Two models for human genetics: Blood grouping and psychiatry in Germany between the World Wars

Bulletin of the History of Medicine

Volumn 70, Issue 4, 1996, Pages 609-657

  Mazumdar, Pauline M H ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ARTICLE; BIOMEDICAL AND BEHAVIORAL RESEARCH; BLOOD GROUP TYPING; GENETICS; GENETICS AND REPRODUCTION; GERMANY; HISTORY; HUMAN; MEDICAL GENETICS; MENTAL HEALTH THERAPIES; POLITICAL SYSTEM; PSYCHIATRY;

BIOMEDICAL AND BEHAVIORAL RESEARCH; GENETICS AND REPRODUCTION; MENTAL HEALTH THERAPIES;

BLOOD GROUPING AND CROSSMATCHING; EUGENICS; GENETICS; GERMANY; HISTORY, 20TH CENTURY; HUMANS; POLITICAL SYSTEMS; PSYCHIATRY;

EID: 0030330892     PISSN: 00075140     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article

References (227)

1. Among the many recent accounts of the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Rassenhygiene are those of Georg Lilienthal, "Rassenhygiene im Dritten Reich: Krise und Wende," Medizinhistorisches Journal, 1979, 14: 114-33;
2. Gunter Mann, "Rassenhygiene-Sozialdarwinismus," in Biologismus im 19.Jahrhundert: Vorträge eines Symposiums vom 30. bis 31. Oktober 1970 in Frankfurt am Main, ed. idem (Stuttgart: Enke, 1973), pp. 73-93;
3. Robert N. Proctor, Racial Hygiene: Medicine, under the Nazis (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1988), pp. 10-45;
4. Paul Weindling, Health, Race and German Politics between National Unification and Nazism, 1870-1945 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), pp. 141-45;
5. Sheila Faith Weiss, Race Hygiene and National Efficiency: The Eugenics of Wilhelm Schallmayer (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987), passim;
6. Sheila Faith Weiss, idem, "The Race Hygiene Movement in Germany," Osiris, 1987, 3: 193-236.
7. See also Eugen Fischer, "Aus der Geschichte der Deutschen Gesellschaft für Rassenhygiene," Arch. f. Rassen- u. Gesellsch.-Biol., 1930, 24: 1-5.
8. Hans Luxenberger, "Wilhelm Weinberg," Allgem. Z. f. Psychiatrie, 1938, 107: 378-81;
9. Curt Stern, "Wilhelm Weinberg 1862-1937," Genetics, 1962, 47: 1-5.
10. Max von Gruber and Ernst Rüdin, eds., Fortpflanzung, Vererbung, Rassenhygiene: Illustrierte Führer durch die Gruppe Rassenhygiene der Internationale Hygieneausstellung, 1911 in Dresden (Munich: Lehmann, 1911), pp. 70-73, 131-33.
11. Wilhelm Weinberg, "Über Nachweis der Vererbung beim Menschen," Jahreshefte des Vereins fur Vater. Naturkunde in Württemberg, 1908, 64: 369-82;
12. Wilhelm Weinberg, idem, "Über Vererbungsgesetz beim Menschen," Z. f. indukt. Abstammungs- u. Vererbungslehre, 1909, 1: 377-92.
13. This result was also derived by the Cambridge mathematician Godfrey Harold Hardy, and the equation is now known as the Hardy-Weinberg equation. Hardy, however, was not interested in applied mathematics of any kind, and did not pursue the problem any further: see Robert Kanigel, The Man Who Knew Infinity: A Life of the Genius Ramanujan (New York: Washington Square Press, 1991), esp. p. 146.
14. For an explanation of how Weinberg arrived at these expressions, see Samuel H. Boyer, Papers on Human Genetics (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1963), pp. 12-13; Boyer includes a translation of Weinberg's paper of 1908 (pp. 3-15).
15. Wilhelm Weinberg, "Weitere Beiträge zur Theorie der Vererbung, IV. Über Methode und Fehlerquellen der Untersuchung auf Mendel'sche Zahlen beim Menschen," Arch. f. Rassen- u. Gesellsch.-Biol., 1912, 9: 165-74.
16. Hermann Bernard Lundborg, Medizinische-biologische Familienforschungen innerhalb eines 2232 köpfigen Bauerngeschlechtes in Schweden (Provinz Blekinge) Text und Atlas (Jena: G. Fischer, 1913).
17. Wilhelm Weinberg, "Auslesewirkungen bei biologisch-statistischen Problemen," Arch. f. Rassen- u. Gesellsch.-Biol., 1913, 10: 417-51, 557-81;
18. Wilhelm Weinberg, idem, "Nachtrag zu meiner Arbeit: Auslesewirkung bei biologisch-statistischen Problemen," Arch. f. Rassen- u. Gesellsch.-Biol., ibid., 1915, 11: 569-73.
19. Fritz Lenz, review of Weinberg, "Auslesewirkungen" (n. 8), in Z. f. Abstammungs- u. Vererbungslehre, 1915, 14: 288-90.
20. Fritz Lenz, Über die krankhaften Erbanlagen des Mannes und die Bestimmung des Geschlechtes beim Menschen (Jena: G. Fischer, 1912);
21. Fritz Lenz, idem, "Über die idioplasmatischen Ursachen der physiologischen und pathologischen Sexualcharacter des Menschen," Arch. f. Rassen- u. Gesellsch.-Biol., 1912, 9: 545-603.
22. Weinberg, annoyed that Lenz seemed to be claiming priority, and seeing a criticism in Lenz's remark about his difficult mathematics, immediately replied by reworking Lenz's material all over again with the Probandenmethode, which he said was more appropriate, since all the existing cases had not been reported: Weinberg, "Weitere Beiträge zur Theorie der Vererbung, V. Zur Vererbung der Anlage zur Bluterkrankheit mit methodologische Ergänzungen meiner Geschwistermethode," Arch. f. Rassen- u. Gesellsch.-Biol., 1912, 9: 694-709.
