Political violence and time in power

Armed Forces and Society

Volumn 23, Issue 2, 1996, Pages 209-234

  Whitten, Guy D ^a   Bienen, Henry S ^b  

^a TEXAS A AND M UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b NORTHWESTERN UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0030327224     PISSN: 0095327X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/0095327x9602300205     Document Type: Article

References (103)

1. E.V. Walter, Terror and Resistance: A Study of Political Violence (New York: Oxford University Press, 1969).
2. Carl Friedrich and Zbignew Brezezinski, Totalitarian Dictatorship and Autocracy (New York: Frederick A. Praeger, 1961); Robert C. Tucker, Stalin as Revolutionary: A Study in History and Personality (New York, NY: W.W. Norton, 1973); Richard Solomon, Mao's Revolution and the Chinese Political Culture (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1971).
3. Carl Friedrich and Zbignew Brezezinski, Totalitarian Dictatorship and Autocracy (New York: Frederick A. Praeger, 1961); Robert C. Tucker, Stalin as Revolutionary: A Study in History and Personality (New York, NY: W.W. Norton, 1973); Richard Solomon, Mao's Revolution and the Chinese Political Culture (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1971).
4. Carl Friedrich and Zbignew Brezezinski, Totalitarian Dictatorship and Autocracy (New York: Frederick A. Praeger, 1961); Robert C. Tucker, Stalin as Revolutionary: A Study in History and Personality (New York, NY: W.W. Norton, 1973); Richard Solomon, Mao's Revolution and the Chinese Political Culture (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1971).
5. Theda Skocpol, States and Social Revoutions: A Comparative Analysis of France, Russia and China (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1979).
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8. Chalmers Johnson, Peasant Nationalism and Communist Power (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1962).
9. Donald L. Horowitz, Ethnic Groups in Conflict (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985).
10. Henry S. Bienen and Nicolas van de Walle, Of Time and Power: Leadership Duration in the Modern World (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1991).
11. Gurr, Why Men Rebel; Frantz Fanon, The Wretched of the Earth (New York: Grave Press, 1966); Skocpol, States and Social Revolutions; Ellen K. Trimberger, Revolution from Above: Military Bureaucrats and Development in Japan, Turkey, Egypt and Peru (New Brunswick: Transaction Books, 1978); Claude Welch, Anatomy of Rebellion (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1980).
12. Gurr, Why Men Rebel; Frantz Fanon, The Wretched of the Earth (New York: Grave Press, 1966); Skocpol, States and Social Revolutions; Ellen K. Trimberger, Revolution from Above: Military Bureaucrats and Development in Japan, Turkey, Egypt and Peru (New Brunswick: Transaction Books, 1978); Claude Welch, Anatomy of Rebellion (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1980).
13. Gurr, Why Men Rebel; Frantz Fanon, The Wretched of the Earth (New York: Grave Press, 1966); Skocpol, States and Social Revolutions; Ellen K. Trimberger, Revolution from Above: Military Bureaucrats and Development in Japan, Turkey, Egypt and Peru (New Brunswick: Transaction Books, 1978); Claude Welch, Anatomy of Rebellion (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1980).
14. Gurr, Why Men Rebel; Frantz Fanon, The Wretched of the Earth (New York: Grave Press, 1966); Skocpol, States and Social Revolutions; Ellen K. Trimberger, Revolution from Above: Military Bureaucrats and Development in Japan, Turkey, Egypt and Peru (New Brunswick: Transaction Books, 1978); Claude Welch, Anatomy of Rebellion (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1980).
15. Gurr, Why Men Rebel; Frantz Fanon, The Wretched of the Earth (New York: Grave Press, 1966); Skocpol, States and Social Revolutions; Ellen K. Trimberger, Revolution from Above: Military Bureaucrats and Development in Japan, Turkey, Egypt and Peru (New Brunswick: Transaction Books, 1978); Claude Welch, Anatomy of Rebellion (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1980).
