Pakistan's microcephalic chuas of Shah Daulah: Cursed, clamped or cherished?

History of Psychiatry

Volumn 7, Issue 4, 1996, Pages 571-589

  Miles, M ^a  

^a NONE   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ARTICLE; CEPHALOMETRY; HISTORY; HUMAN; MAGIC; MENTAL DEFICIENCY; MICROCEPHALY; PAKISTAN; RELIGION; TRADITIONAL MEDICINE;

CEPHALOMETRY; HISTORY, MODERN 1601-; HUMANS; MAGIC; MEDICINE, TRADITIONAL; MENTAL RETARDATION; MICROCEPHALY; PAKISTAN; RELIGION AND MEDICINE;

EID: 0030323860     PISSN: 0957154X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/0957154x9600702808     Document Type: Article

References (161)

1. Chua (masculine) is a rat, while a mouse is chui (feminine). The Shah Daulah chua is mostly translated 'rat' in English, but sometimes appears as 'mouse'. In India the rat, as companion of the divinity Ganesh, is a more honoured creature than in many other countries. W. Crooke, Religion & Folklore of Northern India (New Delhi: Chand, 1926), 368-70.
2. The name of the pir (saint, holy man) also appears in English as Shahdaula, Shawdowla, Shah Daula / Daulat / Dawla / Dawlah / Dawlat / Dola. The 'rats' or 'mice' appear as chuas, chuhas, chuhus, chuhars, chuvas, etc.
3. Microcephaly remains a poorly defined term indicating a head size two or three standard deviations below the mean for the age, and noticeably smaller than seems to 'fit' the body. Absence of an agreed definition has not precluded the term from appearing in scientific reports (cf. discussion by M. W. G. Brandon, B. H. Kirman and C. E. Williams, 'Microcephaly', Journal of Mental Science, cv (1959), 721-47). Many types and probable causes of microcephaly are given in M. L. Buyse (ed.), Birth Defects Encyclopedia (Dover, MA: Centre for Birth Defects Information Services Inc., 1990), 1139-45.
4. Microcephaly remains a poorly defined term indicating a head size two or three standard deviations below the mean for the age, and noticeably smaller than seems to 'fit' the body. Absence of an agreed definition has not precluded the term from appearing in scientific reports (cf. discussion by M. W. G. Brandon, B. H. Kirman and C. E. Williams, 'Microcephaly', Journal of Mental Science, cv (1959), 721-47). Many types and probable causes of microcephaly are given in M. L. Buyse (ed.), Birth Defects Encyclopedia (Dover, MA: Centre for Birth Defects Information Services Inc., 1990), 1139-45.
5. Stated by Syed Jamal Mahmud, shrine custodian, during the author's visit in November 1992.
6. Richard Kurin, 'The structure of blessedness at a Muslim shrine', in Akbar S. Ahmed (ed.), Pakistan. The Social Sciences' Perspective (Karachi: Oxford University Press, 1990), 229-46.
7. Aubrey O'Brien, 'The Mohammedan saints of the Western Punjab', Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute, xli (1911), 509-20.
8. 'Mental retardation' is one of several currently acceptable terms in the Indian sub-continent. It is used here except where the historical context requires 'idiot' or 'imbecile', used descriptively rather than abusively.
9. Shah Daulah is said to have been born in 1581 CE (989 AH), in Akbar's reign. He died in the 17th year of Aurangzeb Alamgir, given as 1676 CE (1087 AH) by Elliott; or as 1086 AH, by Grewal and Banga; or as 1085 AH, by Cunningham; and as 1674 CE in Sarkar's Khulasatu-t-Tawarikh. Rose (p.547) gives death in 1075 AH, contradicting Elliott (p.636, same volume). As a youth, Shah Daulah went to Sialkot, was taken up by Mehta Khem Karan Badhera, and later became the disciple of either Shah Saidan Sarmast (see Elliott) or Miyan Sayyid Bah (see Singh) or Sayyidan Nadir (see Grewal and Banga), or Mian Midna (see Sarkar), or Kumayander Sialkoti (see Balfour), A. C. Elliott, 'The legend of Shah Daula', in H. A. Rose (ed.), A Glossary of the Tribes and Castes of the Punjab and North-West Frontier Province (Lahore: Aziz Publishers, reprint 1978), 631-6. J. S. Grewal and Indu Banga, Early Nineteenth-Century Panjab, 59, translated and edited from Ganesh Das (orig. 1849) Char Bagh-i-Panjab (Amritsar: Navrang, 1975). Jadunath Sarkar, The India of Aurangzib, with extracts from the Khulasatu-t-Tawarikh, etc. (Calcutta: Bose, 1901), 99-100. A. Cunningham, 'Chuha Shah Daula', The Indian Antiquary, viii (August 1879), 234. Surinder Singh, 'Muslim saints in the Mughal province of Punjab', Islamic Culture, xl (1986), 89-107. Edward Balfour, The Cyclopedia of India and of Eastern and Southern Asia (London: Quaritch, 1885), III, 589.
10. Shah Daulah is said to have been born in 1581 CE (989 AH), in Akbar's reign. He died in the 17th year of Aurangzeb Alamgir, given as 1676 CE (1087 AH) by Elliott; or as 1086 AH, by Grewal and Banga; or as 1085 AH, by Cunningham; and as 1674 CE in Sarkar's Khulasatu-t-Tawarikh. Rose (p.547) gives death in 1075 AH, contradicting Elliott (p.636, same volume). As a youth, Shah Daulah went to Sialkot, was taken up by Mehta Khem Karan Badhera, and later became the disciple of either Shah Saidan Sarmast (see Elliott) or Miyan Sayyid Bah (see Singh) or Sayyidan Nadir (see Grewal and Banga), or Mian Midna (see Sarkar), or Kumayander Sialkoti (see Balfour), A. C. Elliott, 'The legend of Shah Daula', in H. A. Rose (ed.), A Glossary of the Tribes and Castes of the Punjab and North-West Frontier Province (Lahore: Aziz Publishers, reprint 1978), 631-6. J. S. Grewal and Indu Banga, Early Nineteenth-Century Panjab, 59, translated and edited from Ganesh Das (orig. 1849) Char Bagh-i-Panjab (Amritsar: Navrang, 1975). Jadunath Sarkar, The India of Aurangzib, with extracts from the Khulasatu-t-Tawarikh, etc. (Calcutta: Bose, 1901), 99-100. A. Cunningham, 'Chuha Shah Daula', The Indian Antiquary, viii (August 1879), 234. Surinder Singh, 'Muslim saints in the Mughal province of Punjab', Islamic Culture, xl (1986), 89-107. Edward Balfour, The Cyclopedia of India and of Eastern and Southern Asia (London: Quaritch, 1885), III, 589.