23. This started a controversy with Lenz which was fought out in the Arch. f. Rassen- u. Gesellsch.-Biol.:
24. Fritz Lenz, "Noch einmal die Erblichkeit der Hämophilie und Verwandtes," Arch. f. Rassen- u. Gesellsch.-Biol., 1913, 10: 332-39;
25. Wilhelm Weinberg, "Zur Hämophilie," Arch. f. Rassen- u. Gesellsch.-Biol., ibid., pp. 339-44;
26. Lenz, "Bemerkungen zu der vorstehenden Artikel von Weinberg," Arch. f. Rassen- u. Gesellsch.-Biol., ibid., pp. 344-46.
27. Ernst Rüdin, "Einige Wege und Ziele der Familienforschung mit Rücksicht auf die Psychiatrie," Z. f. d. ges. Neurol. u. Psychiatrie, 1911, 7: 487-585.
28. Ernst Rüdin, Studien über Vererbung und Entstehung geistiger Störungen, I. Zur Vererbung und Neuentstehung der Dementia praecox, Monographien aus dem Gesamtgebiete der Neurologie und Psychiatrie, no. 12 (Berlin: Springer, 1916);
29. see esp. chap. 1, "Methodologisches," pp. 1-27.
30. Rudolf Allers, review of Vererbung und Neuentstehung der Dementia praecox (1916) by Ernst Rüdin, Arch. f. Rassen- u. Gesellsch.-Biol., 1917, 12: 371.
31. Wilhelm Weinberg, "Über neuere psychiatrische Vererbungsstatistik," Arch. f. Rassen-und Gesellsch.-Biol., 1913, 10: 303-12.
32. Günther Just, "Der Nachweis von Mendel-Zahlen bei Formen mit niedriger Nachkommenzahl. Eine empirische Prüfung der Geschwister- und Probandenen-methode Weinbergs auf Grund von Kreutzungsversuchen mit Drosophila ampelophila (Löw)," Arch. f. mikroskopische Anat., 1920, 94: 604-52.
33. On the pedigree methodology typical of eugenists outside Germany, see Pauline M. H. Mazumdar, Eugenics, Human Genetics and Human Failings: The Eugenics Society, Its Sources and Its Critics (London: Routledge, 1992), pp. 58-95.
34. David Heron, Mendelism and the Problem of Mental Defect, I. A Criticism of Recent American Work, Questions of the Day and of the Fray, Draper's Company Research Memoirs, no. 8 (London: Dulau, 1913);
35. Karl Pearson, Mendelism and the Problem of Mental Defect, III. On the Graduated Character of Mental Defect and on the Need for Standardising Judgment as to the Grade of Social Inefficiency Which Shall Involve Segregation, Questions of the Day and of the Fray, no. 9 (London: Dulau, 1914).
36. Pearson argues that there are no definable Mendelian unit-characters for normal intelligence vs. feeblemindedness. The controversy between the Mendelians and the biometricians in Britain has been discussed by William B. Provine, The Origins of Theoretical Population Genetics (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1971); this book is one of the foundation works in the analysis of the history of genetics.
37. Charles E. Rosenberg, "Charles Benedict Davenport and the Irony of American Eugenics," in No Other Gods: On Science and American Social Thought (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1961), p. 91.
38. Weinberg, "Über neuere psychiatrische Vererbungsstatistik" (n. 14).
39. Paul Weindling suggests that Weinberg's work did not find international recognition because of his criticism of Karl Pearson: Weindling, Health, Race (n. 1), p. 236. However, there was no mathematical Mendelism at this time in eugenics or human genetics outside Germany, even among professed Mendelians. This seems too much to ascribe to Pearson's influence, which extended neither to American eugenists, nor even to the members of the Eugenics Society in London.
40. Fritz Lenz, "Die Bedeutung der statistisch ermittelten Belastung mit Blutsverwandtschaft der Eltern," Münchener med. Wschr., 1919, 2: 1340-42.
41. For example, Günther Just, Praktische Übungen zur Vererbungslehre für Studierende, Arzte und Lehrer in Anlehnung an den Lehrplan der erbkundlichen Seminars von Dr Heinrich Poll (Freiburg im Breisgau: Fischer, 1923), pp. 72-81.
42. Weinberg, "Weitere Beiträge, V" (n. 10), p. 694.
43. Luxenburger, "Wilhelm Weinberg" (n. 2).
44. Weinberg, "Auslesewirkungen" (n. 8), p. 438.
45. Such calculations appeared first in the appendix to one of Weinberg's papers, "Weitere Beiträge, IV" (n. 6), pp. 172-73;
46. and soon after in a paper read to the French Eugenics Society by Eugène Apert, "The Laws of Naudin-Mendel: An Interpretation of Pearson, Nettleship and Usher, on Albinism in Man - Practical Rules to Regulate Marriage of Members of Tainted Family Stocks," J. Heredity, 1914, 5: 492-97.
47. On Apert and the French movement, see William H. Schneider, "Puericulture and the Style of French Eugenics," Hist. Phil. Life Sci., 1986, 8: 265-77;
48. William H. Schneider, idem, Quality and Quantity: The Quest for Biological Regeneration in Twentieth-Century France (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), pp. 84-169;
49. William H. Schneider, idem, "The Eugenics Movement in France 1890-1940," in Mark B. Adams, The Wellborn Science: Eugenics in Germany, France, Brazil and Russia (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990), pp. 69-109.
50. Henry Nathan, "Bernstein, Felix," in Dictionary of Scientific Biography, ed. Charles Coulston Gillespie (NewYork: Scribner's, 1970), 2: 58-59;
51. Pauline M. H. Mazumdar, Species and Specificity: An Interpretation of the History of Immunology (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995), pp. 281-304;
52. "Immunology and Genetics in the Early Twentieth Century: The Receptor and the Unit Character"; "Nekrolog," Personalakt Felix Bernstein, Universitätsarchiv, Georg-August Universität, Göttingen.