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17. Scott, The Moral Economy of the Peasant; Charles Wolfe, United States Policy and the Third World (Boston: Little-Brown, 1967); Samuel P. Huntington, Political Order in Changing Societies (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1968).
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22. Hannah Arendt, The Origins of Totalitarianism (New York: Meridian Books, 1958); Hannah Arendt, On Revolution (New York: Viking Press, 1963); Zbignew Brezezinski, The Permanent Purge (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1956); Carl Friedrich and Zbignew Brezezinski, Totalitarian Dictatorship and Autocracy (New York: Frederick A. Praeger, 1961).
23. Hannah Arendt, The Origins of Totalitarianism (New York: Meridian Books, 1958); Hannah Arendt, On Revolution (New York: Viking Press, 1963); Zbignew Brezezinski, The Permanent Purge (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1956); Carl Friedrich and Zbignew Brezezinski, Totalitarian Dictatorship and Autocracy (New York: Frederick A. Praeger, 1961).
24. Robert C. Tucker, Stalin as Revolutionary: A Study in History and Personality (New York: W.W. Norton, 1973).
25. Stephen Sloan, A Study in Political Violence: The Indonesian Experience (Chicago: Rand McNally, 1971); Lynn T. White, Policies of Chaos: The Organizational Causes of Violence in China's Cultural Revolution (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1989); Charles Tilly, The Vendee (Cambridge: Cambridge Community Press, 1964).
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27. Stephen Sloan, A Study in Political Violence: The Indonesian Experience (Chicago: Rand McNally, 1971); Lynn T. White, Policies of Chaos: The Organizational Causes of Violence in China's Cultural Revolution (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1989); Charles Tilly, The Vendee (Cambridge: Cambridge Community Press, 1964).
28. Ivo K. Feierabend and Rosalind L. Feierabend, "Aggressive Behaviors within Polities, 1948-1962: A Cross National Study," Journal of Conflict Resolution 10 (1966): 240-71; Douglas A. Hibbs Jr., Mass Political Violence (New York: John Wiley, 1973); G. Bingham Powell Jr., Contemporary Democracies: Participation, Stability, and Violence (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1982); Ted Gurr and Charles Rutenberg, The Conditions of Civil Violence: First Tests of a Causal Model (Princeton, NJ: Center for International Studies, Research Monograph No. 28, 1967); Raymond Tanter, "Dimensions of Conflict Behavior within and Between Nations, 1958-1960," Journal of Conflict Resolution 10 (1966): 41-65.
29. Ivo K. Feierabend and Rosalind L. Feierabend, "Aggressive Behaviors within Polities, 1948-1962: A Cross National Study," Journal of Conflict Resolution 10 (1966): 240-71; Douglas A. Hibbs Jr., Mass Political Violence (New York: John Wiley, 1973); G. Bingham Powell Jr., Contemporary Democracies: Participation, Stability, and Violence (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1982); Ted Gurr and Charles Rutenberg, The Conditions of Civil Violence: First Tests of a Causal Model (Princeton, NJ: Center for International Studies, Research Monograph No. 28, 1967); Raymond Tanter, "Dimensions of Conflict Behavior within and Between Nations, 1958-1960," Journal of Conflict Resolution 10 (1966): 41-65.
30. Ivo K. Feierabend and Rosalind L. Feierabend, "Aggressive Behaviors within Polities, 1948-1962: A Cross National Study," Journal of Conflict Resolution 10 (1966): 240-71; Douglas A. Hibbs Jr., Mass Political Violence (New York: John Wiley, 1973); G. Bingham Powell Jr., Contemporary Democracies: Participation, Stability, and Violence (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1982); Ted Gurr and Charles Rutenberg, The Conditions of Civil Violence: First Tests of a Causal Model (Princeton, NJ: Center for International Studies, Research Monograph No. 28, 1967); Raymond Tanter, "Dimensions of Conflict Behavior within and Between Nations, 1958-1960," Journal of Conflict Resolution 10 (1966): 41-65.