11. Shah Daulah is said to have been born in 1581 CE (989 AH), in Akbar's reign. He died in the 17th year of Aurangzeb Alamgir, given as 1676 CE (1087 AH) by Elliott; or as 1086 AH, by Grewal and Banga; or as 1085 AH, by Cunningham; and as 1674 CE in Sarkar's Khulasatu-t-Tawarikh. Rose (p.547) gives death in 1075 AH, contradicting Elliott (p.636, same volume). As a youth, Shah Daulah went to Sialkot, was taken up by Mehta Khem Karan Badhera, and later became the disciple of either Shah Saidan Sarmast (see Elliott) or Miyan Sayyid Bah (see Singh) or Sayyidan Nadir (see Grewal and Banga), or Mian Midna (see Sarkar), or Kumayander Sialkoti (see Balfour), A. C. Elliott, 'The legend of Shah Daula', in H. A. Rose (ed.), A Glossary of the Tribes and Castes of the Punjab and North-West Frontier Province (Lahore: Aziz Publishers, reprint 1978), 631-6. J. S. Grewal and Indu Banga, Early Nineteenth-Century Panjab, 59, translated and edited from Ganesh Das (orig. 1849) Char Bagh-i-Panjab (Amritsar: Navrang, 1975). Jadunath Sarkar, The India of Aurangzib, with extracts from the Khulasatu-t-Tawarikh, etc. (Calcutta: Bose, 1901), 99-100. A. Cunningham, 'Chuha Shah Daula', The Indian Antiquary, viii (August 1879), 234. Surinder Singh, 'Muslim saints in the Mughal province of Punjab', Islamic Culture, xl (1986), 89-107. Edward Balfour, The Cyclopedia of India and of Eastern and Southern Asia (London: Quaritch, 1885), III, 589.
12. Shah Daulah is said to have been born in 1581 CE (989 AH), in Akbar's reign. He died in the 17th year of Aurangzeb Alamgir, given as 1676 CE (1087 AH) by Elliott; or as 1086 AH, by Grewal and Banga; or as 1085 AH, by Cunningham; and as 1674 CE in Sarkar's Khulasatu-t-Tawarikh. Rose (p.547) gives death in 1075 AH, contradicting Elliott (p.636, same volume). As a youth, Shah Daulah went to Sialkot, was taken up by Mehta Khem Karan Badhera, and later became the disciple of either Shah Saidan Sarmast (see Elliott) or Miyan Sayyid Bah (see Singh) or Sayyidan Nadir (see Grewal and Banga), or Mian Midna (see Sarkar), or Kumayander Sialkoti (see Balfour), A. C. Elliott, 'The legend of Shah Daula', in H. A. Rose (ed.), A Glossary of the Tribes and Castes of the Punjab and North-West Frontier Province (Lahore: Aziz Publishers, reprint 1978), 631-6. J. S. Grewal and Indu Banga, Early Nineteenth-Century Panjab, 59, translated and edited from Ganesh Das (orig. 1849) Char Bagh-i-Panjab (Amritsar: Navrang, 1975). Jadunath Sarkar, The India of Aurangzib, with extracts from the Khulasatu-t-Tawarikh, etc. (Calcutta: Bose, 1901), 99-100. A. Cunningham, 'Chuha Shah Daula', The Indian Antiquary, viii (August 1879), 234. Surinder Singh, 'Muslim saints in the Mughal province of Punjab', Islamic Culture, xl (1986), 89-107. Edward Balfour, The Cyclopedia of India and of Eastern and Southern Asia (London: Quaritch, 1885), III, 589.
13. Shah Daulah is said to have been born in 1581 CE (989 AH), in Akbar's reign. He died in the 17th year of Aurangzeb Alamgir, given as 1676 CE (1087 AH) by Elliott; or as 1086 AH, by Grewal and Banga; or as 1085 AH, by Cunningham; and as 1674 CE in Sarkar's Khulasatu-t-Tawarikh. Rose (p.547) gives death in 1075 AH, contradicting Elliott (p.636, same volume). As a youth, Shah Daulah went to Sialkot, was taken up by Mehta Khem Karan Badhera, and later became the disciple of either Shah Saidan Sarmast (see Elliott) or Miyan Sayyid Bah (see Singh) or Sayyidan Nadir (see Grewal and Banga), or Mian Midna (see Sarkar), or Kumayander Sialkoti (see Balfour), A. C. Elliott, 'The legend of Shah Daula', in H. A. Rose (ed.), A Glossary of the Tribes and Castes of the Punjab and North-West Frontier Province (Lahore: Aziz Publishers, reprint 1978), 631-6. J. S. Grewal and Indu Banga, Early Nineteenth-Century Panjab, 59, translated and edited from Ganesh Das (orig. 1849) Char Bagh-i-Panjab (Amritsar: Navrang, 1975). Jadunath Sarkar, The India of Aurangzib, with extracts from the Khulasatu-t-Tawarikh, etc. (Calcutta: Bose, 1901), 99-100. A. Cunningham, 'Chuha Shah Daula', The Indian Antiquary, viii (August 1879), 234. Surinder Singh, 'Muslim saints in the Mughal province of Punjab', Islamic Culture, xl (1986), 89-107. Edward Balfour, The Cyclopedia of India and of Eastern and Southern Asia (London: Quaritch, 1885), III, 589.
14. Shah Daulah is said to have been born in 1581 CE (989 AH), in Akbar's reign. He died in the 17th year of Aurangzeb Alamgir, given as 1676 CE (1087 AH) by Elliott; or as 1086 AH, by Grewal and Banga; or as 1085 AH, by Cunningham; and as 1674 CE in Sarkar's Khulasatu-t-Tawarikh. Rose (p.547) gives death in 1075 AH, contradicting Elliott (p.636, same volume). As a youth, Shah Daulah went to Sialkot, was taken up by Mehta Khem Karan Badhera, and later became the disciple of either Shah Saidan Sarmast (see Elliott) or Miyan Sayyid Bah (see Singh) or Sayyidan Nadir (see Grewal and Banga), or Mian Midna (see Sarkar), or Kumayander Sialkoti (see Balfour), A. C. Elliott, 'The legend of Shah Daula', in H. A. Rose (ed.), A Glossary of the Tribes and Castes of the Punjab and North-West Frontier Province (Lahore: Aziz Publishers, reprint 1978), 631-6. J. S. Grewal and Indu Banga, Early Nineteenth-Century Panjab, 59, translated and edited from Ganesh Das (orig. 1849) Char Bagh-i-Panjab (Amritsar: Navrang, 1975). Jadunath Sarkar, The India of Aurangzib, with extracts from the Khulasatu-t-Tawarikh, etc. (Calcutta: Bose, 1901), 99-100. A. Cunningham, 'Chuha Shah Daula', The Indian Antiquary, viii (August 1879), 234. Surinder Singh, 'Muslim saints in the Mughal province of Punjab', Islamic Culture, xl (1986), 89-107. Edward Balfour, The Cyclopedia of India and of Eastern and Southern Asia (London: Quaritch, 1885), III, 589.
15. Shah Daulah is said to have been born in 1581 CE (989 AH), in Akbar's reign. He died in the 17th year of Aurangzeb Alamgir, given as 1676 CE (1087 AH) by Elliott; or as 1086 AH, by Grewal and Banga; or as 1085 AH, by Cunningham; and as 1674 CE in Sarkar's Khulasatu-t-Tawarikh. Rose (p.547) gives death in 1075 AH, contradicting Elliott (p.636, same volume). As a youth, Shah Daulah went to Sialkot, was taken up by Mehta Khem Karan Badhera, and later became the disciple of either Shah Saidan Sarmast (see Elliott) or Miyan Sayyid Bah (see Singh) or Sayyidan Nadir (see Grewal and Banga), or Mian Midna (see Sarkar), or Kumayander Sialkoti (see Balfour), A. C. Elliott, 'The legend of Shah Daula', in H. A. Rose (ed.), A Glossary of the Tribes and Castes of the Punjab and North-West Frontier Province (Lahore: Aziz Publishers, reprint 1978), 631-6. J. S. Grewal and Indu Banga, Early Nineteenth-Century Panjab, 59, translated and edited from Ganesh Das (orig. 1849) Char Bagh-i-Panjab (Amritsar: Navrang, 1975). Jadunath Sarkar, The India of Aurangzib, with extracts from the Khulasatu-t-Tawarikh, etc. (Calcutta: Bose, 1901), 99-100. A. Cunningham, 'Chuha Shah Daula', The Indian Antiquary, viii (August 1879), 234. Surinder Singh, 'Muslim saints in the Mughal province of Punjab', Islamic Culture, xl (1986), 89-107. Edward Balfour, The Cyclopedia of India and of Eastern and Southern Asia (London: Quaritch, 1885), III, 589.