53. Bernstein came from a distinguished family; on his father, the physiologist Julius Bernstein, see L. Zett and B. Nilius, Bernstein-Symposium: Anlässlich des 100 jährigen Bestehens des Physiologischen Instituts der Martin-Luther-Universität, Halle-Wittenberg (Halle: Martin-Luther-Universität, Wissenschaftliche Beiträge, 1983), pp. 7-22. He was also related to the socialist Eduard Bernstein, a leader of German Social Democracy and editor of the journal Sozialdemokrat; he was a friend of Friedrich Engels, but later abandoned Marxism to become the original revisionist.
54. F. R. Berwald, "Über die Weinberg'sche Geschwister-methode," Skandinavisk Aktuarietidskrift, 1924, 7: 75-106;
55. Felix Bernstein, "Variations- und Erblichkeits-statistik," in Handbuch der Vererbungswissenschafr, ed. Erwin Baur and Max Hartmann (Berlin: Gebrüder Bornträger, 1929), vol. 1, pt. C, no. 8, pp. 52-54;
56. Bernstein, "Über die Ermittlung und Prüfung von Gen-Hypothesen aus Vererbungsbeobachtungen am Menschen, und über die Unzulässigkeit der Weinberg'schen Geschwistermethode," Arch. f. Rassen- u. Gesellsch.-Biol., 1929, 22: 241-44.
57. Felix Bernstein, "Über die Unzulässigkeit der Weinberg'schen Geschwistermethode," Arch. f. Rassen- u. Gesellsch.-Biol., 1931, 23: 285-90.
58. Günther Just, "Über die Ausschaltung des Rezessiven-überschusses," Arch. f. Rassen- u. Gesellsch.-Biol., 1931, 23: 260-75, esp. p. 263;
59. Fritz Lenz, "Methoden der menschlichen Erblichkeitsforschung," in Handbuch der hygienischen Untersuchungsmethoden, ed. Emil Gotschlich, 3 vols. (Jena: G. Fischer, 1929-1931), 3: 689-739.
60. Garland E. Allen, "The Introduction of Drosophila into the Study of Heredity and Evolution, 1900-1910," Isis, 1975, 66: 322-33.
61. Alfred H. Sturtevant, A History of Genetics (New York: Harper and Row, 1965), pp. 45-50, on the fly-room.
62. Mazumdar, Eugenics (n. 16), pp. 161-69.
63. William H. Schneider, "Chance and Social Setting in the Application of the Discovery of Blood Groups," Bull. Hist. Med., 1983, 57: 545-62;
64. Pauline M. H. Mazumdar, "Blood and Soil: The Serology of the Aryan Racial State," Bull. Hist. Med., 1990, 64: 187-219.
65. Emil, Freiherr von Dungern and Ludwik Hirzfeld, "Über die Vererbung gruppenspezifischer Strukturen des Blutes, II," Z. f. Immunitätsforschung, 1910, 6: 284-92.
66. Emil, Freiherr von Dungern, "Über Nachweis und Vererbung biochemischer Strukturen und ihre forensischer Bedeutung," Münchener med. Wschr., 1910, 57(1): 293-95;
67. von Dungern and Hirszfeld, "Über die Vererbung" (n. 34);
68. Otto Reche and Anton Rolleder, "Zur Entstehungsgeschichte der ersten exakt-wissenschaftlichen erbbiologisch-anthropologischen Abstammungsgutachten," Z. f. morph. Anthropol., 1964, 55: 283-93;
69. Otmar, Freiherr von Verschuer, "Das ehemaligen Kaiser-Wilhelm Institut für Anthropologie, menschliche Erblehre und Eugenik: Berichte über die wissenschaftliche Forschung 1927-1945," Z. f. morph. Anthropol., ibid., pp. 127-74.
70. On the relation of blood-group specificity, the receptor theory of immunity, and the Mendelian unit-character, see Mazumdar, Species and Specificity (n. 26), 281-304.
71. Ludwig Hirschfeld and Hanka [sic] Hirschfeld, "Serological Differences between the Blood of Different Races: The Result of Researches on the Macedonian Front," Lancet, 1919, 2: 675-79;
72. Schneider, "Chance and Social Setting" (n. 33);
73. Mazumdar, "Blood and Soil" (n. 33).
74. League of Nations, Health Organization, Report of the Permanent Commission on Standardization of Sera, Serological Reactions and Biological Products, Frankfurt-on-Main, 25-28 April 1928 (Geneva, 1928), C.H. 717, p. 2;
75. Wilhelm Johannsen, Elemente der exacten Erblichkeitslehre mit Grundzügen der biologischen Variationsstatistik, 3d ed. (Jena: G. Fischer, 1926), p. 585.
76. Felix Bernstein, "Ergebnisse einer biostatistischen zusammenfassenden Betrachtung über die erblichen Blutstrukturen des Menschen," Klin. Wschr., 1924, 3: 1495-97;
77. Felix Bernstein, idem, "Zusammenfassenden Betrachtungen über die erblichen Blutstrukturen des Menschen," Z. f. indukt. Abstamm.- u. Vererbungsl., 1925, 37: 237-70.
78. These papers and the derivation of the expressions are discussed in more detail in Mazumdar, Species and Specificity (n. 26), pp. 295-300.
79. Earl L. Green, "Laurence Hasbrouck Snyder: Pioneer in Human Genetics," Am. J. Hum. Genet., 1987, 41: 276-85.
80. Laurence H. Snyder, "Human Blood Groups: Their Inheritance and Racial Significance" (Ph.D. diss., Bussey Institution, 1926);
81. a version of this was published in Amer. J. Phys. Anthrop., 1926, 9: 233-63.
82. Philip Levine, "Menschliche Blutgruppen und individuelle Blutdifferenzen," Ergebn. inn. Med., 1928, 34: 111-53.
83. Alexander S. Wiener, Max Lederer, and Silik H. Polayes, "Studies in Isohemagglutination, III. On the Heredity of the Landsteiner Blood Groups," J. Immunol., 1930, 18: 201-21.
84. Karl Landsteiner and Philip Levine, laboratory notes on tests of Hirszfeld vs. Bernstein, February 1928; "Exceptions to Bernstein's theory," August 1931, Landsteiner Papers, 450 L239, Box 5, Folder 6, Rockefeller Archives, Rockefeller Institute, New York, N.Y.
