle, Robert Korstad, Marshall Stevenson and Judith Stein, in ibid., pp. 33-63.
16. Lizabeth Cohen, Making a New Deal: Industrial Workers in Chicago, 1919-1939 (New York, 1989). On the routine segregation of blacks and whites in the North, see Thomas J. Sugrue, The Origins of the Urban Crisis: Race and Inequality in Postwar Detroit (Princeton, 1996), chs 2, 8 and 9; Arnold R. Hirsch, Making the Second Ghetto: Race and Housing in Chicago, 1940-1960 (Cambridge, 1983); on religious institutions, see John T. McGreevy, Parish Boundaries: The Catholic Encounter with Race in the Twentieth-Century North (Chicago, 1996). On the CIO and blacks in the North, see August Meier and Elliot Rudwick, Black Detroit and the Rise of the UAW (New York, 1979). On the CIO in the South, see Michael K. Honey, Southern Labor and Black Civil Rights: Organizing Memphis Workers (Urbana, 1993); for an excellent overview, see Rick Halpern, "Organized Labor, Black Workers, and the Twentieth-Century South: The Emerging Revision", in Melvyn Stokes and Rick Halpern (eds), Race and Class in the American South Since 1890 (Oxford and Providence, 1992), pp. 43-76; on the parallels between the CIO in the North and South, see Robert Korstad and Nelson Lichtenstein, "Opportunities Found and Lost: Labor Radicals and the Early Civil Rights Movement", Journal of American History, 75 (1988), pp. 786-811. See also Michael GoldHeld, "Race and the CIO: Possibilities for Racial Egalitarianism During the 1930s and 1940s", International Labor and Working-Class History, 44 (1993), pp. 1-32. The piece should be read in conjunction with the critical responses to it by Gary Gerstle, Robert Korstad, Marshall Stevenson and Judith Stein, in ibid., pp. 33-63.
17. Lizabeth Cohen, Making a New Deal: Industrial Workers in Chicago, 1919-1939 (New York, 1989). On the routine segregation of blacks and whites in the North, see Thomas J. Sugrue, The Origins of the Urban Crisis: Race and Inequality in Postwar Detroit (Princeton, 1996), chs 2, 8 and 9; Arnold R. Hirsch, Making the Second Ghetto: Race and Housing in Chicago, 1940-1960 (Cambridge, 1983); on religious institutions, see John T. McGreevy, Parish Boundaries: The Catholic Encounter with Race in the Twentieth-Century North (Chicago, 1996). On the CIO and blacks in the North, see August Meier and Elliot Rudwick, Black Detroit and the Rise of the UAW (New York, 1979). On the CIO in the South, see Michael K. Honey, Southern Labor and Black Civil Rights: Organizing Memphis Workers (Urbana, 1993); for an excellent overview, see Rick Halpern, "Organized Labor, Black Workers, and the Twentieth-Century South: The Emerging Revision", in Melvyn Stokes and Rick Halpern (eds), Race and Class in the American South Since 1890 (Oxford and Providence, 1992), pp. 43-76; on the parallels between the CIO in the North and South, see Robert Korstad and Nelson Lichtenstein, "Opportunities Found and Lost: Labor Radicals and the Early Civil Rights Movement", Journal of American History, 75 (1988), pp. 786-811. See also Michael GoldHeld, "Race and the CIO: Possibilities for Racial Egalitarianism During the 1930s and 1940s", International Labor and Working-Class History, 44 (1993), pp. 1-32. The piece should be read in conjunction with the critical responses to it by Gary Gerstle, Robert Korstad, Marshall Stevenson and Judith Stein, in ibid., pp. 33-63.
18. Lizabeth Cohen, Making a New Deal: Industrial Workers in Chicago, 1919-1939 (New York, 1989). On the routine segregation of blacks and whites in the North, see Thomas J. Sugrue, The Origins of the Urban Crisis: Race and Inequality in Postwar Detroit (Princeton, 1996), chs 2, 8 and 9; Arnold R. Hirsch, Making the Second Ghetto: Race and Housing in Chicago, 1940-1960 (Cambridge, 1983); on religious institutions, see John T. McGreevy, Parish Boundaries: The Catholic Encounter with Race in the Twentieth-Century North (Chicago, 1996). On the CIO and blacks in the North, see August Meier and Elliot Rudwick, Black Detroit and the Rise of the UAW (New York, 1979). On the CIO in the South, see Michael K. Honey, Southern Labor and Black Civil Rights: Organizing Memphis Workers (Urbana, 1993); for an excellent overview, see Rick Halpern, "Organized Labor, Black Workers, and the Twentieth-Century South: The Emerging Revision", in Melvyn Stokes and Rick Halpern (eds), Race and Class in the American South Since 1890 (Oxford and Providence, 1992), pp. 43-76; on the parallels between the CIO in the North and South, see Robert Korstad and Nelson Lichtenstein, "Opportunities Found and Lost: Labor Radicals and the Early Civil Rights Movement", Journal of American History, 75 (1988), pp. 786-811. See also Michael GoldHeld, "Race and the CIO: Possibilities for Racial Egalitarianism During the 1930s and 1940s", International Labor and Working-Class History, 44 (1993), pp. 1-32. The piece should be read in conjunction with the critical responses to it by Gary Gerstle, Robert Korstad, Marshall Stevenson and Judith Stein, in ibid., pp. 33-63.
19. Lizabeth Cohen, Making a New Deal: Industrial Workers in Chicago, 1919-1939 (New York, 1989). On the routine segregation of blacks and whites in the North, see Thomas J. Sugrue, The Origins of the Urban Crisis: Race and Inequality in Postwar Detroit (Princeton, 1996), chs 2, 8 and 9; Arnold R. Hirsch, Making the Second Ghetto: Race and Housing in Chicago, 1940-1960 (Cambridge, 1983); on religious institutions, see John T. McGreevy, Parish Boundaries: The Catholic Encounter with Race in the Twentieth-Century North (Chicago, 1996). On the CIO and blacks in the North, see August Meier and Elliot Rudwick, Black Detroit and the Rise of the UAW (New York, 1979). On the CIO in the South, see Michael K. Honey, Southern Labor and Black Civil Rights: Organizing Memphis Workers (Urbana, 1993); for an excellent overview, see Rick Halpern, "Organized Labor, Black Workers, and the Twentieth-Century South: The Emerging Revision", in Melvyn Stokes and Rick Halpern (eds), Race and Class in the American South Since 1890 (Oxford and Providence, 1992), pp. 43-76; on the parallels between the CIO in the North and South, see Robert Korstad and Nelson Lichtenstein, "Opportunities Found and Lost: Labor Radicals and the Early Civil Rights Movement", Journal of American History, 75 (1988), pp. 786-811. See also Michael GoldHeld, "Race and the CIO: Possibilities for Racial Egalitarianism During the 1930s and 1940s", International Labor and Working-Class History, 44 (1993), pp. 1-32. The piece should be read in conjunction with the critical responses to it by Gary Gerstle, Robert Korstad, Marshall Stevenson and Judith Stein, in ibid., pp. 33-63.