16. Shah Daulah is said to have been born in 1581 CE (989 AH), in Akbar's reign. He died in the 17th year of Aurangzeb Alamgir, given as 1676 CE (1087 AH) by Elliott; or as 1086 AH, by Grewal and Banga; or as 1085 AH, by Cunningham; and as 1674 CE in Sarkar's Khulasatu-t-Tawarikh. Rose (p.547) gives death in 1075 AH, contradicting Elliott (p.636, same volume). As a youth, Shah Daulah went to Sialkot, was taken up by Mehta Khem Karan Badhera, and later became the disciple of either Shah Saidan Sarmast (see Elliott) or Miyan Sayyid Bah (see Singh) or Sayyidan Nadir (see Grewal and Banga), or Mian Midna (see Sarkar), or Kumayander Sialkoti (see Balfour), A. C. Elliott, 'The legend of Shah Daula', in H. A. Rose (ed.), A Glossary of the Tribes and Castes of the Punjab and North-West Frontier Province (Lahore: Aziz Publishers, reprint 1978), 631-6. J. S. Grewal and Indu Banga, Early Nineteenth-Century Panjab, 59, translated and edited from Ganesh Das (orig. 1849) Char Bagh-i-Panjab (Amritsar: Navrang, 1975). Jadunath Sarkar, The India of Aurangzib, with extracts from the Khulasatu-t-Tawarikh, etc. (Calcutta: Bose, 1901), 99-100. A. Cunningham, 'Chuha Shah Daula', The Indian Antiquary, viii (August 1879), 234. Surinder Singh, 'Muslim saints in the Mughal province of Punjab', Islamic Culture, xl (1986), 89-107. Edward Balfour, The Cyclopedia of India and of Eastern and Southern Asia (London: Quaritch, 1885), III, 589.
17. M. Mujeeb, The Indian Muslims (London: Allen & Unwin, 1967), 310. Elliott noted that Shah Daulah '. . . used to put helmets, or head coverings, with kauris [cowry shells] sown on to them, on to his favorite animals'. The significance of this detail appears later. A. C. Elliott, The Chronicles of Gujrat (Lahore: Civil & Military Gazette Press, 1902), 57. (The key word appears erroneously as rauris in Elliott, 'The legend', 634.)
18. M. Mujeeb, The Indian Muslims (London: Allen & Unwin, 1967), 310. Elliott noted that Shah Daulah '. . . used to put helmets, or head coverings, with kauris [cowry shells] sown on to them, on to his favorite animals'. The significance of this detail appears later. A. C. Elliott, The Chronicles of Gujrat (Lahore: Civil & Military Gazette Press, 1902), 57. (The key word appears erroneously as rauris in Elliott, 'The legend', 634.)
19. M. Mujeeb, The Indian Muslims (London: Allen & Unwin, 1967), 310. Elliott noted that Shah Daulah '. . . used to put helmets, or head coverings, with kauris [cowry shells] sown on to them, on to his favorite animals'. The significance of this detail appears later. A. C. Elliott, The Chronicles of Gujrat (Lahore: Civil & Military Gazette Press, 1902), 57. (The key word appears erroneously as rauris in Elliott, 'The legend', 634.)
20. Chaudhry remarks that 'Barrenness among women, of course, is the staple of the piri-muridi [saint-disciple] relationships.' Hafeezur Rehman Chaudhry, 'The shrine and lunger of Golra Sharif', in Akbar S. Ahmed (ed.), Pakistan. The Social Sciences' Perspective (Karachi: Oxford University Press, 1990), 190-205.
21. Possibly through a belief that if parturiunt matres, there must be a good reason why nascetur ridiculus mus. (The mothers go into labour. An absurd mouse will be born). Amended from Horace, Ars Poetica, 139.
22. J. Wilson Johnston, 'Ethnology of the chuas of Shawdowla temple, Goojrat, Punjab', Indian Medical Gazette, i (1866), 111-12.
23. Rose, Glossary, op. cit., 738, footnote 2. Similar beliefs at Gujrat in the present century are noted by Prakash Tandon, Punjabi Century 1857-1947 (London: Chatto & Windus, 1961), 147.
24. Rose, Glossary, op. cit., 738, footnote 2. Similar beliefs at Gujrat in the present century are noted by Prakash Tandon, Punjabi Century 1857-1947 (London: Chatto & Windus, 1961), 147.
25. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, 1666, p.479. In another case, reported by Ireland from Italy, seven brothers were all idiots, attributed by neighbours to the fact that the mother kept a monkey. W. W. Ireland, 'Report upon some cases of microcephalic idiocy and cretinism', Edinburgh Medical Journal, xxi (August 1875), 109-20.
26. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, 1666, p.479. In another case, reported by Ireland from Italy, seven brothers were all idiots, attributed by neighbours to the fact that the mother kept a monkey. W. W. Ireland, 'Report upon some cases of microcephalic idiocy and cretinism', Edinburgh Medical Journal, xxi (August 1875), 109-20.
27. Edward Seguin, Idiocy and its Treatment by the Physiological Method (Original 1866. Reprint, New York: Augustus Kelley, 1971), 307.
28. G. F. W. Ewens, 'An account of a race of idiots found in the Punjab, commonly known as "Shah Daula's mice"', Indian Medical Gazette, xxxviii (1903), 330-4.
29. Rose, Glossary, op. cit., 630. W. O. Fanshawe, 'An account of Shah Dawla's chuhas, abstracted from the Vernacular Settlement Report by Mirza Azam Beg', The Indian Antiquary, viii (June 1879), 176-7. W. G. Waterfield in Report of the Second Regular Settlement of the Gujrat District, Panjab (1874), 18, notes that Beg was Extra Assistant Settlement Officer from 1 February 1866 to 31 March 1868.
30. Rose, Glossary, op. cit., 630. W. O. Fanshawe, 'An account of Shah Dawla's chuhas, abstracted from the Vernacular Settlement Report by Mirza Azam Beg', The Indian Antiquary, viii (June 1879), 176-7. W. G. Waterfield in Report of the Second Regular Settlement of the Gujrat District, Panjab (1874), 18, notes that Beg was Extra Assistant Settlement Officer from 1 February 1866 to 31 March 1868.
31. Rose, Glossary, op. cit., 630. W. O. Fanshawe, 'An account of Shah Dawla's chuhas, abstracted from the Vernacular Settlement Report by Mirza Azam Beg', The Indian Antiquary, viii (June 1879), 176-7. W. G. Waterfield in Report of the Second Regular Settlement of the Gujrat District, Panjab (1874), 18, notes that Beg was Extra Assistant Settlement Officer from 1 February 1866 to 31 March 1868.
32. Ewens, op. cit.
33. Surinder Singh, op. cit.
34. Cunningham, op. cit.
35. Flora Annie Steel, From the Five Rivers (London: Heinemann, original 1893, new edition 1901), 79-96.
36. Mohamed Latif, 'Correspondence', Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, xxviii (1896), 574-5.
37. W. H. D. Rouse, 'Correspondence. "Shah Daulah's rats"', Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, xxviii (1896), 793. Rouse mentions that each chua 'is said to have on his head the marks of the five fingers of the saint who brought him into the world'.