31. Ivo K. Feierabend and Rosalind L. Feierabend, "Aggressive Behaviors within Polities, 1948-1962: A Cross National Study," Journal of Conflict Resolution 10 (1966): 240-71; Douglas A. Hibbs Jr., Mass Political Violence (New York: John Wiley, 1973); G. Bingham Powell Jr., Contemporary Democracies: Participation, Stability, and Violence (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1982); Ted Gurr and Charles Rutenberg, The Conditions of Civil Violence: First Tests of a Causal Model (Princeton, NJ: Center for International Studies, Research Monograph No. 28, 1967); Raymond Tanter, "Dimensions of Conflict Behavior within and Between Nations, 1958-1960," Journal of Conflict Resolution 10 (1966): 41-65.
32. Ivo K. Feierabend and Rosalind L. Feierabend, "Aggressive Behaviors within Polities, 1948-1962: A Cross National Study," Journal of Conflict Resolution 10 (1966): 240-71; Douglas A. Hibbs Jr., Mass Political Violence (New York: John Wiley, 1973); G. Bingham Powell Jr., Contemporary Democracies: Participation, Stability, and Violence (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1982); Ted Gurr and Charles Rutenberg, The Conditions of Civil Violence: First Tests of a Causal Model (Princeton, NJ: Center for International Studies, Research Monograph No. 28, 1967); Raymond Tanter, "Dimensions of Conflict Behavior within and Between Nations, 1958-1960," Journal of Conflict Resolution 10 (1966): 41-65.
33. Henry S. Bienen, ed., The Military Intervenes: Case Studies in Political Development (New York: Russell Sage, 1968); Jack Goldstone, "Theories of Revolution: The Third Generation." World Politics 22 (1980): 425-453.
34. Henry S. Bienen, ed., The Military Intervenes: Case Studies in Political Development (New York: Russell Sage, 1968); Jack Goldstone, "Theories of Revolution: The Third Generation." World Politics 22 (1980): 425-453.
35. James MacGregor Burns, Leadership (New York: Harper and Row, 1978); Glen D. Paige, Political Leadership: Readings for an Emerging Field (New York: The Free Press, 1972); Harold Lasswell, Power and Personality (New York: Norton, 1976); Niccolo Machiavelli, The Prince and Discourses (New York: Modern Library, 1940); Sidney Hook, The Hero in History: A Study in Limitation and Possibility (Boston: Beacon, 1943).
36. James MacGregor Burns, Leadership (New York: Harper and Row, 1978); Glen D. Paige, Political Leadership: Readings for an Emerging Field (New York: The Free Press, 1972); Harold Lasswell, Power and Personality (New York: Norton, 1976); Niccolo Machiavelli, The Prince and Discourses (New York: Modern Library, 1940); Sidney Hook, The Hero in History: A Study in Limitation and Possibility (Boston: Beacon, 1943).
37. James MacGregor Burns, Leadership (New York: Harper and Row, 1978); Glen D. Paige, Political Leadership: Readings for an Emerging Field (New York: The Free Press, 1972); Harold Lasswell, Power and Personality (New York: Norton, 1976); Niccolo Machiavelli, The Prince and Discourses (New York: Modern Library, 1940); Sidney Hook, The Hero in History: A Study in Limitation and Possibility (Boston: Beacon, 1943).
38. James MacGregor Burns, Leadership (New York: Harper and Row, 1978); Glen D. Paige, Political Leadership: Readings for an Emerging Field (New York: The Free Press, 1972); Harold Lasswell, Power and Personality (New York: Norton, 1976); Niccolo Machiavelli, The Prince and Discourses (New York: Modern Library, 1940); Sidney Hook, The Hero in History: A Study in Limitation and Possibility (Boston: Beacon, 1943).