20. Lizabeth Cohen, Making a New Deal: Industrial Workers in Chicago, 1919-1939 (New York, 1989). On the routine segregation of blacks and whites in the North, see Thomas J. Sugrue, The Origins of the Urban Crisis: Race and Inequality in Postwar Detroit (Princeton, 1996), chs 2, 8 and 9; Arnold R. Hirsch, Making the Second Ghetto: Race and Housing in Chicago, 1940-1960 (Cambridge, 1983); on religious institutions, see John T. McGreevy, Parish Boundaries: The Catholic Encounter with Race in the Twentieth-Century North (Chicago, 1996). On the CIO and blacks in the North, see August Meier and Elliot Rudwick, Black Detroit and the Rise of the UAW (New York, 1979). On the CIO in the South, see Michael K. Honey, Southern Labor and Black Civil Rights: Organizing Memphis Workers (Urbana, 1993); for an excellent overview, see Rick Halpern, "Organized Labor, Black Workers, and the Twentieth-Century South: The Emerging Revision", in Melvyn Stokes and Rick Halpern (eds), Race and Class in the American South Since 1890 (Oxford and Providence, 1992), pp. 43-76; on the parallels between the CIO in the North and South, see Robert Korstad and Nelson Lichtenstein, "Opportunities Found and Lost: Labor Radicals and the Early Civil Rights Movement", Journal of American History, 75 (1988), pp. 786-811. See also Michael GoldHeld, "Race and the CIO: Possibilities for Racial Egalitarianism During the 1930s and 1940s", International Labor and Working-Class History, 44 (1993), pp. 1-32. The piece should be read in conjunction with the critical responses to it by Gary Gerstle, Robert Korstad, Marshall Stevenson and Judith Stein, in ibid., pp. 33-63.
21. On the North, Nelson confirms other findings about the deep-rooted resistance of northern working-class whites to liberal civil rights measures. See Sugrue, "Crabgrass-Roots Politics", esp. pp. 562-578; Arnold R. Hirsch, "Massive Resistance in the Urban North: Trumbull Park, Chicago, 1953-1966", Journal of American History, 82 (1995), pp. 522-550. See also Gary Gerstle, "Race and the Myth of the Liberal Consensus", ibid., pp. 579-580.
22. On the North, Nelson confirms other findings about the deep-rooted resistance of northern working-class whites to liberal civil rights measures. See Sugrue, "Crabgrass-Roots Politics", esp. pp. 562-578; Arnold R. Hirsch, "Massive Resistance in the Urban North: Trumbull Park, Chicago, 1953-1966", Journal of American History, 82 (1995), pp. 522-550. See also Gary Gerstle, "Race and the Myth of the Liberal Consensus", ibid., pp. 579-580.
23. On the North, Nelson confirms other findings about the deep-rooted resistance of northern working-class whites to liberal civil rights measures. See Sugrue, "Crabgrass-Roots Politics", esp. pp. 562-578; Arnold R. Hirsch, "Massive Resistance in the Urban North: Trumbull Park, Chicago, 1953-1966", Journal of American History, 82 (1995), pp. 522-550. See also Gary Gerstle, "Race and the Myth of the Liberal Consensus", ibid., pp. 579-580.
24. Barbara Jeanne Fields, "Ideology and Race in American History", in J. Morgan Kousser and James M. McPherson (eds), Region, Race, and Reconstruction: Essays in Honor of C. Vann Woodward (New York, 1982), pp. 143-177. See also Evelyn Brooks Higginbotham, "African-American Women's History and the Metalanguage of Race", Signs, 17 (1992), pp. 251-274; Eric Arnesen, "'Like Banquo's Ghost, It Will Not Down': The Race Question and the American Railroad Brotherhoods, 1880-1920", American Historical Review, 99 (1994), pp. 1601-1633, esp. p. 1606.
25. Barbara Jeanne Fields, "Ideology and Race in American History", in J. Morgan Kousser and James M. McPherson (eds), Region, Race, and Reconstruction: Essays in Honor of C. Vann Woodward (New York, 1982), pp. 143-177. See also Evelyn Brooks Higginbotham, "African-American Women's History and the Metalanguage of Race", Signs, 17 (1992), pp. 251-274; Eric Arnesen, "'Like Banquo's Ghost, It Will Not Down': The Race Question and the American Railroad Brotherhoods, 1880-1920", American Historical Review, 99 (1994), pp. 1601-1633, esp. p. 1606.
26. Barbara Jeanne Fields, "Ideology and Race in American History", in J. Morgan Kousser and James M. McPherson (eds), Region, Race, and Reconstruction: Essays in Honor of C. Vann Woodward (New York, 1982), pp. 143-177. See also Evelyn Brooks Higginbotham, "African-American Women's History and the Metalanguage of Race", Signs, 17 (1992), pp. 251-274; Eric Arnesen, "'Like Banquo's Ghost, It Will Not Down': The Race Question and the American Railroad Brotherhoods, 1880-1920", American Historical Review, 99 (1994), pp. 1601-1633, esp. p. 1606.
27. David Roediger, The Wages of Whiteness: Race and the American Working Class (London, 1991); idem, Towards the Abolition of Whiteness (London, 1994); Alexander Saxton, The Rise and Fall of the White Republic: Class Politics and Mass Culture in the Nineteenth Century (New York, 1990); Noel Ignatiev, How the Irish Became White (New York and London, 1995). Their approach owes much to literary studies and cultural anthropology. See, among many others, Bell Hooks, Black Looks: Race and Representation (London, 1992); Toni Morrison, Playing in the Dark: Whiteness and the Literary Imagination (Cambridge, MA, 1992); Ruth Frankenberg, White Women, Race Matters: The Social Construction of Whiteness (Minneapolis, 1993).
28. David Roediger, The Wages of Whiteness: Race and the American Working Class (London, 1991); idem, Towards the Abolition of Whiteness (London, 1994); Alexander Saxton, The Rise and Fall of the White Republic: Class Politics and Mass Culture in the Nineteenth Century (New York, 1990); Noel Ignatiev, How the Irish Became White (New York and London, 1995). Their approach owes much to literary studies and cultural anthropology. See, among many others, Bell Hooks, Black Looks: Race and Representation (London, 1992); Toni Morrison, Playing in the Dark: Whiteness and the Literary Imagination (Cambridge, MA, 1992); Ruth Frankenberg, White Women, Race Matters: The Social Construction of Whiteness (Minneapolis, 1993).
29. David Roediger, The Wages of Whiteness: Race and the American Working Class (London, 1991); idem, Towards the Abolition of Whiteness (London, 1994); Alexander Saxton, The Rise and Fall of the White Republic: Class Politics and Mass Culture in the Nineteenth Century (New York, 1990); Noel Ignatiev, How the Irish Became White (New York and London, 1995). Their approach owes much to literary studies and cultural anthropology. See, among many others, Bell Hooks, Black Looks: Race and Representation (London, 1992); Toni Morrison, Playing in the Dark: Whiteness and the Literary Imagination (Cambridge, MA, 1992); Ruth Frankenberg, White Women, Race Matters: The Social Construction of Whiteness (Minneapolis, 1993).
