What was a map? The lexicographers reply

Cartographica

Volumn 33, Issue 4, 1996, Pages 1-11

  Andrews, J H ^a,b  

^a Trinity College ^*

^b TRINITY COLLEGE DUBLIN   (Ireland)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

CARTOGRAPHY; LEXICOGRAPHER; MAP DEFINITION; MAP HISTORY;

EID: 0030317455     PISSN: 03177173     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3138/nj8v-8514-871t-221k     Document Type: Article

References (106)

1. A small number of English translations from other languages has been included (see especially Stanislaw Pietkiewicz, "The evolution of the map definition during the last hundred years," Actes du xie Congres International d'Histoire des Sciences, Varsovie-Cracovie, 1965/4 (Wroclaw, 1968), pp. 272-5) but none of these translations is the work of the present author.
2. The full texts of the definitions are obtainable from the author at the Department of Geography, Trinity College, Dublin, Ireland, or on the World Wide Web at: www.usm.maine.edu/~maps/essays
3. The word "recorded" here and throughout this paper refers only to the author's sample. This means that not more than limited significance can be attached to the dates of so-called first and last occurrence. Some of these dates are in any case approximate.
4. The figure for planar representation may be supplemented by another 18 definitions (1775-1989) that specify paper as the commonest cartographic medium.
5. It seems clear from the context that "projection" in these cases does not carry the specialized mathematical meaning familiar in modern cartography.
6. J.B. Harley, 'Historical geography and the cartographic illusion,' Journal of Historical Geography 15 (1989), pp. 84-6; 'Deconstructing the map,' Cartographica 26/2 (Spring, 1989), p. 4; Denis Wood with John Pels, The Power of Maps (London, 1993), p. 22. In this connection it may also be noted that the words "scientific" and "objective" occur nowhere in the sampie.
7. J.B. Harley, 'Historical geography and the cartographic illusion,' Journal of Historical Geography 15 (1989), pp. 84-6; 'Deconstructing the map,' Cartographica 26/2 (Spring, 1989), p. 4; Denis Wood with John Pels, The Power of Maps (London, 1993), p. 22. In this connection it may also be noted that the words "scientific" and "objective" occur nowhere in the sampie.
8. J.B. Harley, 'Historical geography and the cartographic illusion,' Journal of Historical Geography 15 (1989), pp. 84-6; 'Deconstructing the map,' Cartographica 26/2 (Spring, 1989), p. 4; Denis Wood with John Pels, The Power of Maps (London, 1993), p. 22. In this connection it may also be noted that the words "scientific" and "objective" occur nowhere in the sampie.
9. The term "lineal representation" was used in Mylius's School Dictionary of the English Language (London, 1819) and revived in Chambers' World Gazetteer and Geographical Dictionary (Edinburgh and London, 1957). See also below, note 20.
10. The term "lineal representation" was used in Mylius's School Dictionary of the English Language (London, 1819) and revived in Chambers' World Gazetteer and Geographical Dictionary (Edinburgh and London, 1957). See also below, note 20.
11. Several recent cartographic theorists have implicitly shown themselves dissatisfied with the concept of representation, for instance John Pickles, "Text, hermeneutics and propaganda maps" in Trevor J. Barnes and James S. Duncan, Writing Worlds: Discourse, Text and Metaphor in the Representation of Landscape (London and New York, 1992), pp. 193, 227; and Barbara Belyea, "Images of power: Derrida/Foucault/Harley," Cartographica 29/2 (Summer, 1992), pp. 1-9, especially p. 8, n. 11. Such writers may be using "represent" in a narrow pictorial sense; or they may just be concerned with what is important and interesting about maps rather than with questions of lexicography. At any rate, no one seems to have produced a definition that clearly excludes the idea of representation.