39. James MacGregor Burns, Leadership (New York: Harper and Row, 1978); Glen D. Paige, Political Leadership: Readings for an Emerging Field (New York: The Free Press, 1972); Harold Lasswell, Power and Personality (New York: Norton, 1976); Niccolo Machiavelli, The Prince and Discourses (New York: Modern Library, 1940); Sidney Hook, The Hero in History: A Study in Limitation and Possibility (Boston: Beacon, 1943).
40. Solomon, Mao's Revolution; E.V. Walter, Terror and Resistance: A Study of Political Violence (New York: Oxford University Press, 1969); Robert Jay Lifton, Revolutionary Immortality: Mao Tse Tung and the Chinese Cultural Revolution (New York: Random House, 1968); Robert C. Tucker, Politics as Leadership (Columbia, MO: University of Missouri Press, 1981); Robert H. Jackson, and Carl G. Rosberg Jr., Personal Rule in Black Africa (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1982).
41. Solomon, Mao's Revolution; E.V. Walter, Terror and Resistance: A Study of Political Violence (New York: Oxford University Press, 1969); Robert Jay Lifton, Revolutionary Immortality: Mao Tse Tung and the Chinese Cultural Revolution (New York: Random House, 1968); Robert C. Tucker, Politics as Leadership (Columbia, MO: University of Missouri Press, 1981); Robert H. Jackson, and Carl G. Rosberg Jr., Personal Rule in Black Africa (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1982).
42. Solomon, Mao's Revolution; E.V. Walter, Terror and Resistance: A Study of Political Violence (New York: Oxford University Press, 1969); Robert Jay Lifton, Revolutionary Immortality: Mao Tse Tung and the Chinese Cultural Revolution (New York: Random House, 1968); Robert C. Tucker, Politics as Leadership (Columbia, MO: University of Missouri Press, 1981); Robert H. Jackson, and Carl G. Rosberg Jr., Personal Rule in Black Africa (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1982).
43. Solomon, Mao's Revolution; E.V. Walter, Terror and Resistance: A Study of Political Violence (New York: Oxford University Press, 1969); Robert Jay Lifton, Revolutionary Immortality: Mao Tse Tung and the Chinese Cultural Revolution (New York: Random House, 1968); Robert C. Tucker, Politics as Leadership (Columbia, MO: University of Missouri Press, 1981); Robert H. Jackson, and Carl G. Rosberg Jr., Personal Rule in Black Africa (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1982).
44. Solomon, Mao's Revolution; E.V. Walter, Terror and Resistance: A Study of Political Violence (New York: Oxford University Press, 1969); Robert Jay Lifton, Revolutionary Immortality: Mao Tse Tung and the Chinese Cultural Revolution (New York: Random House, 1968); Robert C. Tucker, Politics as Leadership (Columbia, MO: University of Missouri Press, 1981); Robert H. Jackson, and Carl G. Rosberg Jr., Personal Rule in Black Africa (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1982).
45. Valarie Bunce, Do New Leaders Make a Difference?: Executive Selection and Public Policy under Capitalism and Socialism (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1981); Valarie Bunce and Philip Roeder, "The Effects of Leadership Succession in the Soviet Union," American Political Science Review 80 (1986): 215-244; Arnold Hughes, and Roy May, "The Politics of Succession in Black Africa," Third World Quarterly 10 (1988): 1-22; Jean Blondel, World Leaders: Heads of State in the Postwar Period, (Beverly Hills: Sage Publications, 1980); Carl Linden, Khrushchev and the Soviet Leadership, (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1966); Myron Rush, Political Succession in the USSR (New York: Columbia University Press, 1968).