30. David Roediger, The Wages of Whiteness: Race and the American Working Class (London, 1991); idem, Towards the Abolition of Whiteness (London, 1994); Alexander Saxton, The Rise and Fall of the White Republic: Class Politics and Mass Culture in the Nineteenth Century (New York, 1990); Noel Ignatiev, How the Irish Became White (New York and London, 1995). Their approach owes much to literary studies and cultural anthropology. See, among many others, Bell Hooks, Black Looks: Race and Representation (London, 1992); Toni Morrison, Playing in the Dark: Whiteness and the Literary Imagination (Cambridge, MA, 1992); Ruth Frankenberg, White Women, Race Matters: The Social Construction of Whiteness (Minneapolis, 1993).
31. David Roediger, The Wages of Whiteness: Race and the American Working Class (London, 1991); idem, Towards the Abolition of Whiteness (London, 1994); Alexander Saxton, The Rise and Fall of the White Republic: Class Politics and Mass Culture in the Nineteenth Century (New York, 1990); Noel Ignatiev, How the Irish Became White (New York and London, 1995). Their approach owes much to literary studies and cultural anthropology. See, among many others, Bell Hooks, Black Looks: Race and Representation (London, 1992); Toni Morrison, Playing in the Dark: Whiteness and the Literary Imagination (Cambridge, MA, 1992); Ruth Frankenberg, White Women, Race Matters: The Social Construction of Whiteness (Minneapolis, 1993).
32. David Roediger, The Wages of Whiteness: Race and the American Working Class (London, 1991); idem, Towards the Abolition of Whiteness (London, 1994); Alexander Saxton, The Rise and Fall of the White Republic: Class Politics and Mass Culture in the Nineteenth Century (New York, 1990); Noel Ignatiev, How the Irish Became White (New York and London, 1995). Their approach owes much to literary studies and cultural anthropology. See, among many others, Bell Hooks, Black Looks: Race and Representation (London, 1992); Toni Morrison, Playing in the Dark: Whiteness and the Literary Imagination (Cambridge, MA, 1992); Ruth Frankenberg, White Women, Race Matters: The Social Construction of Whiteness (Minneapolis, 1993).
33. David Roediger, The Wages of Whiteness: Race and the American Working Class (London, 1991); idem, Towards the Abolition of Whiteness (London, 1994); Alexander Saxton, The Rise and Fall of the White Republic: Class Politics and Mass Culture in the Nineteenth Century (New York, 1990); Noel Ignatiev, How the Irish Became White (New York and London, 1995). Their approach owes much to literary studies and cultural anthropology. See, among many others, Bell Hooks, Black Looks: Race and Representation (London, 1992); Toni Morrison, Playing in the Dark: Whiteness and the Literary Imagination (Cambridge, MA, 1992); Ruth Frankenberg, White Women, Race Matters: The Social Construction of Whiteness (Minneapolis, 1993).
34. Compare Nelson with David Roediger, "Race and the Working-Class Past in the United States: Multiple Identities and the Future of Labor History", International Review of Social History, 38 (1993), Supplement, pp. 127-143. The Hill-Gutman debate, which has been replayed ad nauseam, needs no elaboration here. The debate was sparked by two articles: Herbert Hill, "Myth-Making as Labor History: Herbert Gutman and the United Mine Workers of America", International Journal of Politics, Culture, and Society, 2:2 (Winter 1988), pp. 132-198; and idem, "Race, Ethnicity, and Organized Labor: The Opposition to Affirmative Action", New Politics, new ser., 1 (1987), pp. 32-182 and responses.
35. Compare Nelson with David Roediger, "Race and the Working-Class Past in the United States: Multiple Identities and the Future of Labor History", International Review of Social History, 38 (1993), Supplement, pp. 127-143. The Hill-Gutman debate, which has been replayed ad nauseam, needs no elaboration here. The debate was sparked by two articles: Herbert Hill, "Myth-Making as Labor History: Herbert Gutman and the United Mine Workers of America", International Journal of Politics, Culture, and Society, 2:2 (Winter 1988), pp. 132-198; and idem, "Race, Ethnicity, and Organized Labor: The Opposition to Affirmative Action", New Politics, new ser., 1 (1987), pp. 32-182 and responses.
36. Compare Nelson with David Roediger, "Race and the Working-Class Past in the United States: Multiple Identities and the Future of Labor History", International Review of Social History, 38 (1993), Supplement, pp. 127-143. The Hill-Gutman debate, which has been replayed ad nauseam, needs no elaboration here. The debate was sparked by two articles: Herbert Hill, "Myth-Making as Labor History: Herbert Gutman and the United Mine Workers of America", International Journal of Politics, Culture, and Society, 2:2 (Winter 1988), pp. 132-198; and idem, "Race, Ethnicity, and Organized Labor: The Opposition to Affirmative Action", New Politics, new ser., 1 (1987), pp. 32-182 and responses.
37. Michael Kazin, "A People Not a Class: Rethinking the Political Language of the Modern U.S. Labor Movement", in Mike Davis and Michael Sprinker (eds), Reshaping the U.S. Left: Popular Struggles in the 1980s (London, 1988), pp. 257-286; Earl Lewis, In Their Own Interests: Race, Class, and Power in Twentieth-Century Norfolk, Virginia (Berkeley, 1991); Joe William Trotter, Jr, Coal, Class, and Color: Blacks in Southern West Virginia, 1915-1932 (Urbana, 1990).
38. Michael Kazin, "A People Not a Class: Rethinking the Political Language of the Modern U.S. Labor Movement", in Mike Davis and Michael Sprinker (eds), Reshaping the U.S. Left: Popular Struggles in the 1980s (London, 1988), pp. 257-286; Earl Lewis, In Their Own Interests: Race, Class, and Power in Twentieth-Century Norfolk, Virginia (Berkeley, 1991); Joe William Trotter, Jr, Coal, Class, and Color: Blacks in Southern West Virginia, 1915-1932 (Urbana, 1990).
39. Michael Kazin, "A People Not a Class: Rethinking the Political Language of the Modern U.S. Labor Movement", in Mike Davis and Michael Sprinker (eds), Reshaping the U.S. Left: Popular Struggles in the 1980s (London, 1988), pp. 257-286; Earl Lewis, In Their Own Interests: Race, Class, and Power in Twentieth-Century Norfolk, Virginia (Berkeley, 1991); Joe William Trotter, Jr, Coal, Class, and Color: Blacks in Southern West Virginia, 1915-1932 (Urbana, 1990).
40. David Montgomery, "To Study the People: The American Working Class", Labor History, 21 (1980), p. 492. One work that is particularly attentive to employers' practices - and worker agency - is Honey, Southern Labor and Black Civil Rights, esp. pp. 13-43.
41. David Montgomery, "To Study the People: The American Working Class", Labor History, 21 (1980), p. 492. One work that is particularly attentive to employers' practices -and worker agency - is Honey, Southern Labor and Black Civil Rights, esp. pp. 13-43.