38. The editor of The Indian Antiquary, in notes appended to Elliott's account ('The legend . . .'), doubted that Shah Daulah was involved with chuas, but thought the connection began soon after his death. A record of Shah Daulah dated 1695 CE, some 20 years after his death, does not mention chuas (Sarkar, Khulasatu-t-Tawarikh, 99-100). The earliest chua date found in the present study is 1857, in Fanshawe (after Beg), op. cit., which refers to 'a return of those presented [to the Shrine] between 1857 to 1866'.
39. Johnston, op. cit.
40. Gujrat first experienced British officialdom in 1846. W. W. Hunter, The Imperial Gazetteer of India (London: Trübner, 1881), III, 462.
41. Scanty Western medical sources from the Punjab exist back to 1820. See John C. Hume Jr, 'Rival traditions: Western medicine and Yunan-i Tibb in the Punjab, 1849-1889', Bulletin of the History of Medicine, li (1977), 214-31. John Martin Honigberger, physician to Ranjit Singh, and keeper of a mental asylum at Lahore with some mentally retarded inmates, mentioned no chuas in Thirty Five Years in the East (London: Baillière, 1852).
42. Scanty Western medical sources from the Punjab exist back to 1820. See John C. Hume Jr, 'Rival traditions: Western medicine and Yunan-i Tibb in the Punjab, 1849-1889', Bulletin of the History of Medicine, li (1977), 214-31. John Martin Honigberger, physician to Ranjit Singh, and keeper of a mental asylum at Lahore with some mentally retarded inmates, mentioned no chuas in Thirty Five Years in the East (London: Baillière, 1852).
43. Christian missions entered the Punjab in 1834, at Ludhiana, spreading to Jullundhur by 1846. The Church of Scotland Punjab Mission reached Gujrat in 1862. M. A. Sherring, revised by Edward Storrow, The History of Protestant Missions in India. From their Commencement in 1706 to 1881 (London: Religious Tract Society, 1884), 204-7. Gazetteer of the Gujrat District 1892-93, second edition (Government of Punjab), 49.
44. Christian missions entered the Punjab in 1834, at Ludhiana, spreading to Jullundhur by 1846. The Church of Scotland Punjab Mission reached Gujrat in 1862. M. A. Sherring, revised by Edward Storrow, The History of Protestant Missions in India. From their Commencement in 1706 to 1881 (London: Religious Tract Society, 1884), 204-7. Gazetteer of the Gujrat District 1892-93, second edition (Government of Punjab), 49.
45. Harjot Oberoi, 'Popular saints, goddesses and village sacred sites: rereading Sikh experience in the nineteenth century', History of Religions, xxxi (1992), 363-84. The silence is unbroken by Ganesh Das, Char Bagh-i-Panjab, said by Grewal and Banga (op. cit., 10), to be 'the only work on the kingdom of Ranjit Singh containing information on social, religious and cultural life of the Panjab, besides a historical account'. Das mentioned Shah Daulah (59-63), but no chuas.
46. Harjot Oberoi, 'Popular saints, goddesses and village sacred sites: rereading Sikh experience in the nineteenth century', History of Religions, xxxi (1992), 363-84. The silence is unbroken by Ganesh Das, Char Bagh-i-Panjab, said by Grewal and Banga (op. cit., 10), to be 'the only work on the kingdom of Ranjit Singh containing information on social, religious and cultural life of the Panjab, besides a historical account'. Das mentioned Shah Daulah (59-63), but no chuas.
47. Harjot Oberoi, 'Popular saints, goddesses and village sacred sites: rereading Sikh experience in the nineteenth century', History of Religions, xxxi (1992), 363-84. The silence is unbroken by Ganesh Das, Char Bagh-i-Panjab, said by Grewal and Banga (op. cit., 10), to be 'the only work on the kingdom of Ranjit Singh containing information on social, religious and cultural life of the Panjab, besides a historical account'. Das mentioned Shah Daulah (59-63), but no chuas.
48. M. Longworth Dames, 'Shah Daula's "Rats"', Man, xv (1915), 88-90.
49. R. Cust, 'Notes and Queries', The Indian Antiquary, viii (June 1879), 176. Cust gave the date as 1856; while in 'Correspondence', Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, xxviii (1896), 574, the date appeared as 1851.
50. R. Cust, 'Notes and Queries', The Indian Antiquary, viii (June 1879), 176. Cust gave the date as 1856; while in 'Correspondence', Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, xxviii (1896), 574, the date appeared as 1851.
51. Early evidence that the 'Aztec' provenance was fabricated is cited by Robert Bogdan, 'Exhibiting mentally retarded people for amusement and profit, 1850-1940', American Journal of Mental Deficiency, xci (1986), 120-6.
52. A. F. Tredgold, A Textbook of Mental Deficiency, 6th edition (London: Baillière, Tindall & Cox, 1937), 227.
53. Cunningham, op. cit. (Note 8).
54. Fanshawe, op. cit. (Note 17).
55. H. Rivett-Carnac, 'Notes and queries', The Indian Antiquary, viii June 1879), 177-8. He also noted 'the patience with which villagers will tolerate a troublesome beggar, if he is blind or half-witted'.
56. R. Gray, Annual Report on the Lunatic Asylums in the Punjab for 1883 (Lahore: Government Civil Secretariat Press, 1884), 3-4.
57. W. Center (1886), Report on the Lunatic Asylums at Delhi and Lahore, 1885 (Lahore: Government Civil Secretariat Press, 1886), 3.
58. Latif, op. cit.
59. H. A. Rose, 'Head-shaping in the Punjab', Man, ii (1902), 3-4, quoting A. C. Elliott, Gazetteer of the Muzaffargarh District. 1883-84, 53. See also S.S. Thorburn, Bannu or our Afghan Frontier (London: Trübner, 1876), 146.
60. H. A. Rose, 'Head-shaping in the Punjab', Man, ii (1902), 3-4, quoting A. C. Elliott, Gazetteer of the Muzaffargarh District. 1883-84, 53. See also S.S. Thorburn, Bannu or our Afghan Frontier (London: Trübner, 1876), 146.
61. H. A. Rose, 'Head-shaping in the Punjab', Man, ii (1902), 3-4, quoting A. C. Elliott, Gazetteer of the Muzaffargarh District. 1883-84, 53. See also S.S. Thorburn, Bannu or our Afghan Frontier (London: Trübner, 1876), 146.
62. Flora Annie (Mrs H. W.) Steel, The Garden of Fidelity (London: Macmillan, 1929), 157-8. Steel speculated as early as 1893 whether the chuas' 'typical distortion [is] produced by slow pressure - as in lesser degree the coveted bomblike foreheads of the Sindhi women are produced' (Steel, From the Five Rivers, 80). This idea did not recur in the formal Chua literature until Steel was cited by C. Lodge Patch, 'Microcephaly: a report on "the Shah Daulah's mice"', Indian Medical Gazette, lxiii (1928), 297-301.
63. Flora Annie (Mrs H. W.) Steel, The Garden of Fidelity (London: Macmillan, 1929), 157-8. Steel speculated as early as 1893 whether the chuas' 'typical distortion [is] produced by slow pressure - as in lesser degree the coveted bomblike foreheads of the Sindhi women are produced' (Steel, From the Five Rivers, 80). This idea did not recur in the formal Chua literature until Steel was cited by C. Lodge Patch, 'Microcephaly: a report on "the Shah Daulah's mice"', Indian Medical Gazette, lxiii (1928), 297-301.