46. Valarie Bunce, Do New Leaders Make a Difference?: Executive Selection and Public Policy under Capitalism and Socialism (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1981); Valarie Bunce and Philip Roeder, "The Effects of Leadership Succession in the Soviet Union," American Political Science Review 80 (1986): 215-244; Arnold Hughes, and Roy May, "The Politics of Succession in Black Africa," Third World Quarterly 10 (1988): 1-22; Jean Blondel, World Leaders: Heads of State in the Postwar Period, (Beverly Hills: Sage Publications, 1980); Carl Linden, Khrushchev and the Soviet Leadership, (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1966); Myron Rush, Political Succession in the USSR (New York: Columbia University Press, 1968).
47. Valarie Bunce, Do New Leaders Make a Difference?: Executive Selection and Public Policy under Capitalism and Socialism (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1981); Valarie Bunce and Philip Roeder, "The Effects of Leadership Succession in the Soviet Union," American Political Science Review 80 (1986): 215-244; Arnold Hughes, and Roy May, "The Politics of Succession in Black Africa," Third World Quarterly 10 (1988): 1-22; Jean Blondel, World Leaders: Heads of State in the Postwar Period, (Beverly Hills: Sage Publications, 1980); Carl Linden, Khrushchev and the Soviet Leadership, (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1966); Myron Rush, Political Succession in the USSR (New York: Columbia University Press, 1968).
48. Valarie Bunce, Do New Leaders Make a Difference?: Executive Selection and Public Policy under Capitalism and Socialism (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1981); Valarie Bunce and Philip Roeder, "The Effects of Leadership Succession in the Soviet Union," American Political Science Review 80 (1986): 215-244; Arnold Hughes, and Roy May, "The Politics of Succession in Black Africa," Third World Quarterly 10 (1988): 1-22; Jean Blondel, World Leaders: Heads of State in the Postwar Period, (Beverly Hills: Sage Publications, 1980); Carl Linden, Khrushchev and the Soviet Leadership, (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1966); Myron Rush, Political Succession in the USSR (New York: Columbia University Press, 1968).
49. Valarie Bunce, Do New Leaders Make a Difference?: Executive Selection and Public Policy under Capitalism and Socialism (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1981); Valarie Bunce and Philip Roeder, "The Effects of Leadership Succession in the Soviet Union," American Political Science Review 80 (1986): 215-244; Arnold Hughes, and Roy May, "The Politics of Succession in Black Africa," Third World Quarterly 10 (1988): 1-22; Jean Blondel, World Leaders: Heads of State in the Postwar Period, (Beverly Hills: Sage Publications, 1980); Carl Linden, Khrushchev and the Soviet Leadership, (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1966); Myron Rush, Political Succession in the USSR (New York: Columbia University Press, 1968).
50. Valarie Bunce, Do New Leaders Make a Difference?: Executive Selection and Public Policy under Capitalism and Socialism (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1981); Valarie Bunce and Philip Roeder, "The Effects of Leadership Succession in the Soviet Union," American Political Science Review 80 (1986): 215-244; Arnold Hughes, and Roy May, "The Politics of Succession in Black Africa," Third World Quarterly 10 (1988): 1-22; Jean Blondel, World Leaders: Heads of State in the Postwar Period, (Beverly Hills: Sage Publications, 1980); Carl Linden, Khrushchev and the Soviet Leadership, (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1966); Myron Rush, Political Succession in the USSR (New York: Columbia University Press, 1968).
51. Richard K. Betts and Samuel P. Huntington, "Dead Dictators and Rioting Mobs," International Security 101, (1985): 112-143; Angus McIntyre, Aging and Political Leadership (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1988); R. Andrew Nickson, "Tyranny and Longevity: Straessner's Paraguay," Third World Quarterly 10 (1988): 237-259; "Philosophers and Kings: Studies in Leadership." Daedalus 97 (1968): 683-1082.