42. Oliver Cromwell Cox, Caste, Class, and Race: A Study in Social Dynamics (New York, 1970).
43. Richard Edwards, Michael Reich and David M. Gordon, Labor Market Segmentation (Boston, 1975); Richard Edwards, Contested Terrain: The Transformation of the Workplace in the Twentieth Century (New York, 1979); Michael Reich, Racial Inequality: A Political-Economic Analysis (Princeton, 1981); David M. Gordon, Richard Edwards and Michael Reich, Segmented Work, Divided Workers: The Historical Transformation of Labor in the United States (Cambridge, 1982). My own research suggests that their categorization of firms is too simple: many "secondary sector" firms, like construction, did not hire minorities; many primary sector firms, like the automobile industry, did. Employment patterns varied widely from firm to firm in each sector. See Sugrue, Origins of the Urban Crisis, ch. 4.
44. Richard Edwards, Michael Reich and David M. Gordon, Labor Market Segmentation (Boston, 1975); Richard Edwards, Contested Terrain: The Transformation of the Workplace in the Twentieth Century (New York, 1979); Michael Reich, Racial Inequality: A Political-Economic Analysis (Princeton, 1981); David M. Gordon, Richard Edwards and Michael Reich, Segmented Work, Divided Workers: The Historical Transformation of Labor in the United States (Cambridge, 1982). My own research suggests that their categorization of firms is too simple: many "secondary sector" firms, like construction, did not hire minorities; many primary sector firms, like the automobile industry, did. Employment patterns varied widely from firm to firm in each sector. See Sugrue, Origins of the Urban Crisis, ch. 4.
45. Richard Edwards, Michael Reich and David M. Gordon, Labor Market Segmentation (Boston, 1975); Richard Edwards, Contested Terrain: The Transformation of the Workplace in the Twentieth Century (New York, 1979); Michael Reich, Racial Inequality: A Political-Economic Analysis (Princeton, 1981); David M. Gordon, Richard Edwards and Michael Reich, Segmented Work, Divided Workers: The Historical Transformation of Labor in the United States (Cambridge, 1982). My own research suggests that their categorization of firms is too simple: many "secondary sector" firms, like construction, did not hire minorities; many primary sector firms, like the automobile industry, did. Employment patterns varied widely from firm to firm in each sector. See Sugrue, Origins of the Urban Crisis, ch. 4.
46. Richard Edwards, Michael Reich and David M. Gordon, Labor Market Segmentation (Boston, 1975); Richard Edwards, Contested Terrain: The Transformation of the Workplace in the Twentieth Century (New York, 1979); Michael Reich, Racial Inequality: A Political-Economic Analysis (Princeton, 1981); David M. Gordon, Richard Edwards and Michael Reich, Segmented Work, Divided Workers: The Historical Transformation of Labor in the United States (Cambridge, 1982). My own research suggests that their categorization of firms is too simple: many "secondary sector" firms, like construction, did not hire minorities; many primary sector firms, like the automobile industry, did. Employment patterns varied widely from firm to firm in each sector. See Sugrue, Origins of the Urban Crisis, ch. 4.
47. Richard Edwards, Michael Reich and David M. Gordon, Labor Market Segmentation (Boston, 1975); Richard Edwards, Contested Terrain: The Transformation of the Workplace in the Twentieth Century (New York, 1979); Michael Reich, Racial Inequality: A Political-Economic Analysis (Princeton, 1981); David M. Gordon, Richard Edwards and Michael Reich, Segmented Work, Divided Workers: The Historical Transformation of Labor in the United States (Cambridge, 1982). My own research suggests that their categorization of firms is too simple: many "secondary sector" firms, like construction, did not hire minorities; many primary sector firms, like the automobile industry, did. Employment patterns varied widely from firm to firm in each sector. See Sugrue, Origins of the Urban Crisis, ch. 4.
48. Peter Doeringer and Michael Piore, Internal Labor Markets and Manpower Analysis (Lexington, MA, 1971).
49. Joleen M. Kirschenman and Kathryn M. Neckerman. "'We'd Love to Hire Them But . . .': The Meaning of Race for Employers", in Christopher Jencks and Paul Peterson (eds), The Urban Underclass (Washington, 1991), pp. 203-232.
50. Suzanne A. Model, "The Ethnic Niche and the Structure of Opportunity: Immigrants and Minorities in New York City", in Michael B. Katz (ed.), The "Underclass" Debate: Views from History (Princeton, 1993), pp. 161-193. Nelson uses Model's approach fruitfully in his discussion of Mexican-American longshore workers in California.
51. One of the most perceptive reviews of Gordon, Edwards and Reich, Segmented Work, Divided Workers, noted that "the authors assume that the job is the only place where people develop ideas about workquot;, and they fail "to acknowledge the importance of culture, ideology, and politics in working-class history". Ronald Schatz, "Labor Historians, Labor Economics, and the Question of Synthesis", Journal of American History, 71 (1984), p. 99. For a equally pointed criticism of the labor economists' "neglect of the cultural and ideological aspects of workers' lives", see Michael Kazin, "Struggling with the Class Struggle", Labor History, 28 (1987), pp. 507-508.
52. One of the most perceptive reviews of Gordon, Edwards and Reich, Segmented Work, Divided Workers, noted that "the authors assume that the job is the only place where people develop ideas about workquot;, and they fail "to acknowledge the importance of culture, ideology, and politics in working-class history". Ronald Schatz, "Labor Historians, Labor Economics, and the Question of Synthesis", Journal of American History, 71 (1984), p. 99. For a equally pointed criticism of the labor economists' "neglect of the cultural and ideological aspects of workers' lives", see Michael Kazin, "Struggling with the Class Struggle", Labor History, 28 (1987), pp. 507-508.
53. One of the most perceptive reviews of Gordon, Edwards and Reich, Segmented Work, Divided Workers, noted that "the authors assume that the job is the only place where people develop ideas about workquot;, and they fail "to acknowledge the importance of culture, ideology, and politics in working-class history". Ronald Schatz, "Labor Historians, Labor Economics, and the Question of Synthesis", Journal of American History, 71 (1984), p. 99. For a equally pointed criticism of the labor economists' "neglect of the cultural and ideological aspects of workers' lives", see Michael Kazin, "Struggling with the Class Struggle", Labor History, 28 (1987), pp. 507-508.
54. Ruth Milkman, Gender at Work: The Dynamics of Job Segregation by Sex during World War II (Urbana, 1987); see also idem, "Rosie the Riveter Revisited: Management's Postwar Purge of Women Automobile Workers", in Nelson Lichtenstein and Stephen Meyer (eds), On the Line: Essays in the History of Auto Work (Urbana, 1989), pp. 129-152.
55. Ruth Milkman, Gender at Work: The Dynamics of Job Segregation by Sex during World War II (Urbana, 1987); see also idem, "Rosie the Riveter Revisited: Management's Postwar Purge of Women Automobile Workers", in Nelson Lichtenstein and Stephen Meyer (eds), On the Line: Essays in the History of Auto Work (Urbana, 1989), pp. 129-152.
56. Examples of employers' use of blacks as strikebreakers abound. For a few examples, see Meier and Rudwick, Black Detroit and the Rise of the UAW, ch. 2, esp. pp. 69-71, 87-97; Honey, Southern Labor and Black Civil Rights, pp. 246-247, 260-263; Dennis C. Dickerson, Out of the Crucible: Black Steelworkers in Western Pennsylvania (Albany, 1983), pp. 8-10, 13-17, 85-93.