12. Several recent cartographic theorists have implicitly shown themselves dissatisfied with the concept of representation, for instance John Pickles, "Text, hermeneutics and propaganda maps" in Trevor J. Barnes and James S. Duncan, Writing Worlds: Discourse, Text and Metaphor in the Representation of Landscape (London and New York, 1992), pp. 193, 227; and Barbara Belyea, "Images of power: Derrida/Foucault/Harley," Cartographica 29/2 (Summer, 1992), pp. 1-9, especially p. 8, n. 11. Such writers may be using "represent" in a narrow pictorial sense; or they may just be concerned with what is important and interesting about maps rather than with questions of lexicography. At any rate, no one seems to have produced a definition that clearly excludes the idea of representation.
13. An exception is James Hathway, The Story of Maps & MapMaking: How Man Has Charted his Changing World - From Ancient Times to the Space Age (New York, 1960), p. 47, where a geological section is expressly described as "a form of map." For a more important case see below, note 41.
14. J.S. Keates, Cartographic Design and Induction (2nd ed., Harlow, 1989), p. 3. Italics here and elsewhere are mine.
15. G.E. Hutchings, Landscape Drawing (London, 1960), p. 79. "Surfaces" have also been avoided by defining the map as a representation of geographical reality, but unless accompanied by a definition of geography, this does no more than evade the issue.
16. George Grove, Geography (London, 1877). Surprisingly, Grove is the only author in our sample who mentions horizontality in the context of a cartographer's subject matter.
17. P.C. Muehrcke, Map Use: Reading, Analysis and Interpretation (Madison, 1978), p. 55, quoted by Michael Blakemore, "Communicating information about cartographic communication," Progress in Human Geography 5/2 (1981), p. 300. The same idea is expressed slightly differently in the 1992 edition of Map Use by Phillip C. Muehrcke and Juliana O. Muehrcke (p. 87).
18. P.C. Muehrcke, Map Use: Reading, Analysis and Interpretation (Madison, 1978), p. 55, quoted by Michael Blakemore, "Communicating information about cartographic communication," Progress in Human Geography 5/2 (1981), p. 300. The same idea is expressed slightly differently in the 1992 edition of Map Use by Phillip C. Muehrcke and Juliana O. Muehrcke (p. 87).
19. P.C. Muehrcke, Map Use: Reading, Analysis and Interpretation (Madison, 1978), p. 55, quoted by Michael Blakemore, "Communicating information about cartographic communication," Progress in Human Geography 5/2 (1981), p. 300. The same idea is expressed slightly differently in the 1992 edition of Map Use by Phillip C. Muehrcke and Juliana O. Muehrcke (p. 87).
20. "Some thoughts concerning education," first published 1693, reprinted in The Works of John Locke, ix (London, 1823), pp. 172-3.
21. "The doctrine of the globes ought to precede the projection of the sphere and making of maps," 25 May, 1694 (H. W. Turnbull, ed., The Correspondence of Isaac Newton, iii (Cambridge, 1961), p. 357). Book titles of this period include Joseph Moxon 's A Tutor to Astronomy and Geography, Or an Easy and Speedy Way to Know the Use of Both the Globes Celestial and Terrestrial (London, 1674) and John Harris's Astronomical Dialogues Between a Gentleman and a Lady: Wherein the Doctrine of the Sphere, Uses of the Globes, and the Elements of Astronomy and Geography are Explained in a Pleasant, Easy and Familiar Way. Neither of these works deals with maps.
22. "The doctrine of the globes ought to precede the projection of the sphere and making of maps," 25 May, 1694 (H. W. Turnbull, ed., The Correspondence of Isaac Newton, iii (Cambridge, 1961), p. 357). Book titles of this period include Joseph Moxon 's A Tutor to Astronomy and Geography, Or an Easy and Speedy Way to Know the Use of Both the Globes Celestial and Terrestrial (London, 1674) and John Harris's Astronomical Dialogues Between a Gentleman and a Lady: Wherein the Doctrine of the Sphere, Uses of the Globes, and the Elements of Astronomy and Geography are Explained in a Pleasant, Easy and Familiar Way. Neither of these works deals with maps.