52. Richard K. Betts and Samuel P. Huntington, "Dead Dictators and Rioting Mobs," International Security 101, (1985): 112-143; Angus McIntyre, Aging and Political Leadership (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1988); R. Andrew Nickson, "Tyranny and Longevity: Straessner's Paraguay," Third World Quarterly 10 (1988): 237-259; "Philosophers and Kings: Studies in Leadership." Daedalus 97 (1968): 683-1082.
53. Richard K. Betts and Samuel P. Huntington, "Dead Dictators and Rioting Mobs," International Security 101, (1985): 112-143; Angus McIntyre, Aging and Political Leadership (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1988); R. Andrew Nickson, "Tyranny and Longevity: Straessner's Paraguay," Third World Quarterly 10 (1988): 237-259; "Philosophers and Kings: Studies in Leadership." Daedalus 97 (1968): 683-1082.
54. Richard K. Betts and Samuel P. Huntington, "Dead Dictators and Rioting Mobs," International Security 101, (1985): 112-143; Angus McIntyre, Aging and Political Leadership (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1988); R. Andrew Nickson, "Tyranny and Longevity: Straessner's Paraguay," Third World Quarterly 10 (1988): 237-259; "Philosophers and Kings: Studies in Leadership." Daedalus 97 (1968): 683-1082.
55. Bienen and van de Walle, Of Time and Power, Henry S. Bienen and Nicolas van de Walle, "A Proportional Hazard Model of Leadership Duration," The Journal of Politics 54 (1992): 685-717; Henry S. Bienen and Nicolas van de Walle, "Dynastic Ties and Leadership Duration: Nibbling at the Sample Heterogeneity Problem" (Unpublished manuscript, 1993).
56. Bienen and van de Walle, Of Time and Power, Henry S. Bienen and Nicolas van de Walle, "A Proportional Hazard Model of Leadership Duration," The Journal of Politics 54 (1992): 685-717; Henry S. Bienen and Nicolas van de Walle, "Dynastic Ties and Leadership Duration: Nibbling at the Sample Heterogeneity Problem" (Unpublished manuscript, 1993).
57. Bienen and van de Walle, Of Time and Power, Henry S. Bienen and Nicolas van de Walle, "A Proportional Hazard Model of Leadership Duration," The Journal of Politics 54 (1992): 685-717; Henry S. Bienen and Nicolas van de Walle, "Dynastic Ties and Leadership Duration: Nibbling at the Sample Heterogeneity Problem" (Unpublished manuscript, 1993).
58. For general discussion of the heterogeneity problem see James Heckman and Guillermo Sedlacek, "Heterogeneity, Aggregation and Market Wage Functions: An Empirical Model of Self Selection in the Labor Market," Journal of Political Economy 93 (1985): 1077-1125; James Trussell and German Rodriguez, "Heterogeneity in Demographic Research," in Convergent Issues in Genetics and Demography, ed. J. Adams et al. (New York: Oxford University Press (1990)), 1111-1132.
59. For general discussion of the heterogeneity problem see James Heckman and Guillermo Sedlacek, "Heterogeneity, Aggregation and Market Wage Functions: An Empirical Model of Self Selection in the Labor Market," Journal of Political Economy 93 (1985): 1077-1125; James Trussell and German Rodriguez, "Heterogeneity in Demographic Research," in Convergent Issues in Genetics and Demography, ed. J. Adams et al. (New York: Oxford University Press (1990)), 1111-1132.
60. Crane Brinton. Anatomy of Revolution (New York: Prentice-Hall. 1962): Harry Eckstein, ed., Internal War (New York: Macmillan Co., 1964); Lawrence Stone, "Theories of Revolution." World Politics 18 (1966): 159-176.
61. Crane Brinton. Anatomy of Revolution (New York: Prentice-Hall. 1962): Harry Eckstein, ed., Internal War (New York: Macmillan Co., 1964); Lawrence Stone, "Theories of Revolution." World Politics 18 (1966): 159-176.