57. Examples of employers' use of blacks as strikebreakers abound. For a few examples, see Meier and Rudwick, Black Detroit and the Rise of the UAW, ch. 2, esp. pp. 69-71, 87-97; Honey, Southern Labor and Black Civil Rights, pp. 246-247, 260-263; Dennis C. Dickerson, Out of the Crucible: Black Steelworkers in Western Pennsylvania (Albany, 1983), pp. 8-10, 13-17, 85-93.
58. Examples of employers' use of blacks as strikebreakers abound. For a few examples, see Meier and Rudwick, Black Detroit and the Rise of the UAW, ch. 2, esp. pp. 69-71, 87-97; Honey, Southern Labor and Black Civil Rights, pp. 246-247, 260-263; Dennis C. Dickerson, Out of the Crucible: Black Steelworkers in Western Pennsylvania (Albany, 1983), pp. 8-10, 13-17, 85-93.
59. Thomas N. Maloney and Warren C. Whatley, "Making the Effort: The Contours of Racial Discrimination in Detroit's Labor Markets, 1920-1940", Journal of Economic History, 55 (1995), pp. 465-493. National Urban League Department of Research, "Observations of Conditions Among Negroes in the Fields of Education, Recreation and Employment in Selected Areas of the City of Detroit, Michigan", June 1941, pp. 35-36, in DUL, Box 74, Folder: History.
60. Thomas N. Maloney and Warren C. Whatley, "Making the Effort: The Contours of Racial Discrimination in Detroit's Labor Markets, 1920-1940", Journal of Economic History, 55 (1995), pp. 465-493. National Urban League Department of Research, "Observations of Conditions Among Negroes in the Fields of Education, Recreation and Employment in Selected Areas of the City of Detroit, Michigan", June 1941, pp. 35-36, in DUL, Box 74, Folder: History.
61. Quoted in B.J. Widick, "Black Workers: Double Discontents", in idem (ed.), Auto Work and Its Discontents (Baltimore, 1976), p. 54.
62. For examples, see Conversations with "BIG THREE" (Motor Industry) Vice Presidents in Charge of Personnel, Detroit, 29 September 1943, in "Survey of Racial and Religious Conflicts in Detroit", Civil Rights Congress of Michigan Collection, ALUA, Box 71.
63. Model, "Ethnic Niches and the Structure of Opportunity", esp. pp. 161-193.
64. Quote from Boyle, "'There Are No Sorrows That The Union Can't Heal'", p. 9. On hate strikes, see for example, Meier and Rudwick, Black Detroit and the Rise of the UAW, pp. 125-136; Lloyd Bailer, "Automobile Unions and Negro Labor", Political Science Quarterly, 59 (1944), pp. 568-575; Bruce Nelson, "Organized Labor and the Struggle for Black Equality in Mobile During World War II", Journal of American History, 80 (1993), Pp. 952-988; and George Lipsitz, Rainbow at Midnight: Labor and Culture in the 1940s (Urbana, 1994), pp. 69-95.
65. Quote from Boyle, "'There Are No Sorrows That The Union Can't Heal'", p. 9. On hate strikes, see for example, Meier and Rudwick, Black Detroit and the Rise of the UAW, pp. 125-136; Lloyd Bailer, "Automobile Unions and Negro Labor", Political Science Quarterly, 59 (1944), pp. 568-575; Bruce Nelson, "Organized Labor and the Struggle for Black Equality in Mobile During World War II", Journal of American History, 80 (1993), Pp. 952-988; and George Lipsitz, Rainbow at Midnight: Labor and Culture in the 1940s (Urbana, 1994), pp. 69-95.
66. Quote from Boyle, "'There Are No Sorrows That The Union Can't Heal'", p. 9. On hate strikes, see for example, Meier and Rudwick, Black Detroit and the Rise of the UAW, pp. 125-136; Lloyd Bailer, "Automobile Unions and Negro Labor", Political Science Quarterly, 59 (1944), pp. 568-575; Bruce Nelson, "Organized Labor and the Struggle for Black Equality in Mobile During World War II", Journal of American History, 80 (1993), Pp. 952-988; and George Lipsitz, Rainbow at Midnight: Labor and Culture in the 1940s (Urbana, 1994), pp. 69-95.
67. Quote from Boyle, "'There Are No Sorrows That The Union Can't Heal'", p. 9. On hate strikes, see for example, Meier and Rudwick, Black Detroit and the Rise of the UAW, pp. 125-136; Lloyd Bailer, "Automobile Unions and Negro Labor", Political Science Quarterly, 59 (1944), pp. 568-575; Bruce Nelson, "Organized Labor and the Struggle for Black Equality in Mobile During World War II", Journal of American History, 80 (1993), Pp. 952-988; and George Lipsitz, Rainbow at Midnight: Labor and Culture in the 1940s (Urbana, 1994), pp. 69-95.
68. Quote from Boyle, "'There Are No Sorrows That The Union Can't Heal'", p. 9. On hate strikes, see for example, Meier and Rudwick, Black Detroit and the Rise of the UAW, pp. 125-136; Lloyd Bailer, "Automobile Unions and Negro Labor", Political Science Quarterly, 59 (1944), pp. 568-575; Bruce Nelson, "Organized Labor and the Struggle for Black Equality in Mobile During World War II", Journal of American History, 80 (1993), Pp. 952-988; and George Lipsitz, Rainbow at Midnight: Labor and Culture in the 1940s (Urbana, 1994), pp. 69-95.
69. Walter P. Reuther contended that the UAW "spent some of the most precious hours of our collective bargaining time" pushing for a fair employment clause. See Testimony of Walter P. Reuther, Hearings Held in Detroit, Michigan, December 14-15, 1960 (Washington, 1961), pp. 42, 57. See also George Robinson, Oral History, pp. 1-2, Blacks in the Labor Movement Collection, ALUA. Many African-American unionists and Communists criticized Reuther for not pushing harder for an anti-discrimination clause. See George Crockett, Oral History, pp. 28-29, ibid. For a case of a CIO union that maintained control over the hiring hall, see Nancy Quam-Wickham, "Who Controls the Hiring Hall?: The Struggle for Job Control in the ILWU during World War II", in Steve Rosswurm (ed.), The CIO's Left-Led Unions (New Brunswick, 1992). For examples of employer resistance to fair practices laws, see George Fulton to Albert Cobo, 27 October 1951, Mayor's Papers (1951), Burton Historical Collections, Detroit Public Library, Box 4, Folder: FEPC, DPL; Benson Ford to Walter P. Reuther, in United Automobile Worker (May 1953).
70. Walter P. Reuther contended that the UAW "spent some of the most precious hours of our collective bargaining time" pushing for a fair employment clause. See Testimony of Walter P. Reuther, Hearings Held in Detroit, Michigan, December 14-15, 1960 (Washington, 1961), pp. 42, 57. See also George Robinson, Oral History, pp. 1-2, Blacks in the Labor Movement Collection, ALUA. Many African-American unionists and Communists criticized Reuther for not pushing harder for an anti-discrimination clause. See George Crockett, Oral History, pp. 28-29, ibid. For a case of a CIO union that maintained control over the hiring hall, see Nancy Quam-Wickham, "Who Controls the Hiring Hall?: The Struggle for Job Control in the ILWU during World War II", in Steve Rosswurm (ed.), The CIO's Left-Led Unions (New Brunswick, 1992). For examples of employer resistance to fair practices laws, see George Fulton to Albert Cobo, 27 October 1951, Mayor's Papers (1951), Burton Historical Collections, Detroit Public Library, Box 4, Folder: FEPC, DPL; Benson Ford to Walter P. Reuther, in United Automobile Worker (May 1953).