23. "The doctrine of the globes ought to precede the projection of the sphere and making of maps," 25 May, 1694 (H. W. Turnbull, ed., The Correspondence of Isaac Newton, iii (Cambridge, 1961), p. 357). Book titles of this period include Joseph Moxon 's A Tutor to Astronomy and Geography, Or an Easy and Speedy Way to Know the Use of Both the Globes Celestial and Terrestrial (London, 1674) and John Harris's Astronomical Dialogues Between a Gentleman and a Lady: Wherein the Doctrine of the Sphere, Uses of the Globes, and the Elements of Astronomy and Geography are Explained in a Pleasant, Easy and Familiar Way. Neither of these works deals with maps.
24. Gregorii posthuma: or Certain Learned Tracts Written by John Gregorie, M.A. and Chaplain of Christ-Church Oxford (London, 1649), pp. 257, 285. Gregory's main title is The Description and Use of the Terrestrial Globe, but his book is unusual in having two separately titled sections, one on globes, the other on "The description and use of maps and charts universal and particular."
25. Gregorii posthuma: or Certain Learned Tracts Written by John Gregorie, M.A. and Chaplain of Christ-Church Oxford (London, 1649), pp. 257, 285. Gregory's main title is The Description and Use of the Terrestrial Globe, but his book is unusual in having two separately titled sections, one on globes, the other on "The description and use of maps and charts universal and particular."
26. Gazophylacium (London, 1689). The Oxford English dictionary quotes no parallel uses of "schedule" in this sense.
27. J. K[ersey], A New English Dictionary (London, 1702).
28. Edward Phillips, The New World of Words (6th ed., London, 1706). It may also be noted that world-wide coverage had been assumed a century earlier in John Davis's definition of a chart as "a special instrument in navigation, pretending the cosmographical description of the terrestrial globe, by all such lines, circles, courses and divisions as are required to the most exquisite skill of navigation" (A.H. Markham, ed., The Voyages and Works of John Davis the Navigator (London, 1880), p. 285). Early dictionary definitions of "chart" are un-helpful in the present context: a typical seventeenth-century example is "paper, parchment or written deed." The word "atlas" however was often thought to need a reference to the whole earth, as in David Booth's "a collection of maps of the different parts of the world" (David Booth, An Analytical Dictionary of the English Language (London, 1835), p. 211).
29. Edward Phillips, The New World of Words (6th ed., London, 1706). It may also be noted that world-wide coverage had been assumed a century earlier in John Davis's definition of a chart as "a special instrument in navigation, pretending the cosmographical description of the terrestrial globe, by all such lines, circles, courses and divisions as are required to the most exquisite skill of navigation" (A.H. Markham, ed., The Voyages and Works of John Davis the Navigator (London, 1880), p. 285). Early dictionary definitions of "chart" are un-helpful in the present context: a typical seventeenth-century example is "paper, parchment or written deed." The word "atlas" however was often thought to need a reference to the whole earth, as in David Booth's "a collection of maps of the different parts of the world" (David Booth, An Analytical Dictionary of the English Language (London, 1835), p. 211).
30. Edward Phillips, The New World of Words (6th ed., London, 1706). It may also be noted that world-wide coverage had been assumed a century earlier in John Davis's definition of a chart as "a special instrument in navigation, pretending the cosmographical description of the terrestrial globe, by all such lines, circles, courses and divisions as are required to the most exquisite skill of navigation" (A.H. Markham, ed., The Voyages and Works of John Davis the Navigator (London, 1880), p. 285). Early dictionary definitions of "chart" are un-helpful in the present context: a typical seventeenth-century example is "paper, parchment or written deed." The word "atlas" however was often thought to need a reference to the whole earth, as in David Booth's "a collection of maps of the different parts of the world" (David Booth, An Analytical Dictionary of the English Language (London, 1835), p. 211).