62. Crane Brinton. Anatomy of Revolution (New York: Prentice-Hall. 1962): Harry Eckstein, ed., Internal War (New York: Macmillan Co., 1964); Lawrence Stone, "Theories of Revolution." World Politics 18 (1966): 159-176.
63. Zbignew Brezezinski, The Permanent Purge (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1956); Henry Mason, "Implementing the Final Solution: The Ordinary Regulating of the Extraordinary," World Politics 40 (1988): 542-578.
64. Zbignew Brezezinski, The Permanent Purge (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1956); Henry Mason, "Implementing the Final Solution: The Ordinary Regulating of the Extraordinary," World Politics 40 (1988): 542-578.
65. W. Joseph, C. Wong, and David Zweig, New Perspectives on the Cultural Revolution (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1988); Lifton, Revolutionary Immortality.
66. W. Joseph, C. Wong, and David Zweig, New Perspectives on the Cultural Revolution (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1988); Lifton, Revolutionary Immortality.
67. Philip O'Brien and Cammack, Paul, Generals in Retreat: The Crisis of Military Rule in Latin America (Manchester: University of Manchester Press, 1985).
68. Claude Welch, Anatomy of Rebellion (Albany: SUNY Press, 1980).
69. Rene Lemarchand, Rwanda and Burundi (New York: Praeger Publishers, 1970).
70. John Londregan and Keith Poole, "Poverty, the Coup Trap, and Seizure of Executive Power." World Politics 42 (1990): 151-183.
71. John Londregan, Henry Bienen, and Nicolas van de Walle, "Ethnicity and the Duration of African Leaders." International Studies Quarterly 39 (1995): 1-25.
72. Douglas A. Hibbs Jr., Mass Political Violence (New York: John Wiley, 1973); Samuel P. Huntington, Political Order in Changing Societies (New Haven: Yale Press, 1968); Charles Tilly, The Vendee (Cambridge: Cambridge Community Press, 1964).
73. Douglas A. Hibbs Jr., Mass Political Violence (New York: John Wiley, 1973); Samuel P. Huntington, Political Order in Changing Societies (New Haven: Yale Press, 1968); Charles Tilly, The Vendee (Cambridge: Cambridge Community Press, 1964).
74. Douglas A. Hibbs Jr., Mass Political Violence (New York: John Wiley, 1973); Samuel P. Huntington, Political Order in Changing Societies (New Haven: Yale Press, 1968); Charles Tilly, The Vendee (Cambridge: Cambridge Community Press, 1964).
75. Hibbs, Mass Political Violence; Huntington, Political Order.
76. Hibbs, Mass Political Violence; Huntington, Political Order.
77. Powell, Contemporary Democracies.
78. Gurr, Why Men Rebel.
79. Indeed we test for multicollinearity between years in power and other variables in our analysis and find evidence that years in power is orthogonal to the other explanatory variables that we investigated.
80. Bienen and van de Walle, Of Time and Power.
81. We measure a leader's duration in power by the number of years he or she has ruled. Entry or exit dates of leaders are matched with each annual observation with the leader who ruled a country at the beginning of the year. We could have used months, and perhaps should have, but the original Bienen and van de Walle data were not configured in this way. They do not include the exact dates that leaders lost or gained power, so that imputing intervals of less than one year was not an option.
82. There were a number of cases in our data set where there were two or more leaders in power in a particular nation over a single year. There is not an obvious method for dealing with such cases. What we did, however, was to follow the method used in an earlier paper (Londregan, Bienen, and van de Walle, 1995) to code the leader who was in power at the beginning of the year in question as being the leader in power for that country for that year. Given that we were hypothesizing that the longer a leader was in power, the less likely that political violence would occur, this was the most conservative way to handle this issue.
83. Charles Taylor and David Jodice, World Handbook of Political and Social Indicators III, 1948-83 (Ann Arbor, MI: Inter-University Consortium for Political and Social Research, 1983).