64. Flora Annie (Mrs H. W.) Steel, The Garden of Fidelity (London: Macmillan, 1929), 157-8. Steel speculated as early as 1893 whether the chuas' 'typical distortion [is] produced by slow pressure - as in lesser degree the coveted bomblike foreheads of the Sindhi women are produced' (Steel, From the Five Rivers, 80). This idea did not recur in the formal Chua literature until Steel was cited by C. Lodge Patch, 'Microcephaly: a report on "the Shah Daulah's mice"', Indian Medical Gazette, lxiii (1928), 297-301.
65. Diderot's encyclopaedists found 'Les plus difficiles à comprendre, c'est qu'il n'en résulte pas des dérangements considérables dans l'organe du cerveau'. Encyclopédie, ou Dictionnaire Raisonné des Sciences, des Arts et des Métiers (Neufchâtel, 1765), XVI, 205. The French continued to be puzzled when they learnt later that head-shaping was common in Toulouse. Eventually their worries dissipated, since as Dingwall noted, 'the Toulouse district did not seem to produce any more half-wilted folk than other regions of France.' Eric J. Dingwall, Artificial Cranial Deformation (London: Bale, Sons & Danielsson, 1931), 231.
66. Diderot's encyclopaedists found 'Les plus difficiles à comprendre, c'est qu'il n'en résulte pas des dérangements considérables dans l'organe du cerveau'. Encyclopédie, ou Dictionnaire Raisonné des Sciences, des Arts et des Métiers (Neufchâtel, 1765), XVI, 205. The French continued to be puzzled when they learnt later that head-shaping was common in Toulouse. Eventually their worries dissipated, since as Dingwall noted, 'the Toulouse district did not seem to produce any more half-wilted folk than other regions of France.' Eric J. Dingwall, Artificial Cranial Deformation (London: Bale, Sons & Danielsson, 1931), 231.
67. Diderot's encyclopaedists found 'Les plus difficiles à comprendre, c'est qu'il n'en résulte pas des dérangements considérables dans l'organe du cerveau'. Encyclopédie, ou Dictionnaire Raisonné des Sciences, des Arts et des Métiers (Neufchâtel, 1765), XVI, 205. The French continued to be puzzled when they learnt later that head-shaping was common in Toulouse. Eventually their worries dissipated, since as Dingwall noted, 'the Toulouse district did not seem to produce any more half-wilted folk than other regions of France.' Eric J. Dingwall, Artificial Cranial Deformation (London: Bale, Sons & Danielsson, 1931), 231.
68. Elliott, Gazetteer, 53.
69. Haji Kalandar Khan, 'Notes on the physical treatment of children in the Punjab, West of the Indus', Man, ii (1902), 40-1.
70. Ewens, op. cit. Ewens gave details of 15 chuas, 12 at the shrine and 3 others whom he knew. His 'summary' incorrectly shows 8 males and 15 females - this should be 7 females.
71. He was described as '. . . the benevolent and kindly Colonel Ewens, who was the greatest author and alienist ever to practise or profess psychiatry in the East', by C. J. Lodge Patch, 'A century of psychiatry in the Punjab', Journal of Mental Science, lxx (1939), 381-91.
72. This point reappears in Steel's short story, in From the Five Rivers, where the chua himself charms squirrels out of the trees.
73. Elliott, The Chronicles, 53-65, in a chapter devoted to Shah Daulah, noted hire of chuas 'at rates varying from Rs. 17 to Rs.20 per annum to persons who take no care of them, and ill-treat and starve them'.
74. Johnston's 1866 report came to wider notice when reprinted in Punjab Notes and Queries m (1885), 117-18. Ewens's report reappeared only in his book Insanity in India, 335-9, (Calcutta: Thacker, 1908). Yet even Johnston's report was clearly unknown to Mills, who described two microcephalic youths found wandering near Bombay, whose guardian attributed their condition to iron caps being placed on their heads after they had been dedicated by their parents to a temple. J. Mills, 'Note on two idiots', Journal of the Anthropological Society of Bombay, iii (1893), 33-4 and Plate. Even the rare author who did cite Ewens managed to confuse various details (see e.g. Paul-Louis Couchoud, 'Les rats de Shah Daulah', L'Encéphale, vii (10 May 1912), 460-5).
75. Johnston's 1866 report came to wider notice when reprinted in Punjab Notes and Queries m (1885), 117-18. Ewens's report reappeared only in his book Insanity in India, 335-9, (Calcutta: Thacker, 1908). Yet even Johnston's report was clearly unknown to Mills, who described two microcephalic youths found wandering near Bombay, whose guardian attributed their condition to iron caps being placed on their heads after they had been dedicated by their parents to a temple. J. Mills, 'Note on two idiots', Journal of the Anthropological Society of Bombay, iii (1893), 33-4 and Plate. Even the rare author who did cite Ewens managed to confuse various details (see e.g. Paul-Louis Couchoud, 'Les rats de Shah Daulah', L'Encéphale, vii (10 May 1912), 460-5).
76. Johnston's 1866 report came to wider notice when reprinted in Punjab Notes and Queries m (1885), 117-18. Ewens's report reappeared only in his book Insanity in India, 335-9, (Calcutta: Thacker, 1908). Yet even Johnston's report was clearly unknown to Mills, who described two microcephalic youths found wandering near Bombay, whose guardian attributed their condition to iron caps being placed on their heads after they had been dedicated by their parents to a temple. J. Mills, 'Note on two idiots', Journal of the Anthropological Society of Bombay, iii (1893), 33-4 and Plate. Even the rare author who did cite Ewens managed to confuse various details (see e.g. Paul-Louis Couchoud, 'Les rats de Shah Daulah', L'Encéphale, vii (10 May 1912), 460-5).
77. Johnston's 1866 report came to wider notice when reprinted in Punjab Notes and Queries m (1885), 117-18. Ewens's report reappeared only in his book Insanity in India, 335-9, (Calcutta: Thacker, 1908). Yet even Johnston's report was clearly unknown to Mills, who described two microcephalic youths found wandering near Bombay, whose guardian attributed their condition to iron caps being placed on their heads after they had been dedicated by their parents to a temple. J. Mills, 'Note on two idiots', Journal of the Anthropological Society of Bombay, iii (1893), 33-4 and Plate. Even the rare author who did cite Ewens managed to confuse various details (see e.g. Paul-Louis Couchoud, 'Les rats de Shah Daulah', L'Encéphale, vii (10 May 1912), 460-5).
78. Rose, in Glossary, 630, cited Johnston, op. cit. The Glossary combined work by Rose, Denzil Ibbetson, E. D. MacLagan and others. It was published originally in three volumes, 1911 to 1914; yet Rose stated (page i) that he compiled it over 14 years, starting in 1903. The chuas section (pages 630-7) is largely reprinted from H. A. Rose and A. C. Elliott, 'The chuhas, or rat-children of the Panjab, and Shah Daula', The Indian Antiquary, xxxviii (February, 1909), 27-32, an article that appeared after both Ewens's report and its reprint.
79. Rose, in Glossary, 630, cited Johnston, op. cit. The Glossary combined work by Rose, Denzil Ibbetson, E. D. MacLagan and others. It was published originally in three volumes, 1911 to 1914; yet Rose stated (page i) that he compiled it over 14 years, starting in 1903. The chuas section (pages 630-7) is largely reprinted from H. A. Rose and A. C. Elliott, 'The chuhas, or rat-children of the Panjab, and Shah Daula', The Indian Antiquary, xxxviii (February, 1909), 27-32, an article that appeared after both Ewens's report and its reprint.