85. Laurence H. Snyder, Blood Grouping in Relation to Clinical and Legal Medicine (Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins, 1929), pp. 77-81.
86. Fritz Schiff to Felix Bernstein, 23 December 1927, Nachlass Felix Bernstein, File 1a, Niedersächsische Staats- u. Universitätsbibliotek, Göttingen (hereafter, Nachlass Felix Bernstein); emphasis added.
87. Siegfried Koller to Bernstein, 27 December 1928, Nachlass Felix Bernstein (n. 45), File Ia.
88. Fritz Schiff to Bernstein, 16 January 1929, Nachlass Felix Bernstein (n. 45), File 1a.
89. Fritz Schiff, "Agglutination," in Karl Oppenheimer, Handbuch der Biochemie des Menschen und der Tiere, 2d ed. (Jena: G. Fischer, 1925), vol. 3, pt. 3, pp. 262-356;
90. Fritz Schiff, idem, Die Technik der Blutgruppenuntersuchung für Kliniker und Gerichtsärzte. Nebst Berücksichtigung ihrer Anwendung in der Anthropologie und der Vererbungs- und Konstitutionsforschung (Berlin: Springer, 1926).
91. Tanemoto Furuhata, "On the Heredity of the Blood Groups," Z. f. indukt. Abstammungs-u. Vererbungsl., 1928, Suppl. 1: 705-35.
92. Fritz Schiff to Bernstein, 4 July 1926, Nachlass Felix Bernstein (n. 45), File 1a.
93. Snyder, Blood Grouping (n. 44), p. 81.
94. Karl-Heinrich Bauer, "Zur Genetik der menschlichen Blutgruppen" (keynote address, 6th General Meeting of the Deutsche Gesellschaft f. Vererbungswissenschaft, Hamburg, 20 September 1928), Z. f. indukt. Abstammung- u. Vererbungsl., 1929, 50: 3-62.
95. Snyder, Blood Grouping (n. 44), p. 83.
96. Oluf Thomsen to Bernstein, 8 December 1928, Nachlass Felix Bernstein (n. 45), File 1a; Oluf Thomsen, "Über die gegenseitige Stärke (Dominanz) der Blutgruppengene A und B," Z. f. Rassenphysiol., 1929, 1: 198-203.
97. Oluf Thomsen had been at the Statens Seruminstitut in Copenhagen from 1908 to 1910 as assistant, and then until 1920 as department head. He left to take the directorship of the Institute of General Pathology: see Thorvald Madsen, Statens Seruminstitut: Institutets Udvikling, 1902-1940 (Copenhagen: Bianco Lunos, 1940), pp. 30-37, 138.
98. Oluf Thomsen, "Die Erblichkeitsverhältnisse der menschlichen Blutgruppen. Mit besonderem Hinblick auf zwei 'neue', A′ und A′B genannte Blutgruppen," Hereditas (Lund), 1930, 13: 121-63.
99. Oluf Thomsen to Thorvald Madsen, letter dated Copenhagen, 26 September 1928, League of Nations Archives, 8E: 7963/1766, Palais des Nations, Geneva. Thomsen wrote in answer to a questionnaire circulated by Madsen on the blood-typing techniques that had emerged from a discussion of the terminology to be used for the blood groups: League of Nations, Health Organization, Report of the Permanent Commission (n. 37) (Geneva, 2 May 1928), C.H. 717, pp. 2-3, para. 8, l. iv. For the questionnaire, see n. 58 below.
100. League of Nations, Health Organization, Permanent Standards Commission, "Note by Dr [Thorvald] Madsen, [Chairman, Health Organization] relating to comparative tests on serum containing isoagglutinin . . . ," Geneva, 26 June 1930, C.H./C.P.S./29. The ten serologists invited to do the tests were Arthur Coca of New York, Dujarric de la Rivière of Paris, Ludwik Hirszfeld of Warsaw, Wilhelm Kolle of Frankfurt, Karl Landsteiner of New York, Hans Sachs of Heidelberg, Fritz Schiff of Berlin, Oswald Streng of Helsinki, Oluf Thomsen, and Ib. Freuchen. Freuchen was an assistant in the Statens Seruminstitut's blood-typing division from 1927 to 1939: Madsen, Statens Seruminstitutet (n. 54), pp. 83-85, 139.
101. League of Nations, Health Organization, Permanent Standards Commission, Laboratory Conference on Blood Groups, Paris, 21-25 July 1930, Questionnaire, Annexe III, C.H. 885, and Geneva, 6 August 1930, C.H. 885a. The serologists present at the Institut Pasteur for this meeting included the ten mentioned in n. 57, as well as Felix Bernstein; John Forssman from Lund; Wilhelm Kolle, K. Laubenheimer, and Werner Fischer, all of the Institute for Experimental Therapy, Frankfurt; Kossowitsch from the Institut Pasteur, Paris; and Ernst Witebsky from Heidelberg.
102. Oluf Thomsen, "Über den Wert der von Furuhata und seinen Mitarbeitern aufgestellte 'Neue Hypothese' betreffend die Erblichkeitsverhältnisse der menschlichen [sic] Blutgruppen," Acta Path. Microbiol. Scand., 1928, 5: 246-49.
103. Reginald Ruggles Gates, Heredity in Man (New York: Macmillan, 1930), p. 196;
104. Laurence H. Snyder, "Studies in Human Inheritance, V. Multiple Allelomorphism as Opposed to Linkage in Blood Group Heredity," Amer. Nat., 1931, 65: 332-42.
105. Siegfried Koller and Max Sommer, "Zur Kritik der von S. Wellisch angewandten mathematischen Methoden in der Blutgruppenforschung," Z. f. Physiol. 1930, 3: 27-33.
106. On Koller's later career as a statistician under the Nazi regime, see Götz Aly and Karl Heinz Roth, Die restlose Erfassung: Volkszählen, Identifizieren, Aussondern im Nationalsozialismus (Berlin: Rotbuch, 1984), pp. 96-115.