71. Walter P. Reuther contended that the UAW "spent some of the most precious hours of our collective bargaining time" pushing for a fair employment clause. See Testimony of Walter P. Reuther, Hearings Held in Detroit, Michigan, December 14-15, 1960 (Washington, 1961), pp. 42, 57. See also George Robinson, Oral History, pp. 1-2, Blacks in the Labor Movement Collection, ALUA. Many African-American unionists and Communists criticized Reuther for not pushing harder for an anti-discrimination clause. See George Crockett, Oral History, pp. 28-29, ibid. For a case of a CIO union that maintained control over the hiring hall, see Nancy Quam-Wickham, "Who Controls the Hiring Hall?: The Struggle for Job Control in the ILWU during World War II", in Steve Rosswurm (ed.), The CIO's Left-Led Unions (New Brunswick, 1992). For examples of employer resistance to fair practices laws, see George Fulton to Albert Cobo, 27 October 1951, Mayor's Papers (1951), Burton Historical Collections, Detroit Public Library, Box 4, Folder: FEPC, DPL; Benson Ford to Walter P. Reuther, in United Automobile Worker (May 1953).
72. Walter P. Reuther contended that the UAW "spent some of the most precious hours of our collective bargaining time" pushing for a fair employment clause. See Testimony of Walter P. Reuther, Hearings Held in Detroit, Michigan, December 14-15, 1960 (Washington, 1961), pp. 42, 57. See also George Robinson, Oral History, pp. 1-2, Blacks in the Labor Movement Collection, ALUA. Many African-American unionists and Communists criticized Reuther for not pushing harder for an anti-discrimination clause. See George Crockett, Oral History, pp. 28-29, ibid. For a case of a CIO union that maintained control over the hiring hall, see Nancy Quam-Wickham, "Who Controls the Hiring Hall?: The Struggle for Job Control in the ILWU during World War II", in Steve Rosswurm (ed.), The CIO's Left-Led Unions (New Brunswick, 1992). For examples of employer resistance to fair practices laws, see George Fulton to Albert Cobo, 27 October 1951, Mayor's Papers (1951), Burton Historical Collections, Detroit Public Library, Box 4, Folder: FEPC, DPL; Benson Ford to Walter P. Reuther, in United Automobile Worker (May 1953).
73. Walter P. Reuther contended that the UAW "spent some of the most precious hours of our collective bargaining time" pushing for a fair employment clause. See Testimony of Walter P. Reuther, Hearings Held in Detroit, Michigan, December 14-15, 1960 (Washington, 1961), pp. 42, 57. See also George Robinson, Oral History, pp. 1-2, Blacks in the Labor Movement Collection, ALUA. Many African-American unionists and Communists criticized Reuther for not pushing harder for an anti-discrimination clause. See George Crockett, Oral History, pp. 28-29, ibid. For a case of a CIO union that maintained control over the hiring hall, see Nancy Quam-Wickham, "Who Controls the Hiring Hall?: The Struggle for Job Control in the ILWU during World War II", in Steve Rosswurm (ed.), The CIO's Left-Led Unions (New Brunswick, 1992). For examples of employer resistance to fair practices laws, see George Fulton to Albert Cobo, 27 October 1951, Mayor's Papers (1951), Burton Historical Collections, Detroit Public Library, Box 4, Folder: FEPC, DPL; Benson Ford to Walter P. Reuther, in United Automobile Worker (May 1953).
74. Walter P. Reuther contended that the UAW "spent some of the most precious hours of our collective bargaining time" pushing for a fair employment clause. See Testimony of Walter P. Reuther, Hearings Held in Detroit, Michigan, December 14-15, 1960 (Washington, 1961), pp. 42, 57. See also George Robinson, Oral History, pp. 1-2, Blacks in the Labor Movement Collection, ALUA. Many African-American unionists and Communists criticized Reuther for not pushing harder for an anti-discrimination clause. See George Crockett, Oral History, pp. 28-29, ibid. For a case of a CIO union that maintained control over the hiring hall, see Nancy Quam-Wickham, "Who Controls the Hiring Hall?: The Struggle for Job Control in the ILWU during World War II", in Steve Rosswurm (ed.), The CIO's Left-Led Unions (New Brunswick, 1992). For examples of
75. On the limitations of state FEP laws, see George Schermer, "Effectiveness of Equal Opportunity Legislation", in Herbert R. Northrup and Richard L. Rowan (eds), The Negro and Employment Opportunity: Problems and Practices (Ann Arbor, 1965), pp. 74-75, 79-81; for a discussion of the Michigan law, see Sugrue, Origins of the Urban Crisis, ch. 6.
76. On the limitations of state FEP laws, see George Schermer, "Effectiveness of Equal Opportunity Legislation", in Herbert R. Northrup and Richard L. Rowan (eds), The Negro and Employment Opportunity: Problems and Practices (Ann Arbor, 1965), pp. 74-75, 79-81; for a discussion of the Michigan law, see Sugrue, Origins of the Urban Crisis, ch. 6.
77. At General Motors, the GM-UAW contract gave foremen discretion in the promotion and transfer of workers, allowing management's shop-floor representatives the power to discriminate by race. See Lichtenstein, The Most Dangerous Man in Detroit, p. 374. On decentralization, see Thomas J. Sugrue, "Forget About Your Inalienable Right to Work: Deindustrialization and its Discontents at Ford. 1950-1953". International Labor and Working-Class History, 48 (1995), pp. 112-130; George Sternlieb and James W. Hughes (eds). Post-Industrial America: Metropolitan Decline and Inter-Regional Job Shifts (New Brunswick, 1975).
78. At General Motors, the GM-UAW contract gave foremen discretion in the promotion and transfer of workers, allowing management's shop-floor representatives the power to discriminate by race. See Lichtenstein, The Most Dangerous Man in Detroit, p. 374. On decentralization, see Thomas J. Sugrue, "Forget About Your Inalienable Right to Work: Deindustrialization and its Discontents at Ford. 1950-1953". International Labor and Working-Class History, 48 (1995), pp. 112-130; George Sternlieb and James W. Hughes (eds). Post-Industrial America: Metropolitan Decline and Inter-Regional Job Shifts (New Brunswick, 1975).
79. At General Motors, the GM-UAW contract gave foremen discretion in the promotion and transfer of workers, allowing management's shop-floor representatives the power to discriminate by race. See Lichtenstein, The Most Dangerous Man in Detroit, p. 374. On decentralization, see Thomas J. Sugrue, "Forget About Your Inalienable Right to Work: Deindustrialization and its Discontents at Ford. 1950-1953". International Labor and Working-Class History, 48 (1995), pp. 112-130; George Sternlieb and James W. Hughes (eds). Post-Industrial America: Metropolitan Decline and Inter-Regional Job Shifts (New Brunswick, 1975).