84. This appendix is not included with the article because of space limitations. However, the authors will happily make the appendices available to interested parties.
85. Facts on File, Inc. Facts on File (New York: Facts on File, Inc., multiple years).
86. This appendix is not included with the article because of space limitations. However, the authors will happily make the appendices available to interested parties.
87. The unit of analysis throughout this article is one country in one year.
88. The D's on the end of each of the terms in the above table stand for dichotomous. Thus DPVD signifies: deaths from political violence, dichotomous.
89. For a more in-depth discussion of this class of models, see John H. Aldrich and Forrest D. Nelson, Linear Probability, Logit, and Probit Models (Newbury Park: Sage Publications, 1984).
90. -xb)) where xb equals the initial log of the odds ratio plus the predicted effect of years in power.
91. The omitted category was industrial western nations. We also experimented with some models where we included separate dummy variables for all nations except one in order to control for country-specific fixed effects. Interestingly, these models produced results with very few statistically significant parameter estimates. The parameter estimates for years in power were in the expected negative direction but were only slightly larger than their standard errors in such models.
92. Hibbs, Mass Political Violence.
93. Powell, Contemporary Democracies.
94. We, like many others, analyze the impact of the log of a nation's population on our dependent variables. This is commonly done in order to more accurately reflect the theoretically hypothesized incremental relationship between population and dependent variables. Like most scholars who have used population as an explanatory factor, we do not believe that the difference between a nation with 50,000 citizens and 100,000 citizens is the same as the difference between a nation with 1,000,000 and 1,050,000 citizens. Logging this variable is one way to better represent what we believe to be the true, nonlinear effect of population.
95. Partha Dasgupta, "Human Rights and Economic Progress: Do Poor Countries Face a Tradeoff?" Woodrow Wilson School, Princeton University: James A. Moffett '29 Lecture in Ethics (1993).
96. For an in-depth discussion of this type of analysis see chapter three of Gary King. Unifying Political Methodology: The Likelihood Theory of Statistical Inference (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1989); T. Y. Wang, William Dixon, Edward N. Muller, and Mitchell A. Seligson, "Inequality and Political Violence Revisited;" American Political Science Review 87 (1993): 979-993, provide a lengthy discussion of the differences between LOLS and Poisson models as well as the implications of logging the dependent variable plus one.
97. For an in-depth discussion of this type of analysis see chapter three of Gary King. Unifying Political Methodology: The Likelihood Theory of Statistical Inference (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1989); T. Y. Wang, William Dixon, Edward N. Muller, and Mitchell A. Seligson, "Inequality and Political Violence Revisited;" American Political Science Review 87 (1993): 979-993, provide a lengthy discussion of the differences between LOLS and Poisson models as well as the implications of logging the dependent variable plus one.
98. See for example, Charles D. Brockett, "Measuring Political Violence and Land Inequality in Central America," American Political Science Review 86 (1992): 169-176.
99. This appendix is not included with the article because of space limitations. However, the authors will happily make the appendices available to interested parties.
100. William H. Greene, Econometric Analysis (New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1993), has a good short explanation of multinomial logit and probit techniques. For the estimates reported here we use the MLOGIT procedure available in SAS.
101. It is important to note here that it does not matter (in terms of the predicted outcome for any particular case) which category of the dependent variable is chosen as the baseline category. We have chosen the less than 100 reported deaths category because this is the comparison that we are most interested in looking at.
102. s are the covariance matrix and a vector of parameter estimates from a model that eliminates one of the categories of the dependent variable. Thus the IIA test compares the model presented in Table 6 with four additional models identical to that in Table 6 but each with one category of the dependent variable dropped. The test statistics that the above formulae yielded were all far from what is conventionally needed to reject the null hypothesis that our parameter estimates were significantly perturbed by the dropping of each category of data. In other words we tested the IIA assumption implicit in our analysis and found that our model holds up.
103. Bienen and van de Walle, Of Time and Power.