107. Siegmund Wellisch, "Über die Bedeutung der Mathematik in der Biologie und Blutgruppenforschung," Z. f. Rassenphysiol., 1929, 1: 113-16.
108. Siegmund Wellisch, "Die Vererbung der gruppenbedingenden Eigenschaften des Blutes," in Handbuch der Blutgruppenkunde, ed. Paul Steffan (Munich: J. F. Lehmann, 1932), pp. 136-37.
109. Werner Fischer, "Beiträge zur Frage der Gültigkeit der Bernstein'schen Blutgruppenformel," Z. f. Rassenphysiol., 1930, 2: 153-71.
110. Werner Fischer, "Blutgruppenkurvenverscharen: eine vielseitige verwendbar graphische Tafel zur Beurteilung von Blutgruppenfunden," Z. f. Rassenphysiol., 1943, 13: 121-29.
111. On the Deutsche Gesellschaft der Blutgruppenforschung, see Mazumdar, "Blood and Soil" (n. 33).
112. Felix Bernstein, "Über die Erblichkeit der Blutgruppen," Z. f. indukt. Abstammungs-u. Verbungslehre, 1930, 54: 400-26;
113. Felix Bernstein, idem, "Variations- und Erblichkeitsstatistik." (n. 27), pp. 68 ff.
114. Felix Bernstein, "Zur Grundlegung der Chromosomentheorie der Vererbung beim Menschen, mit besonderer Berücksichtigung der Blutgruppen," Z. f. indukt. Abstammungs-u. Vererbungslehre, 1931, 57: 113-38.
115. Bernstein's references are to Calvin B. Bridges, "The Chromosome Hypothesis of Linkage Applied to Cases of Sweet Peas and Primula," Amer. Nat., 1914, 48: 524-34;
116. Calvin B. Bridges, idem, "Direct Proof through Non-Disjunction that the Sex-Linked Genes of Drosophila Are Borne by the X-Chromosome," Science, 1914, 40: 107-9;
117. Thomas H. Morgan and C. B. Bridges, The Third Chromosome Map of the Mutant Characters of Drosophila melanogaster (Washington, D.C.: Carnegie Institution, 1920).
118. Bernstein, "Zur Grundlegung der Chromosomentheorie" (n. 67).
119. For an explanation of this and other means of calculating linkage using blood groups as genetic markers, see Curt Stern, Principles of Human Genetics, 2d ed. (San Francisco, Calif.: W. H. Freeman, 1960), pp. 268-70.
120. Karl Landsteiner and Philip Levine, "A New Agglutinable Factor Differentiating Human Bloods," Proc. Soc. Exper. Biol. Med., 1926-27, 24: 600-602.
121. League of Nations, Laboratory Conference on Blood Groups (n. 58);
122. Mazumdar, Eugenics (n. 16), pp. 161-69.
123. Robert Proctor, "From Anthropologie to Rassenkunde in the German Anthropological Tradition," in History of Anthropology, ed. George W. Stocking, Jr., vol. 5, Bones, Bodies, and Behavior: Essays on Biological Anthropology (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1988), pp. 138-79.
124. Fritz Schiff to Bernstein, 20 October 1926; Schiff to Paul Steffan, 20 October 1926, Nachlass Felix Bernstein (n. 45), File 1a.
125. Otto Reche, "Zum Geleit," Z. f. Rassenphysiol., 1928, 1: 1-7.
126. The one invitee was Oswald Streng, who appears on the supplementary list of eighteen foreign members; of the German members, only eight of the forty-nine had published on blood groups. See Mazumdar, "Blood and Soil" (n. 33), p. 191;
127. Weindling, Health, Race (n. 1), p. 465.
128. Felix Bernstein, "Über mendelistische Anthropologie," Verhandlungen des VI Internationalen Kongresses für Vererbungswissenschaft, Berlin, 1927, 2 vols. (Leipzig: Borntraeger, 1928), 1: 439.
129. Felix Bernstein, Brief, "Zur Organization der Bestimmung der menschlichen Blutgruppen in Deutschland," submitted to Notgemeinschaft der Deutschen Wissenschaft, 14 November 1927;
130. Carl Correns, Erwin Baur, Eugen Fischer, Richard Goldschmidt, Otto Reche, Kurt Saller, et al., "Bericht über eine Besprechung am 17 Dezember 1927 in den Räumen der Notgemeineschaft über Rassenforschung, Blutgruppenforschung und Anthropologische Untersuchungen" (although Bernstein was invited to submit his brief, he was not invited to participate in the discussion), Bundesarchiv Koblenz, R 73, No. 169;
131. Weindling, Health, Race (n. 1), pp. 464-69.
132. Hirszfeld had suggested as early as 1922 that the ability to produce diphtheria antitoxin might be inherited along with group specificity: Ludwik Hirszfeld, "Rassenbiologische Betrachtungen über die verschiedene Empfänglichkeit der Menschen für Krankheitserreger in ihren Zusammenhange mit Gruppenzugehörigkeit," League of Nations, Health Organization, Standardization Commission, C.H./S.S. 43.
133. He published on the subject throughout the 1920s, culminating in his major book on it, Konstitutionsserologie und Blutgruppenforschung (Berlin: Springer, 1928) - a work that summed up his opinions on blood-group inheritance, blood groups and race, and the possible relation of blood groups to disease resistance.
134. Mazumdar, Blood and Soil (n. 33), p. 211;
135. Bericht über die Verhandlungen des Ausschusses 1 (für Bevölkerungswesen und Rassenhygiene) des Landesgesundheitsrates, am 14 Mai 1927, "Über Blutgruppenuntersuchungen in den Schulen," in Verhandlungen des Preussischen Landesgesundheitsrates, no. 9, Veröffentlichungen aus dem Gebiete der Medizinalverwaltung, 1927, 25 (2): 279-96.