80. GM figures from UAW data submitted to Hearings, pp. 63-65; for the number of black and women crafts workers in the steel industry, see Herbert Northrup et al., Negro Employment in Basic Industry: A Study of Racial Policies in Six Industries (Philadelphia, 1970), p. 287; in tire manufacturing, ibid., p. 428; for overall apprenticeship figures in all trades) see Ray Marshall and Vernon M. Briggs, Jr, The Negro and Apprenticeship (Baltimore, 1967), p. 28. The representation of women in all sectors of the auto industry and electronic industry (with the exception of sex-typed jobs and pink-collar work) grew gradually in the 1960s and 1970s. See Milkman, Gender at Work, pp. 153-160. See also "NAACP Study Concerning Trade Union Apprenticeship" (prepared by Herbert Hill), 1960, National Association for the Advancement of Colored People Papers, Library of Congress, Washington, DC, Group III, Box A180, Folder; Labor: Apprenticeship Training.
81. GM figures from UAW data submitted to Hearings, pp. 63-65; for the number of black and women crafts workers in the steel industry, see Herbert Northrup et al., Negro Employment in Basic Industry: A Study of Racial Policies in Six Industries (Philadelphia, 1970), p. 287; in tire manufacturing, ibid., p. 428; for overall apprenticeship figures in all trades) see Ray Marshall and Vernon M. Briggs, Jr, The Negro and Apprenticeship (Baltimore, 1967), p. 28. The representation of women in all sectors of the auto industry and electronic industry (with the exception of sex-typed jobs and pink-collar work) grew gradually in the 1960s and 1970s. See Milkman, Gender at Work, pp. 153-160. See also "NAACP Study Concerning Trade Union Apprenticeship" (prepared by Herbert Hill), 1960, National Association for the Advancement of Colored People Papers, Library of Congress, Washington, DC, Group III, Box A180, Folder; Labor: Apprenticeship Training.
82. GM figures from UAW data submitted to Hearings, pp. 63-65; for the number of black and women crafts workers in the steel industry, see Herbert Northrup et al., Negro Employment in Basic Industry: A Study of Racial Policies in Six Industries (Philadelphia, 1970), p. 287; in tire manufacturing, ibid., p. 428; for overall apprenticeship figures in all trades) see Ray Marshall and Vernon M. Briggs, Jr, The Negro and Apprenticeship (Baltimore, 1967), p. 28. The representation of women in all sectors of the auto industry and electronic industry (with the exception of sex-typed jobs and pink-collar work) grew gradually in the 1960s and 1970s. See Milkman, Gender at Work, pp. 153-160. See also "NAACP Study Concerning Trade Union Apprenticeship" (prepared by Herbert Hill), 1960, National Association for the Advancement of Colored People Papers, Library of Congress, Washington, DC, Group III, Box A180, Folder; Labor: Apprenticeship Training.
83. GM figures from UAW data submitted to Hearings, pp. 63-65; for the number of black and women crafts workers in the steel industry, see Herbert Northrup et al., Negro Employment in Basic Industry: A Study of Racial Policies in Six Industries (Philadelphia, 1970), p. 287; in tire manufacturing, ibid., p. 428; for overall apprenticeship figures in all trades) see Ray Marshall and Vernon M. Briggs, Jr, The Negro and Apprenticeship (Baltimore, 1967), p. 28. The representation of women in all sectors of the auto industry and electronic industry (with the exception of sex-typed jobs and pink-collar work) grew gradually in the 1960s and 1970s. See Milkman, Gender at Work, pp. 153-160. See also "NAACP Study Concerning Trade Union Apprenticeship" (prepared by Herbert Hill), 1960, National Association for the Advancement of Colored People Papers, Library of Congress, Washington, DC, Group III, Box A180, Folder; Labor: Apprenticeship Training.
84. GM figures from UAW data submitted to Hearings, pp. 63-65; for the number of black and women crafts workers in the steel industry, see Herbert Northrup et al., Negro Employment in Basic Industry: A Study of Racial Policies in Six Industries (Philadelphia, 1970), p. 287; in tire manufacturing, ibid., p. 428; for overall apprenticeship figures in all trades) see Ray Marshall and Vernon M. Briggs, Jr, The Negro and Apprenticeship (Baltimore, 1967), p. 28. The representation of women in all sectors of the auto industry and electronic industry (with the exception of sex-typed jobs and pink-collar work) grew gradually in the 1960s and 1970s. See Milkman, Gender at Work, pp. 153-160. See also "NAACP Study Concerning Trade Union Apprenticeship" (prepared by Herbert Hill), 1960, National Association for the Advancement of Colored People Papers, Library of Congress, Washington, DC, Group III, Box A180, Folder; Labor: Apprenticeship Training.
85. GM figures from UAW data submitted to Hearings, pp. 63-65; for the number of black and women crafts workers in the steel industry, see Herbert Northrup et al., Negro Employment in Basic Industry: A Study of Racial Policies in Six Industries (Philadelphia, 1970), p. 287; in tire manufacturing, ibid., p. 428; for overall apprenticeship figures in all trades) see Ray Marshall and Vernon M. Briggs, Jr, The Negro and Apprenticeship (Baltimore, 1967), p. 28. The representation of women in all sectors of the auto industry and electronic industry (with the exception of sex-typed jobs and pink-collar work) grew gradually in the 1960s and 1970s. See Milkman, Gender at Work, pp. 153-160. See also "NAACP Study Concerning Trade Union Apprenticeship" (prepared by Herbert Hill), 1960, National Association for the Advancement of Colored People Papers, Library of Congress, Washington, DC, Group III, Box A180, Folder; Labor: Apprenticeship Training.
86. Nelson Lichtenstein, "From Corporatism to Collective Bargaining: Organized Labor and the Eclipse of Social Democracy in the Postwar Era", in Steve Fraser and Gary Gerstle (eds), The Rise and Fall of the New Deal Order, 1930-1980 (Princeton, 1989), pp. 122-152, quote p. 133; Rosswurm, The CIO's Left-Led Unions; Elizabeth A. FonesWolf, Selling Free Enterprise: The Business Assault on Labor and Liberalism, 1945-1960 (Urbana, 1994).
87. Nelson Lichtenstein, "From Corporatism to Collective Bargaining: Organized Labor and the Eclipse of Social Democracy in the Postwar Era", in Steve Fraser and Gary Gerstle (eds), The Rise and Fall of the New Deal Order, 1930-1980 (Princeton, 1989), pp. 122-152, quote p. 133; Rosswurm, The CIO's Left-Led Unions; Elizabeth A. FonesWolf, Selling Free Enterprise: The Business Assault on Labor and Liberalism, 1945-1960 (Urbana, 1994).
88. Nelson Lichtenstein, "From Corporatism to Collective Bargaining: Organized Labor and the Eclipse of Social Democracy in the Postwar Era", in Steve Fraser and Gary Gerstle (eds), The Rise and Fall of the New Deal Order, 1930-1980 (Princeton, 1989), pp. 122-152, quote p. 133; Rosswurm, The CIO's Left-Led Unions; Elizabeth A. FonesWolf, Selling Free Enterprise: The Business Assault on Labor and Liberalism, 1945-1960 (Urbana, 1994).