80. Rose, in Glossary, 630, cited Johnston, op. cit. The Glossary combined work by Rose, Denzil Ibbetson, E. D. MacLagan and others. It was published originally in three volumes, 1911 to 1914; yet Rose stated (page i) that he compiled it over 14 years, starting in 1903. The chuas section (pages 630-7) is largely reprinted from H. A. Rose and A. C. Elliott, 'The chuhas, or rat-children of the Panjab, and Shah Daula', The Indian Antiquary, xxxviii (February, 1909), 27-32, an article that appeared after both Ewens's report and its reprint.
81. Punjab Gazetteer, Vol.25A, Gujrat District, 1904, 161-3. A similar passage appears in the Gazetteers from 1884 to 1921.
82. Imperial Gazetteer of India. Provincial Series. Punjab (Calcutta, 1908), Vol. II, 123.
83. Dames, op. cit. (Note 30).
84. T. W. Arnold, 'Saints and martyrs (Muhammadan in India)', in J. Hastings (ed.) Encyclopedia of Religion Gf Ethics (Edinburgh: Clark, 1920), xi.
85. Sir George MacMunn, The Underworld of India (London: Jarrolds, 1933), 179. The 1931 Census report mentions merely that the data for insanity '. . . include the congenital idiots, known in some places as "chuhas" (literally meaning rats) owing to the shape and smallness of their heads and features.' Khan Ahmad Hasan Khan, Census of India, 1931. Volume XVII. Punjab Pan I. Report (Lahore, 1933).
86. Sir George MacMunn, The Underworld of India (London: Jarrolds, 1933), 179. The 1931 Census report mentions merely that the data for insanity '. . . include the congenital idiots, known in some places as "chuhas" (literally meaning rats) owing to the shape and smallness of their heads and features.' Khan Ahmad Hasan Khan, Census of India, 1931. Volume XVII. Punjab Pan I. Report (Lahore, 1933).
87. Lodge Patch, 'Microcephaly' (Note 41). Psychiatric observation was becoming more detailed and acute. Patch noted that microcephalics had been likened to various creatures other than 'rats'. He also knew a chua of normal intelligence.
88. M. Sharif, 'Inaugural Address', Mental Health in Pakistan. A Report of the Proceedings and Recommendations of Three-day Seminar on "Mental Health in Pakistan" (Karachi: Social Services Coordinating Council, 1960), 4-6.
89. Harald Einzmann, Ziarat und Pir-e-Muridi (Stuttgart: Steiner Verlag Wiesbaden, 1988), 173-4. See also David Gilmartin, Empire and Islam. Punjab and the Making of Pakistan (London: Taurus, 1988), 46-50.
90. Harald Einzmann, Ziarat und Pir-e-Muridi (Stuttgart: Steiner Verlag Wiesbaden, 1988), 173-4. See also David Gilmartin, Empire and Islam. Punjab and the Making of Pakistan (London: Taurus, 1988), 46-50.
91. From an unpublished translation by Suleiman Shehzad, of Hazrat Kabiruddin Shah Daula Daryaie Ganj Bakhsh Ramatullah Ellai (Lahore: Auqaf Department, Punjab, 1983). This Urdu pamphlet states that although Shah Daulah cared for disabled children, his nominal followers took advantage of the good tradition and began a ruthless trafficking in the children, beating them and hiring them out as beggars.
92. M. F. Hussain, 'Manufactured microcephaly'. Printed in a Conference newspaper at the Fifth International Psychiatric Conference of the Pakistan Psychiatric Society, December 1984, Peshawar.
93. Unpublished translation by Suleiman Shehzad, of Zaman Khokhar, 'Hazrat Shah Daulah Daryaie', Aina Haft Roza (Gujrat) 28 Oct. - 4 Nov. 1991. Khokhar's article is largely hagiography.
94. 'Head-shaping' is a neutral compromise. Kiszely prefers 'formation' to 'deformation', since the aim was usually to beautify and ennoble. Against this are Dingwall's thesis title (op. cit., Note 42) on 'mutilations'; and Zivanovic who finds deformation of the skull 'interesting as a psychopathological disorder which led men [sic] to inflict such torture on their children'. Istvan Kiszely, The Origins of Artificial Cranial Formation in Eurasia from the Sixth Millennium B.C. to the Seventh Century A.D., 1, translated by C. Siman, (Oxford: British Archaeological Reports, 1978). Srboljub Zivanovic, Ancient Diseases. The Elements of Palaeopathology (London: Methuen, 1982), 204.
95. 'Head-shaping' is a neutral compromise. Kiszely prefers 'formation' to 'deformation', since the aim was usually to beautify and ennoble. Against this are Dingwall's thesis title (op. cit., Note 42) on 'mutilations'; and Zivanovic who finds deformation of the skull 'interesting as a psychopathological disorder which led men [sic] to inflict such torture on their children'. Istvan Kiszely, The Origins of Artificial Cranial Formation in Eurasia from the Sixth Millennium B.C. to the Seventh Century A.D., 1, translated by C. Siman, (Oxford: British Archaeological Reports, 1978). Srboljub Zivanovic, Ancient Diseases. The Elements of Palaeopathology (London: Methuen, 1982), 204.
96. 'Head-shaping' is a neutral compromise. Kiszely prefers 'formation' to 'deformation', since the aim was usually to beautify and ennoble. Against this are Dingwall's thesis title (op. cit., Note 42) on 'mutilations'; and Zivanovic who finds deformation of the skull 'interesting as a psychopathological disorder which led men [sic] to inflict such torture on their children'. Istvan Kiszely, The Origins of Artificial Cranial Formation in Eurasia from the Sixth Millennium B.C. to the Seventh Century A.D., 1, translated by C. Siman, (Oxford: British Archaeological Reports, 1978). Srboljub Zivanovic, Ancient Diseases. The Elements of Palaeopathology (London: Methuen, 1982), 204.
97. Some critical historians might feel that merely to set the colonial ethnographers in context is inadequate - a more comprehensive denunciation is required. However, the chuas were of no political moment; nor did the witnesses aim to 'control' them or their attendants; nor even to take issue with Islam, nor to assert their authority over the female pilgrims. In the absence of the familiar themes of male colonial dominance and control, the written evidence remains to be judged on its merits. To dismiss it would be to leave practically no record of the chuas.
98. Johann Friedrich Blumenbach, De Generis Humani Varietate Nativa (Göttingen, 1776). Cited by Fielding H. Garrison, An Introduction to the History of Medicine, 4th edition (Philadelphia: Saunders, 1929), 320-1. Garrison also mentions pioneering comments by Vesalius (1543) and essays by Bernier (1684) and Linnaeus (1735).
99. Johann Friedrich Blumenbach, De Generis Humani Varietate Nativa (Göttingen, 1776). Cited by Fielding H. Garrison, An Introduction to the History of Medicine, 4th edition (Philadelphia: Saunders, 1929), 320-1. Garrison also mentions pioneering comments by Vesalius (1543) and essays by Bernier (1684) and Linnaeus (1735).
100. Mirko Drazen Grmek, Diseases in the Ancient Greek World, 53, translated by M. Muellner and L. Muellner (Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, 1989). A further century of skull measurements proved to be of modest utility, according to W. W. Howells, Cranial Variation in Man (Cambridge, MA: Peabody Museum, Harvard University, 1973), 1-5.
101. Mirko Drazen Grmek, Diseases in the Ancient Greek World, 53, translated by M. Muellner and L. Muellner (Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, 1989). A further century of skull measurements proved to be of modest utility, according to W. W. Howells, Cranial Variation in Man (Cambridge, MA: Peabody Museum, Harvard University, 1973), 1-5.