136. Weindling, Health, Race (n. 1), pp. 466-69.
137. Eugen Fischer, "Die körperlichen Erbanlagen," in Erwin Baur, Eugen Fischer, and Fritz Lenz, Menschliche Erblehre und Rassenhygiene, 2 vols. (Munich:J. F. Lehmanns, 1936), 1: 237-39.
138. Hirszfeld, Konstitutionsserologie (n. 76), p. 1.
139. Günther Just, "Faktorenkoppelung, Faktorenaustausch und Chromosomenaberrationen beim Menschen, nebst einem einleitenden Abschnitt zu Fragen des höheren Mendelismus beim Menschen," Ergebnisse der Biologie, 1934, 10: 588,
140. cited by Fritz Lenz, "Die Methoden menschlicher Erbforschung," in Baur, Fischer, and Lenz, Menschliche Erblehre (n. 79), p. 625.
141. The original paper was delivered at the 10th annual meeting of the German Society for Genetic Science held in Göttingen in 1934: Günther Just, "Probleme des höheren Mendelismus beim Menschen," Z. f. indukt. Abstammungs-u. Vererbungslehre, 1934, 67: 263-86.
142. Just, "Faktorenkoppelung" (n. 81), p. 590.
143. Lenz, "Methoden" (n. 81), pp. 599, 617.
144. Reichsgesetzblatt, 1933, 1: 175-77.
145. On the ascertainment of assimilated, baptised, and half- or quarter-Jews, see Aly and Roth, Die restlose Erfassung (n. 61), pp. 67-71.
146. Edith Bernstein to Geheimrat Wolff, 20 April 1933, answering an enquiry about Bernstein's racial origin, Personalakt Felix Bernstein, and "Nekrolog," in Universitätsarchiv, Georg-August Universität, Göttingen.
147. A number of these sad letters, muddled, badly spelled, and badly typed, are to be found in the Rockefeller Archives, Tarrytown, N.Y., e.g., Box 12, Folder 69.
148. Donald W. Light, Stephan Liebfried, and Florian Tennstedt, "Social Medicine vs. Professional Dominance," Amer. J. Publ. Health, 1986, 76: 78-82.
149. Ludwik Hirszfeld, Historia Jednego Zycia, 2d ed. (Warsaw: Institut Wydawnicszy, 1967), pp. 166ff. Reference is to the translation edited by F. R. Camp and F. R. Ellis, in the series Selected Contributions to the Literature of Blood Groups and Immunology, Blood Transfusion Division, US Army Medical Research Laboratory, Fort Knox, Ky.; it is in the possession of the author, and at the National Library of Medicine, Bethesda, Md.
150. Weindling, Health, Race (n. 1), pp. 298-304.
151. Matthias M. Weber, "'Ein Forschungsinstitut für Psychiatrie. . . .' Die Entwicklung der Deutschen Forschungsanstalt für Psychiatrie in München zwischen 1917 und 1945," Sudhoffs Archiv, 1991, 75: 74-89.
152. Kurt Kolle, "Emil Kraepelin 1856-1926," in Grosse Nervenärzte (Stuttgart: G. Thieme, 1970), 1: 175-86;
153. Gregory Zilboorg with George W. Henry, A History of Medical Psychology (New York: W. W. Norton, 1941), pp. 450-59.
154. More recent work on Kraepelin emphasizes his political position, which was conservative, patriotic, and monarchist, e.g., Eric J. Engstrom, "Emil Kraepelin: Psychiatry and Public Affairs in Wilhelmine Germany," Hist. Psychiatry, 1991, 2: 111-32.
155. Emil Kraepelin, Clinical Psychiatry: A Textbook for Students and Physicians, abstracted and adapted from the 7th German ed. by A. Ross Diefendorf (New York: Macmillan, 1907); facsimile ed. with introduction by Eric T. Carlson (New York: Scholars' Facsimiles, 1981);
156. Kraepelin, Dementia praecox and Paraphrenia, trans. R. Mary Barclay and ed. George M. Robertson, from Kraepelin, Clinical Psychiatry, 8th German ed., 3 vols. 1916-1919 (Edinburgh: E. and S. Livingstone, 1919), vol. 3, pt. 2, p. 226.
157. Eugen Bleuler, Dementia praecox, or the Group of the Schizophrenias, trans. from Handbuch der Psychiatrie, ed. Gustav Aschaffenburg, 22 vols. (Leipzig: Deuticke, 1912-1929), by Joseph Zinkin (New York: International Universities Press, 1950), p. 389.
158. Kraepelin, Dementia praecox (n. 92), pp. 232-35.
159. Bleuler, Dementia praecox (n. 93), pp. 345-49.
160. Eugen Bleuler, Lehrbuch der Psychiatrie (Berlin: Springer, 1916), pp. 139-40;
161. Eugen Bleuler, idem, "Mendelismus bei Psychosen, spezielle bei der Schizophrenie," Schweizer Arch. f. Neurol. u. Psychiatrie, 1917, 1: 19-40.
162. Geoffrey Cocks, Psychotherapy in the Third Reich: The Göring Institute (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1985), pp. 33-34.
163. Hans Georg Güse and Norbert Schmacke, "Psychiatrie und Faschismus," in Medizin und Nationalsozialismus: Tabuisierte Vergangenheit - ungebrochene Tradition? ed. Gerhard Baader and Ulrich Schultz (Berlin: Verlagsgesellschaft Gesundheit, 1983), pp. 86-94.
164. Kraepelin's political views appear in Emil Kraepelin, "Psychological Observations on Contemporary Issues," Hist. Psych., 1992, 3: 253-69;
165. see also Cocks, Psychotherapy in the Third Reich (n. 97), pp. 31-34.
166. Thomas Szasz, Schizophrenia: The Sacred Symbol of Psychiatry (New York: Basic Books, 1976),
167. cited by Eric T. Carlson, introduction to Kraepelin, Clinical Psychiatry, 1907 ed. (n. 92), pp. v-vi.