89. City of Detroit, Mayor's Interracial Committee, "Racial Discrimination in Employment and Proposed Fair Employment Measures, A Report to the Common Council", 7 December 1951, p. 6, in Detroit Commission on Community Relations Collection, ALUA, Part I, Series 1, Box 11; "Michigan State Employment Service Experiences in the Placement of Minority Group Workers"; see also Detroit Focus, December 1951, in DUL, Box 21, Folder 21-14; Memorandum from the Michigan Committee on Civil Rights to the Governor's Committee on Civil Rights, 29 December 1948, in Vertical File - Pre 1960, ALUA, Box 4, Folder: Fair Employment Practices, Michigan, 1940s; for other examples, see "Discriminatory Job Orders Placed With State Employment Offices by Chrysler Corporation", 6 December 1954, in Francis Kornegay Papers, MHC, Box 4, Folder 124; UAW Local 600, Executive Board Minutes, 14 February 1950, in UAW Local 600 Papers, ALUA, Box 2. For similar patterns in Philadelphia, see Walter Licht, Getting Work: Philadelphia 1840-1950 (Cambridge, MA, 1993), pp. 125-126, 136-139.
90. City of Detroit, Mayor's Interracial Committee, "Racial Discrimination in Employment and Proposed Fair Employment Measures, A Report to the Common Council", 7 December 1951, p. 6, in Detroit Commission on Community Relations Collection, ALUA, Part I, Series 1, Box 11; "Michigan State Employment Service Experiences in the Placement of Minority Group Workers"; see also Detroit Focus, December 1951, in DUL, Box 21, Folder 21-14; Memorandum from the Michigan Committee on Civil Rights to the Governor's Committee on Civil Rights, 29 December 1948, in Vertical File - Pre 1960, ALUA, Box 4, Folder: Fair Employment Practices, Michigan, 1940s; for other examples, see "Discriminatory Job Orders Placed With State Employment Offices by Chrysler Corporation", 6 December 1954, in Francis Kornegay Papers, MHC, Box 4, Folder 124; UAW Local 600, Executive Board Minutes, 14 February 1950, in UAW Local 600 Papers, ALUA, Box 2. For similar patterns in Philadelphia, see Walter Licht, Getting Work: Philadelphia 1840-1950 (Cambridge, MA, 1993), pp. 125-126, 136-139.
91. City of Detroit, Mayor's Interracial Committee, "Racial Discrimination in Employment and Proposed Fair Employment Measures, A Report to the Common Council", 7 December 1951, p. 6, in Detroit Commission on Community Relations Collection, ALUA, Part I, Series 1, Box 11; "Michigan State Employment Service Experiences in the Placement of Minority Group Workers"; see also Detroit Focus, December 1951, in DUL, Box 21, Folder 21-14; Memorandum from the Michigan Committee on Civil Rights to the Governor's Committee on Civil Rights, 29 December 1948, in Vertical File - Pre 1960, ALUA, Box 4, Folder: Fair Employment Practices, Michigan, 1940s; for other examples, see "Discriminatory Job Orders Placed With State Employment Offices by Chrysler Corporation", 6 December 1954, in Francis Kornegay Papers, MHC, Box 4, Folder 124; UAW Local 600, Executive Board Minutes, 14 February 1950, in UAW Local 600 Papers, ALUA, Box 2. For similar patterns in Philadelphia, see Walter Licht, Getting Work: Philadelphia 1840-1950 (Cambridge, MA, 1993), pp. 125-126, 136-139.
92. City of Detroit, Mayor's Interracial Committee, "Racial Discrimination in Employment and Proposed Fair Employment Measures, A Report to the Common Council", 7 December 1951, p. 6, in Detroit Commission on Community Relations Collection, ALUA, Part I, Series 1, Box 11; "Michigan State Employment Service Experiences in the Placement of Minority Group Workers"; see also Detroit Focus, December 1951, in DUL, Box 21, Folder 21-14; Memorandum from the Michigan Committee on Civil Rights to the Governor's Committee on Civil Rights, 29 December 1948, in Vertical File - Pre 1960, ALUA, Box 4, Folder: Fair Employment Practices, Michigan, 1940s; for other examples, see "Discriminatory Job Orders Placed With State Employment Offices by Chrysler Corporation", 6 December 1954, in Francis Kornegay Papers, MHC, Box 4, Folder 124; UAW Local 600, Executive Board Minutes, 14 February 1950, in UAW Local 600 Papers, ALUA, Box 2. For similar patterns in Philadelphia, see Walter Licht, Getting Work: Philadelphia 1840-1950 (Cambridge, MA, 1993), pp. 125-126, 136-139.
93. H.G. Bixby, President of Ex-Cell-O, "How Shall We Produce a More Favorable Climate for Business, Industry, and Payrolls in Detroit and Michigan", Speech before the Economic Club of Detroit, 18 April 1960, copy in Frances Kornegay Papers, Michigan Historical Collections, Bentley Library, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Box 8, Folder 265. On unemployment rates in 1960, see United States Bureau of the Census, United States Census of Population, Detroit, Michigan and Adjacent Area, Final Report, PC1-24C, Tables 73 and 77. On youth unemployment, see "Detroit Metropolitan Area Employment by Age, Sex, Color, and Residence", in Detroit Branch NAACP Papers, ALUA, Part II, Box 10, Folder 10-5.
94. H.G. Bixby, President of Ex-Cell-O, "How Shall We Produce a More Favorable Climate for Business, Industry, and Payrolls in Detroit and Michigan", Speech before the Economic Club of Detroit, 18 April 1960, copy in Frances Kornegay Papers, Michigan Historical Collections, Bentley Library, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Box 8, Folder 265. On unemployment rates in 1960, see United States Bureau of the Census, United States Census of Population, Detroit, Michigan and Adjacent Area, Final Report, PC1-24C, Tables 73 and 77. On youth unemployment, see "Detroit Metropolitan Area Employment by Age, Sex, Color, and Residence", in Detroit Branch NAACP Papers, ALUA, Part II, Box 10, Folder 10-5.
95. H.G. Bixby, President of Ex-Cell-O, "How Shall We Produce a More Favorable Climate for Business, Industry, and Payrolls in Detroit and Michigan", Speech before the Economic Club of Detroit, 18 April 1960, copy in Frances Kornegay Papers, Michigan Historical Collections, Bentley Library, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Box 8, Folder 265. On unemployment rates in 1960, see United States Bureau of the Census, United States Census of Population, Detroit, Michigan and Adjacent Area, Final Report, PC1-24C, Tables 73 and 77. On youth unemployment, see "Detroit Metropolitan Area Employment by Age, Sex, Color, and Residence", in Detroit Branch NAACP Papers, ALUA, Part II, Box 10, Folder 10-5.
96. Milkman, Gender at Work; on NAACP and Urban League campaigns to pressure employers to open jobs for blacks, see Sugrue, Origins of the Urban Crisis, ch. 6.
97. Milkman, Gender at Work; on NAACP and Urban League campaigns to pressure employers to open jobs for blacks, see Sugrue, Origins of the Urban Crisis, ch. 6.