31. An implicitly larger-scale reference occurs in John Ash's The New and Complete Dictionary of the English Language (London, 1775): "A description of a country by lines drawn on paper, a picture in which lands and seas are delineated according to the rules of geography; the site or description of an estate according to exact admeasurement." This definition appeared soon after the beginning of a marked increase in the output of English estate maps ( A. S. Bendall, Maps, Land and Society: A History, With A Carto-Bibliography of Cambridgeshire Estate Maps, circa 1600-1836 (Cambridge, 1992), pp. 29-30) , and reappeared in William Perry's The Synonymous, Etymological and Pronouncing English Dictionary (London, 1805) and in John Walker's A Critical Pronouncing Dictionary and Expositor of the English Language (London, 1838).
32. An implicitly larger-scale reference occurs in John Ash's The New and Complete Dictionary of the English Language (London, 1775): "A description of a country by lines drawn on paper, a picture in which lands and seas are delineated according to the rules of geography; the site or description of an estate according to exact admeasurement." This definition appeared soon after the beginning of a marked increase in the output of English estate maps ( A. S. Bendall, Maps, Land and Society: A History, With A Carto-Bibliography of Cambridgeshire Estate Maps, circa 1600-1836 (Cambridge, 1992), pp. 29-30) , and reappeared in William Perry's The Synonymous, Etymological and Pronouncing English Dictionary (London, 1805) and in John Walker's A Critical Pronouncing Dictionary and Expositor of the English Language (London, 1838).
33. An implicitly larger-scale reference occurs in John Ash's The New and Complete Dictionary of the English Language (London, 1775): "A description of a country by lines drawn on paper, a picture in which lands and seas are delineated according to the rules of geography; the site or description of an estate according to exact admeasurement." This definition appeared soon after the beginning of a marked increase in the output of English estate maps ( A. S. Bendall, Maps, Land and Society: A History, With A Carto-Bibliography of Cambridgeshire Estate Maps, circa 1600-1836 (Cambridge, 1992), pp. 29-30) , and reappeared in William Perry's The Synonymous, Etymological and Pronouncing English Dictionary (London, 1805) and in John Walker's A Critical Pronouncing Dictionary and Expositor of the English Language (London, 1838).
34. An implicitly larger-scale reference occurs in John Ash's The New and Complete Dictionary of the English Language (London, 1775): "A description of a country by lines drawn on paper, a picture in which lands and seas are delineated according to the rules of geography; the site or description of an estate according to exact admeasurement." This definition appeared soon after the beginning of a marked increase in the output of English estate maps ( A. S. Bendall, Maps, Land and Society: A History, With A Carto-Bibliography of Cambridgeshire Estate Maps, circa 1600-1836 (Cambridge, 1992), pp. 29-30) , and reappeared in William Perry's The Synonymous, Etymological and Pronouncing English Dictionary (London, 1805) and in John Walker's A Critical Pronouncing Dictionary and Expositor of the English Language (London, 1838).
35. For an example from the 1870s, see Karl Pearson, The Life, Letters and Labours of Francis Galton, ii (Cambridge, 1924), p. 22.
36. Arthur H. Robinson and Barbara Bartz Petchenik, The Nature of Maps: Essays Toward Understanding Maps and Mapping (Chicago and London, 1976), p. 15. The word "globe" does not appear in the index to this book.
37. John Green, The Construction of Maps and Globes (London, 1717), p. 6.
38. D.J. Warner, The Sky Explored: Celestial Cartography 1500-1800 (New York and Amsterdam, 1979). Non-terrestrial planetary and lunar maps are not explicitly mentioned in the sample until 1966 despite the mapping of the moon by Johannes Hevelius more than three hundred years earlier. See Klaus Bartels, "Vom Mondgesicht zur Mondkarte," Cartographica Helvetica 5 (1992), pp. 11-16.