168. Weber, "Ein Forschungsinstitut" (n. 90), p. 74.
169. Weber, Ein Forschungsinstitut Ibid., p. 81.
170. E. R[üdin], Summarising Account of the Project, "German Institute for Psychiatric Research: Inspection of the New Building - a Successor of Kraepelin's - under the Protection of the Kaiser-Wilhelm-Gesellschaft," Rockefeller Archives, RG 1.1 (Projects), Series 717 (Germany), subseries 717 A, Box 9, Folder 52, pp. 255-62.
171. Weber, "Ein Forschungsinstitut" (n. 90), p. 81.
172. Weindling, Health, Race (n. 1), p. 72.
173. Ernst Rüdin, "Über die klinischen Formen der Gefängnispsychosen," Allgem. Z. f. Psychiatrie, 1901, 58: 447-62.
174. On the utopian circle in Zürich to which both Rüdin and Ploetz belonged, see Weindling, Health, Race (n. 1), pp. 70-76.
175. Rüdin, "Einige Wege und Ziele der Familienforschung" (n. 11);
176. Rüdin, Vererbung und Neuentstehung der Dementia praecox (n. 12).
177. Emil Kraepelin to [Paul] Warburg, 14 April 1925; Kraepelin to Richard M. Pearce, Director, Division of Medical Education, Rockefeller Foundation, 3 July 1925, Rockefeller Archives, RG 1.1 (Projects), Series 717 (Germany), Subseries 717 A, Box 9, Folder 52.
178. Staatsrat Dr. Hauptmann, "Denkschrift über die Deutsche Forschungsanstalt für Psychiatrie (Kaiser-Wilhelm Institut) in München: Die Leitung der Forschungsanstalt nach Kraepelin," Archiv zur Geschichte der Max-Planck-Gesellschaft, Berlin-Dahlem: I. A1 No. 2433.
179. Wilhelm Spielmeyer, Director of the Division of Pathological Anatomy, Deutsche Forschungsanstalt für Psychiatrie, to James Loeb, 2 January 1928, Archiv zur Geschichte der Max-Planck-Gesellschaft, Berlin-Dahlem: I. A1 No. 2434.
180. Ernst Rüdin to Friedrich Glum, General Director, Kaiser-Wilhelm Gesellschaft, 31 April 1932, Archiv zur Geschichte der Max-Planck-Gesellschaft, Berlin-Dahlem: I. A1 No. 2436.
181. Ernst Rüdin, "Veröffentlichungen aus der genealogische Abteilung," MS bibliography prepared 1932, Eugenics Society Papers, C 301, Contemporary Archives and Manuscripts Collection, Wellcome Institute for the History of Medicine, London.
182. Bruno Schulz, "Über Arbeitsgebiet und Arbeitsweise der Genealogischen Abteilung der Deutschen Forschungsanstalt für Psychiatrie," Psychiatrisch-neurologische Wschr., 1929, 31 (separatum only available).
183. For an account of archival accessions see, e.g., "Zweiter Bericht über die Deutsche Forschungsanstalt für Psychiatrie in München zur Stiftungsratsitzung am 30 April 1921," Z. f. d. ges. Neurol. u. Psychiatrie, 1921, 70: 354-55.
184. "VIII Bericht über die Deutsche Forschungsanstalt für Psychiatrie in München zur Stiftungsratsitzung vom 10 März 1928," Z. f. d. ges. Neurol. u. Psychiatrie, 1928, 115: 805-8; Ernst Rüdin to Staatsrat Dr. Hauptmann, Bavarian Ministry of Education and Culture, and Friedrich Glum, General Director of the Kaiser Wilhelm-Gesellschaft, 22 July 1928, Archiv zur Geschichte der Max-Planck-Gesellschaft, Berlin-Dahlem: I. A1 No. 2450.
185. Aly and Roth, Die restlose Erfassung (n. 61), pp. 16-20.
186. An example of the DEHOMAG or Hollerith machine used in the census is in the Holocaust Museum, Washington, D.C., and is illustrated in Michael Berenbaum, The World Must Know: The History of the Holocaust as Told in the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum (Boston: Little, Brown, 1993), p. 43.
187. Ernst Rüdin to Staatsrat Dr. Hauptmann and Friedrich Glum, 22 July 1928 (n. 114).
188. Schulz, "Über Arbeitsgebiet" (n. 112).
189. Wilhelm Weinberg, memorandum dated 14 November 1930, Archiv zur Geschichte der Max-Planck-Gesellschaft, Berlin-Dahlem: I. A1 No. 2436.
190. Ernst Rüdin, "Empirische Erbprognose," Arch. f. Rassen-u. Gesellsch.-Biol., 1933, 27: 271-83, quotation on p. 272.
191. Hermann Hoffmann, Studien über Vererbung und Entstehung Geistiger Störungen, II. Die Nachkommenschaft bei endogenen Psychosen: genealogisch-charakterologisch Untersuchungen, Monographien aus dem Gesamtegebiete der Neurologie und Psychiatrie, no. 26 (Berlin: Springer, 1921).
192. Kraepelin, Dementia praecox (n. 92), p. 234.
193. Jenny Koller, "Beitrag zur Erblichkeitsstatistik der Geisteskranken im Kanton Zürich," Arch. f. Psychiatrie u. Nervenkrankh., 1895, 27: 268-94;
194. Otto Diem, "Die psychoneurotische erbliche Belastung der Geistesgesunden und Geisteskranken," Arch. f. Rassen-u. Gesellsch.-Biol., 1905, 2: 215-52, 336-68.
195. On the history and significance for the Rüdin group of this first attempt to estimate the extent of inheritance as a cause of psychiatric problems, see Hans Luxenburger, "Demographische und psychiatrische Untersuchungen in der engeren biologischen Familie von Paralytikerehegatten. (Versuch einer Belastungsstatistik der Durchschnittsbevölkerung)," Z. f. d. ges. Neurol. u. Psychiatrie, 1928, 112: 331-491;
196. Ernst Rüdin, "Ergänzende Bemerkungen zu Otto Diems Artikel, &c.," Arch. f. Rassen-u. Gesellsch.-Biol., 1905, 2: 470-73;
197. Ernst Rüdin, idem, report of a lecture, "Neuere psychiatrisch-genealogische Untersuchungen nach der Diem-Koller'schen Belastungsberechnung," Zbl. ges. Neurol., 1922, 29: 172-76.