102. Grmek, op. cit., 54-5, 371. Ireland, Mental Affections, 87-8.
103. Grmek, op. cit., 54-5, 371. Ireland, Mental Affections, 87-8.
104. Ireland, ibid., 87.
105. William E. Marshall, A Phrenologist amongst the Todas (London: Longmans, Green, 1873), 90. See also the 'Editorial review, Phrenology of the Hindoos', The Asiatic Journal, New Series, i (Jan. - April 1830), 41-7. More positive effects of phrenology on the development of psychiatry are discussed by R. J. Cooter, 'Phrenology and British alienists, c.1825-1845', Medical History, xx (1976), 1-21, 135-51.
106. William E. Marshall, A Phrenologist amongst the Todas (London: Longmans, Green, 1873), 90. See also the 'Editorial review, Phrenology of the Hindoos', The Asiatic Journal, New Series, i (Jan. - April 1830), 41-7. More positive effects of phrenology on the development of psychiatry are discussed by R. J. Cooter, 'Phrenology and British alienists, c.1825-1845', Medical History, xx (1976), 1-21, 135-51.
107. William E. Marshall, A Phrenologist amongst the Todas (London: Longmans, Green, 1873), 90. See also the 'Editorial review, Phrenology of the Hindoos', The Asiatic Journal, New Series, i (Jan. - April 1830), 41-7. More positive effects of phrenology on the development of psychiatry are discussed by R. J. Cooter, 'Phrenology and British alienists, c.1825-1845', Medical History, xx (1976), 1-21, 135-51.
108. Detailed comparison was made earlier; see e.g. the review in Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, XXI (1699), 338-42, of Edward Tyson's Orang-Outang, Sive Homo Sylvestris (London, 1699). However, the debate had more fuel in the nineteenth century, and threatened more deeply entrenched positions.
109. Detailed comparison was made earlier; see e.g. the review in Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, XXI (1699), 338-42, of Edward Tyson's Orang-Outang, Sive Homo Sylvestris (London, 1699). However, the debate had more fuel in the nineteenth century, and threatened more deeply entrenched positions.
110. Ireland, Mental Affections, 92-104. Also Ireland, 'Report on some cases' (Note 14).
111. Ireland, Mental Affections, 92-104. Also Ireland, 'Report on some cases' (Note 14).
112. John Marshall, 'On the brain of a Bushwoman; and on the brains of two idiots of European descent', Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, CLIV (1864), 501-58.
113. Quoted by J. MacGregor Allan, 'Carl Vogt's lectures on Man', Anthropological Review, vii (1869), 177-84. One chimpanzee brain was, however, found superior to that of a human idiot, by Dr Macartney, Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy, ii (1842, No. 35) 272-4.
114. Quoted by J. MacGregor Allan, 'Carl Vogt's lectures on Man', Anthropological Review, vii (1869), 177-84. One chimpanzee brain was, however, found superior to that of a human idiot, by Dr Macartney, Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy, ii (1842, No. 35) 272-4.
115. Ireland, Mental Affections, p.93, citing Carl Vogt, 'Mémoire sur les microcéphales ou hommessinges', Mémoires de l'Institut National Genevois, ii (1866), 1-232 [not seen by present author]. See also Carl Vogt, 'On microcephali; or human-ape organisms', Anthropological Review, vii (1869), 128-36.
116. Ireland, Mental Affections, p.93, citing Carl Vogt, 'Mémoire sur les microcéphales ou hommessinges', Mémoires de l'Institut National Genevois, ii (1866), 1-232 [not seen by present author]. See also Carl Vogt, 'On microcephali; or human-ape organisms', Anthropological Review, vii (1869), 128-36.
117. Ireland, Mental Affections, p.93, citing Carl Vogt, 'Mémoire sur les microcéphales ou hommessinges', Mémoires de l'Institut National Genevois, ii (1866), 1-232 [not seen by present author]. See also Carl Vogt, 'On microcephali; or human-ape organisms', Anthropological Review, vii (1869), 128-36.
118. Doris Lessing, The Fifth Child (London: Paladin, reprint 1989), 126-8, 156-9 et passim.
119. Seguin, op. cit., 342-3. Ireland also saw the 'Azteks' thrice in Scotland, as they were hawked around Europe, Mental Affections, 108-10.
120. Seguin, op. cit., 342-3. Ireland also saw the 'Azteks' thrice in Scotland, as they were hawked around Europe, Mental Affections, 108-10.
121. Sidney L. Halperin, 'Three pedigrees of microcephaly', Journal of Heredity, xxxv (1944), 211-14. This was 'many years' before Halperin's time, but was not dated. However, the show was known as Barnum's Circus only until 1881, when it became Barnum and Bailey's Circus.
122. J. Barnard Davis, 'Ethnology: "Crania Indica"', Indian Annals of Medical Science, XI (No.XXI, 1867), 389-96.
123. Everard Home, 'An account of a child with a double head', Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, LXXX (1790), 296-305.
124. W. A. Green, 'Contributions towards the pathology of insanity in India', Indian Annals of Medical Science, iv (1856-57), 374-435. Other skulls were found simply abandoned, as by John Shortt, 'Description of crania from India', Journal of the Anthropological Society of London, viii (1870), xvii-xix.
125. W. A. Green, 'Contributions towards the pathology of insanity in India', Indian Annals of Medical Science, iv (1856-57), 374-435. Other skulls were found simply abandoned, as by John Shortt, 'Description of crania from India', Journal of the Anthropological Society of London, viii (1870), xvii-xix.
126. R. W. Reid, 'Exhibition and description of the skull of a microcephalic Hindu', Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxiv (1895), 105-80.
127. The first detailed documentation of head-shaping seems to have been by L. A. Gosse, 'Essai sur les déformations artificielles du crâne', Annales d'Hygiène Publique et de Médecine Légale, second series, 3 (1855), 317-93 and 4 (1855), 5-83. By 1889, Porter's bibliography gave over a hundred references, though weak on Asia. See J. H. Porter, 'Notes on the artificial deformation of children among savage and civilised peoples', Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution . . . Year ending June 30, 1887, Part II (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1889), 213-35.
128. The first detailed documentation of head-shaping seems to have been by L. A. Gosse, 'Essai sur les déformations artificielles du crâne', Annales d'Hygiène Publique et de Médecine Légale, second series, 3 (1855), 317-93 and 4 (1855), 5-83. By 1889, Porter's bibliography gave over a hundred references, though weak on Asia. See J. H. Porter, 'Notes on the artificial deformation of children among savage and civilised peoples', Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution . . . Year ending June 30, 1887, Part II (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1889), 213-35.
129. The first detailed documentation of head-shaping seems to have been by L. A. Gosse, 'Essai sur les déformations artificielles du crâne', Annales d'Hygiène Publique et de Médecine Légale, second series, 3 (1855), 317-93 and 4 (1855), 5-83. By 1889, Porter's bibliography gave over a hundred references, though weak on Asia. See J. H. Porter, 'Notes on the artificial deformation of children among savage and civilised peoples', Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution . . . Year ending June 30, 1887, Part II (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1889), 213-35.
130. Hippocrates. Airs, Waters, Places, translated by W. H. S. Jones. (London: Heinemann, 1923), Volume I, xiv, 1-18. See discussion by R. Knox, 'On the deformations of the human cranium, supposed to be produced by mechanical means', Anthropological Review, i (1863), 271-3.
131. Hippocrates. Airs, Waters, Places, translated by W. H. S. Jones. (London: Heinemann, 1923), Volume I, xiv, 1-18. See discussion by R. Knox, 'On the deformations of the human cranium, supposed to be produced by mechanical means', Anthropological Review, i (1863), 271-3.