39. D.J. Warner, The Sky Explored: Celestial Cartography 1500-1800 (New York and Amsterdam, 1979). Non-terrestrial planetary and lunar maps are not explicitly mentioned in the sample until 1966 despite the mapping of the moon by Johannes Hevelius more than three hundred years earlier. See Klaus Bartels, "Vom Mondgesicht zur Mondkarte," Cartographica Helvetica 5 (1992), pp. 11-16.
40. Michael Blakemore and J.B. Harley did not make this point in their reply to Paul Harvey's criticism of their inclusion of star charts in map history (B. V. Gutsell, ed., "Concepts in the history of cartography," Cartographica 19/1 (Spring, 1982), pp. 68, 84); see also Harley's review of R.A. Skelton and P. D.A. Harvey, Local Maps and Plans from Medieval England in The Map Collector 43 (1988), p. 51.
41. Michael Blakemore and J.B. Harley did not make this point in their reply to Paul Harvey's criticism of their inclusion of star charts in map history (B. V. Gutsell, ed., "Concepts in the history of cartography," Cartographica 19/1 (Spring, 1982), pp. 68, 84); see also Harley's review of R.A. Skelton and P. D.A. Harvey, Local Maps and Plans from Medieval England in The Map Collector 43 (1988), p. 51.
42. Nathan Bailey, An Universal Etymological English Dictionary (London, 1721).
43. "A geographical picture on which lands and seas are delineated according to the latitude and longitude" (Samuel Johnson, A Dictionary of the English Language (London, 1755)).
44. This is well exemplified in J.S. Keltic, "Geographical education," Royal Geographical Society, Supplementary Papers, i (1886), pt. 4, no. 1,pp. 439-594.
45. Charles Cotter, The Astronomical and Mathematical Foundations of Geography (London, 1966), p. 173. Several definitions (including that of the British Association: see Appendix) treat scale and projection as alternatives. In such cases both criteria have been included in the word-count.
46. See for example David Smith, Victorian Maps of the British Isles (London, 1985).
47. Guy Messenger, The Ordnance Survey One-inch Map of England and Wales, third edition (large sheet series) (London, 1988).
48. Jean Jacques Rousseau (trans. Barbara Foxley), Emile (London, 1911), pp. 131-4.
49. F.H. Hayward, The Educational Ideas of Pestalozzi and Fröbel (London, 1905), p. 44. For an example from the 1820s of the educational use of classroom plans in England, see Michael J. Wise, "An early 19th century experiment in the teaching of geography," Geography 33 (1948), p. 20.
50. F.H. Hayward, The Educational Ideas of Pestalozzi and Fröbel (London, 1905), p. 44. For an example from the 1820s of the educational use of classroom plans in England, see Michael J. Wise, "An early 19th century experiment in the teaching of geography," Geography 33 (1948), p. 20.
51. Robert Sullivan, Geography Generalised (48th edition, Dublin, 1874), p. 8. This passage does not appear in the 38th edition of 1868; intervening editions have not been traced. To judge from their contexts this extract and the next (below, note 35) may reasonably be regarded as definitions, though strictly speaking both authors might insist that other kinds of unspecified object could also qualify as maps.
52. T.H. Huxley, Physiography: An Introduction to the Study of Nature (London, 1893; first ed. 1877), pp. 5-6.
53. A. Philip Muntz, "Union mapping in the American civil war," Imago Mundi 17 (1963), p. 93. In the same context see Jan Harvey, "A short history of air survey," Bulletin of the Society of University Cartographers 6 (1972), pp. 32-5. An early example of the conceptual link between ballooning and cartography is Edgar Allan Poe's story, "The unparalleled adventure of one Hans Pfaall" (1835), where the earth as seen by a space-travelling balloonist is said to look like "a chart orthographically projected" (cited in Eileen Reeves, "Reading maps," Word and Image 9 (1993), pp. 61-2). A still earlier reference, to an actual attempt at this kind of mapping, is in the Hibernian Journal, Dublin, 8 May, 1786.