198. Weindling has emphasized the importance to the group of Zurich students, to which Rüdin belonged, of August Forel's view that most psychiatric disease was inherited: Weindling, Health, Race (n. 1), pp. 70-73.
199. Ernst Rüdin, "Erblichkeit und Psychiatrie," Z. f. d. ges. Neurol. u. Psychiatrie, 1924, 93: 502-27.
200. Bruno Schulz, "Zum Problem der empirschen Erbprognose-Bestimmung. Die Erkrankungsaussichten der Neffen und Nichten von Schizophrenen," Z. f. d. ges. Neurol. u. Psychiatrie, 1926, 102: 1-37;
201. Anneliese Juda, "Zum Problem der Erbprognose-bestimmung. Über die Erkrankungsaussichten der Enkel Schizophrener," Z. f. d. ges. Neurol. u. Psychiatrie, ibid., 1928, 113: 487-517.
202. Wilhelm Weinberg, "Auslesewirkung der Sterblichkeit," Arch. f. Rassen- u. Gesellsch.-Biol., 1914-15, 11: 425-33.
203. Ernst Rüdin to President of the Notgemeinschaft der Deutschen Wissenschaft, Minister of State Dr Schmidt-Ott, 2 [January?] 1930; Eugen Fischer, memoranda, 18 and 19 January 1930, Bundesarchiv Koblenz, R 73, No. 169.
204. Weindling, Health, Race (n. 1), pp. 467-68.
205. Carl Brugger, "Zur Frage einer Belastungsstatistik der Durchschnitts-bevölkerung," Z. f. d. ges. Neurol. u. Psychiatrie, 1929, 118: 459-88;
206. Manfred Bleuler, "Psychotische Belastung von körperliche Kranken," Z. f. d. ges. Neurol. u. Psychiatrie, ibid., 1932, 143: 780-810.
207. Luxenburger, "Demographische und psychiatrische Untersuchungen" (n. 122), p. 337.
208. See also Bruno Schulz, "Zur Frage einer Belastungsstatistik der Durchschnittsbevölkerung. Geschwisterschaften und Elternschaften von 100 hirnarteriosklerotiker Ehegatten," Z. f. d. ges. Neurol. u. Psychiatrie, 1927, 109: 15-48.
209. Joseph Klemperer, "Zur Belastungsstatistik der
210. Rüdin, "Empirische Erbprognose" (n. 119), p. 279.
211. Weindling, Health, Race (n. 1), pp. 450-57.
212. Rainer Fetscher, "Sterilisierung in Deutschland," in "Eugenische Rundschau," Arch. f. Soziale Hygiene u. Demographie, 1930, 5: 520.
213. Rainer Fetscher, "Die Praxis der Sterilisierung," in "Eugenische Rundschau," Arch. f. Soziale Hygiene u. Demographie, 1931, 6: 121-23.
214. Paul Weindling, "Weimar Eugenics: The Kaiser-Wilhelm Institute for Anthropology, Human Heredity and Eugenics in Social Context," Ann. Sci., 1985, 42: 303-18.
215. Gerhard Baader, "Die 'Euthanasie' im Dritten Reich," in Baader and Schultz, Medizin und Nationalsozialismus (n. 98), pp. 95-101.
216. Ernst Rüdin to the Kaiser Wilhelm-Gesellschaft, memorandum, 16 August 1935, Archiv zur Geschichte der Max-Planck-Gesellschaft, Berlin-Dahlem: I. A1 No. 2451.
217. On Arthur Gütt and the Health Division of the Ministry of the Interior, see special issue of Offentliche Gesundheitsdienst, 1939, 4: 866-99, with articles by Rüdin and others.
218. Ernst Rüdin, "Das Deutsche Sterilisierungsgesetz," in Erblehre und Rassenhygiene im völkischen Staat, ed. idem (Munich: J. F. Lehmann, 1934), pp. 150-74.
219. Arthur Gütt, Ernst Rüdin, and Falk Ruttke, Gesetz zur Verhütung erbkranken Nachwuchses vom 14 Juli nebst Ausführungsverordnungen, 2d ed. (Munich: Lehmann, 1936), p. 16.
220. Arthur Gütt, Herbert Linden, and Franz Massfeller, Blutschutz- und Ehegesundheitsgesetz: Gesetz zum Schutze des deutschen Blutes und des deutschen Ehre, und Gesetz zum Schutze der Erbgesundheit des deutschen Volkes, nebst Durchführungsverordnungen, sowie einschlägigen Bestimmungen (Munich: J. F. Lehmann, 1936), p. 71.
221. Gütt, Rüdin, and Ruttke, Gesetz zur Verhüling (n. 140), p. 43, fig. 7; the family is shown with the normal members left out, the better to impress the reader with the need to sterilize schizophrenics.
222. Otmar, Freiherr von Verschuer, Leitfaden der Rassenhygiene (Leipzig: G. Thieme, 1941), p. 226.
223. Siegfried Koller, "Gegenwärtiger Stand der erbstatistischen Methodik beim Menschen," in "Eugenische Rundschau," Arch. f. Soziale Hygiene u. Demographie, 1931, 6: 194-99.
224. Siegfried Koller, "Über den Erbgang der Schizophrenie," Z. f. d. ges. Neurol. u. Psychiatrie, 1939, 164: 199-228.
225. Aly and Roth, Die restlose Erfassung (n. 61), pp. 96-115.
226. Paolo Palladino, "Wizards and Devotees: On the Mendelian Theory of Inheritance and the Professionalization of Agricultural Science in Great Britain and the United States, 1880-1930," Hat. Sci., 1994, 32: 409-44, esp. p. 421. My thanks to Dr. Palladino for bringing this interesting parallel to my notice.
227. Ute Deichmann, Biologen unter Hitler: Vertreibung, Karrieren, Forschung (Frankfurt: Campus-Verlag, 1993), pp. 310-13.