132. Dingwall, op. cit. (Note 42), 79-81, 86.
133. Hiuen Tsiang, Si-Yu-Ki. Buddhist Records of the Western World, translated by Samuel Beal, (London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner, 1884), I, 19 and II, 306. In China the custom dated from before 2,000 BC, according to E. T. C. Werner, Autumn Leaves, An Autobiography (Shanghai: Kelly & Walsh, 1928), 119-23. In the Kingdom of Arracan, in seventeenth century Burma, 'they bind a Plate of Lead hard upon the Fore-heads' of neonates, observed by J. Ovington, A Voyage to Suratt in the Year 1689 (London, 1696), 569.
134. Hiuen Tsiang, Si-Yu-Ki. Buddhist Records of the Western World, translated by Samuel Beal, (London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner, 1884), I, 19 and II, 306. In China the custom dated from before 2,000 BC, according to E. T. C. Werner, Autumn Leaves, An Autobiography (Shanghai: Kelly & Walsh, 1928), 119-23. In the Kingdom of Arracan, in seventeenth century Burma, 'they bind a Plate of Lead hard upon the Fore-heads' of neonates, observed by J. Ovington, A Voyage to Suratt in the Year 1689 (London, 1696), 569.
135. Hiuen Tsiang, Si-Yu-Ki. Buddhist Records of the Western World, translated by Samuel Beal, (London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner, 1884), I, 19 and II, 306. In China the custom dated from before 2,000 BC, according to E. T. C. Werner, Autumn Leaves, An Autobiography (Shanghai: Kelly & Walsh, 1928), 119-23. In the Kingdom of Arracan, in seventeenth century Burma, 'they bind a Plate of Lead hard upon the Fore-heads' of neonates, observed by J. Ovington, A Voyage to Suratt in the Year 1689 (London, 1696), 569.
136. Hiuen Tsiang, Si-Yu-Ki. Buddhist Records of the Western World, translated by Samuel Beal, (London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner, 1884), I, 19 and II, 306. In China the custom dated from before 2,000 BC, according to E. T. C. Werner, Autumn Leaves, An Autobiography (Shanghai: Kelly & Walsh, 1928), 119-23. In the Kingdom of Arracan, in seventeenth century Burma, 'they bind a Plate of Lead hard upon the Fore-heads' of neonates, observed by J. Ovington, A Voyage to Suratt in the Year 1689 (London, 1696), 569.
137. An account of both social and medical sides is given by A. Neelameghan, Development of Medical Societies and Medical Periodicals in India, 1780 to 1920 (Calcutta: Oxford Book & Stationery, 1963).
138. M. Miles (forthcoming), 'Responses to mental retardation in South Asia: a 3000 year review', in G. Woodill and R. Hanes (eds), The History of Disabilities: International Perspectives (New York: Garland).
139. M. Miles (forthcoming), 'Responses to mental retardation in South Asia: a 3000 year review', in G. Woodill and R. Hanes (eds), The History of Disabilities: International Perspectives (New York: Garland).
140. Saiyid, A. R., Mirkhan, P. and Talib, M., 'Ideal and reality in the
141. Pfleiderer comments that 'Information concerning the special "skills" of a particular saint seems to spread among pilgrims by word of mouth.' Beatrice Pfleiderer, 'Mira Datar Dargah: The psychiatry of a Muslim shrine', in Imtiaz Ahmed (ed.), Ritual and Religion among Muslims in India (New Delhi: Manohar, 1981), 195-234.
142. Ibid. This and the other examples cited are from northern India. Evidence is also available from the south of India, e.g. O. Somasundaram, 'Religious treatment of mental illness in Tamil Nadu', Indian Journal of Psychiatry, xv (1973), 38-48.
143. Ibid. This and the other examples cited are from northern India. Evidence is also available from the south of India, e.g. O. Somasundaram, 'Religious treatment of mental illness in Tamil Nadu', Indian Journal of Psychiatry, xv (1973), 38-48.
144. Sir Olaf Caroe, The Pathans 550 BC - AD 1957 (Karachi: Oxford University Press, 1958), 198-9. Caroe does not mention mental retardation. However, most of the children with mental retardation assessed by the present author's wife at the Mental Health Centre, Peshawar, between 1978 and 1989, had been taken to Pir Baba's shrine.
145. Nusrat Rana, 'Torture as therapy', in S. Haroon Ahmed (ed.), Proceedings of the Seventh International Psychiatric Conference, Karachi, December 1988 (Karachi: Pakistan Psychiatric Society), 166-70.
146. M. Miles, 'Disability care and education in 19th century India. Some dates, places and documentation', ActionAid Disability News (Bangalore), v (2) (1994), Supplement.
147. Progress of Education in India 1917-22. Eighth Quinquennial Review, (London: HMSO, 1924), Vol.I, 221. Progress of Education in India 1922-27. Ninth Quinquennial Review (Calcutta: Government of India, 1929), Vol.I, 257. Progress of Education in India 1937-1947. Decennial Review (Ministry of Education, Government of India), Vol.I, 158.
148. Progress of Education in India 1917-22. Eighth Quinquennial Review, (London: HMSO, 1924), Vol.I, 221. Progress of Education in India 1922-27. Ninth Quinquennial Review (Calcutta: Government of India, 1929), Vol.I, 257. Progress of Education in India 1937-1947. Decennial Review (Ministry of Education, Government of India), Vol.I, 158.
149. Progress of Education in India 1917-22. Eighth Quinquennial Review, (London: HMSO, 1924), Vol.I, 221. Progress of Education in India 1922-27. Ninth Quinquennial Review (Calcutta: Government of India, 1929), Vol.I, 257. Progress of Education in India 1937-1947. Decennial Review (Ministry of Education, Government of India), Vol.I, 158.
150. M. Miles, 'Disability care'.
151. Sarkar, op. cit. (Note 5), 99-100.
152. Grewal and Banga, op. cit. (Note 5), 63.
153. How alike the chuas actually looked is a matter for speculation, as microcephaly arises from disparate causes, with various associated impairments. It was only in 1932 that the first Indian description appeared of Down's syndrome, where again there are some broad visible identifiers, with many variations. Amir Chand, 'A case of Mongolism in India', British Journal of Children's Disease, xxix (1932), 201-5.
154. Cunningham, op. cit. (Note 8).
155. H. George Franks, Queer India (London: Cassell, 1932), 154-5.
156. C. Lodge Patch, 'Microcephaly' (Note 41).
157. Elliott, Chronicles, 63-65. Such papers and files have been searched for, but not yet found.
158. Punjab District Gazetteers. Vol.XXV-A. Gujrat District, 55. Report by H. S. Williamson (Lahore: Govt of Punjab, 1921). The Settlement Officer, quoted from 1915, was not named. From 1870 to 1920, during which most of the Chua literature appeared, at least nine Indians served as Deputy Commissioners of Gujrat District (ibid. 25-6).
159. Nevertheless, Kiszely in 1974 noted experiments on groups of 'recent identical twins', in which the head of one twin was 'boundaged' [sic] while the other remained unbound. Fortunately, 'the children of both groups had the same intellectual capacities.' I. Kiszely, 'Artificial skull-deformation in Europe of the early migration period', Acta Congressus Internationalis XXIV Historiae Artis Medicinae (Budapest: Museum, Bibliotheca et Archivum Historiae Artis Medicinae, 1976), II, 1309-15.
160. Syed Jamal Mahmud, personal communication.
161. MacMunn, op. cit. (Note 55), 179.