54. A. Philip Muntz, "Union mapping in the American civil war," Imago Mundi 17 (1963), p. 93. In the same context see Jan Harvey, "A short history of air survey," Bulletin of the Society of University Cartographers 6 (1972), pp. 32-5. An early example of the conceptual link between ballooning and cartography is Edgar Allan Poe's story, "The unparalleled adventure of one Hans Pfaall" (1835), where the earth as seen by a space-travelling balloonist is said to look like "a chart orthographically projected" (cited in Eileen Reeves, "Reading maps," Word and Image 9 (1993), pp. 61-2). A still earlier reference, to an actual attempt at this kind of mapping, is in the Hibernian Journal, Dublin, 8 May, 1786.
55. A. Philip Muntz, "Union mapping in the American civil war," Imago Mundi 17 (1963), p. 93. In the same context see Jan Harvey, "A short history of air survey," Bulletin of the Society of University Cartographers 6 (1972), pp. 32-5. An early example of the conceptual link between ballooning and cartography is Edgar Allan Poe's story, "The unparalleled adventure of one Hans Pfaall" (1835), where the earth as seen by a space-travelling balloonist is said to look like "a chart orthographically projected" (cited in Eileen Reeves, "Reading maps," Word and Image 9 (1993), pp. 61-2). A still earlier reference, to an actual attempt at this kind of mapping, is in the Hibernian Journal, Dublin, 8 May, 1786.
56. A. Philip Muntz, "Union mapping in the American civil war," Imago Mundi 17 (1963), p. 93. In the same context see Jan Harvey, "A short history of air survey," Bulletin of the Society of University Cartographers 6 (1972), pp. 32-5. An early example of the conceptual link between ballooning and cartography is Edgar Allan Poe's story, "The unparalleled adventure of one Hans Pfaall" (1835), where the earth as seen by a space-travelling balloonist is said to look like "a chart orthographically projected" (cited in Eileen Reeves, "Reading maps," Word and Image 9 (1993), pp. 61-2). A still earlier reference, to an actual attempt at this kind of mapping, is in the Hibernian Journal, Dublin, 8 May, 1786.
57. Longman Dictionary of English Language and Culture (Harlow, 1992).
58. P.D.A. Harvey, The History of Topographical Maps: Symbols, Pictures and Surveys (London, 1980), pp. 172-3. Lexicographical considerations were probably not far from Harvey's mind, however: in the same year he emphasized the glaring need among map historians for a definition (in the singular) of the word "map" (Gutsell, "Concepts," p. 68). The idea of ubiquitous verticality is anticipated in W.G.V. Balchin (author and editor), Geography: An Outline for Intending Students (London, 1970), pp. 29-30.
59. P.D.A. Harvey, The History of Topographical Maps: Symbols, Pictures and Surveys (London, 1980), pp. 172-3. Lexicographical considerations were probably not far from Harvey's mind, however: in the same year he emphasized the glaring need among map historians for a definition (in the singular) of the word "map" (Gutsell, "Concepts," p. 68). The idea of ubiquitous verticality is anticipated in W.G.V. Balchin (author and editor), Geography: An Outline for Intending Students (London, 1970), pp. 29-30.
60. P.D.A. Harvey, The History of Topographical Maps: Symbols, Pictures and Surveys (London, 1980), pp. 172-3. Lexicographical considerations were probably not far from Harvey's mind, however: in the same year he emphasized the glaring need among map historians for a definition (in the singular) of the word "map" (Gutsell, "Concepts," p. 68). The idea of ubiquitous verticality is anticipated in W.G.V. Balchin (author and editor), Geography: An Outline for Intending Students (London, 1970), pp. 29-30.
61. On cartography, see especially Robert B. McMaster, ed., "U.S. national report to ICA, 1991: history and development of academic cartography," Cartography and Geographic Information Systems 18/3 (July 1991); also Arthur H. Robinson, "Geographical cartography then and now," Annals of the Association of American Geographers 69 (1979), pp. 97-102.
62. On cartography, see especially Robert B. McMaster, ed., "U.S. national report to ICA, 1991: history and development of academic cartography," Cartography and Geographic Information Systems 18/3 (July 1991); also Arthur H. Robinson, "Geographical cartography then and now," Annals of the Association of American Geographers 69 (1979), pp. 97-102.
63. See especially Christopher Board, "Report of working group on cartographic definitions," Cartographica 29 (1992), pp. 54-6.
64. For instance, "The term map is generic and includes geographic maps, plans, charts, sections, 3-D models, globes and statistical diagrams" (S. Cassettari, A. Fagg and M. Visvalingam, "Cartography and geographical information systems," Cartographic Journal 29 (1992), p. 51).
65. John Bygott, An Introduction to Mapwork and Practical Geography (London, 1934).
66. Erwin Raisz, General Cartography (New York, 1938).
67. The first two occurrences of "phenomena" in the sample are from translations of non-English definitions (Pietkiewicz, "The evolution of the map definition during the last hundred years," pp. 273, 274).
68. "Distribution map" was widely adopted during the 1940s in the sense later associated with "thematic map" (see W.V. Lewis and W.G.V. Balchin, "The construction of distribution maps," Geography 30 (1945), pp. 86-92 and W.G.V. Balchin and A. W. Richards, Practical and Experimental Geography (London, 1952), pp. 112-20), but this usage eventually dropped out of sight.
69. "Distribution map" was widely adopted during the 1940s in the sense later associated with "thematic map" (see W.V. Lewis and W.G.V. Balchin, "The construction of distribution maps," Geography 30 (1945), pp. 86-92 and W.G.V. Balchin and A. W. Richards, Practical and Experimental Geography (London, 1952), pp. 112-20), but this usage eventually dropped out of sight.
70. Francois de Dainville, Le langage des géographes (Paris, 1964), p. 58.
71. Report of the select committee on the survey and valuation of Ireland, British parliamentary papers, H. C. 1824 (445), viii, following p. 374. This report dealt with the work of the British Ordnance Survey, but the term "convention" was not much used by Ordnance Survey officers, perhaps because resort to conventions was regarded in the department as an admission of failure. See C. F. Close's comment that "conventional signs are undoubtedly an evil" in "The ideal topographical map," Geographical Journal 25 (1905), p. 636.
72. Report of the select committee on the survey and valuation of Ireland, British parliamentary papers, H. C. 1824 (445), viii, following p. 374. This report dealt with the work of the British Ordnance Survey, but the term "convention" was not much used by Ordnance Survey officers, perhaps because resort to conventions was regarded in the department as an admission of failure. See C. F. Close's comment that "conventional signs are undoubtedly an evil" in "The ideal topographical map," Geographical Journal 25 (1905), p. 636.
73. A.T. Summers and E. Stenhouse, A Class Book of Physical Geography (London, 1912), p. 3.
74. A. Kolacny "Cartographic information - a fundamental concept and term in modern cartography," Cartographic Journal 6 (1969), pp. 47-9; C. Koeman, "The principle of cartographic communication in cartography," International Yearbook of Cartography 11 (1971), p. 174; A. H. Robinson and Barbara Petchenik, "The map as a communication system," Cartographic Journal 12 (1975), pp. 7-15. A good historical survey of this subject is C. Board, "The development of concepts of cartographic communication with special reference to the role of Professor Ratajski," International Yearbook of Cartography 23 (1983), pp. 19-29. See also J.S. Keates, Understanding Maps (NewYork, 1982), ch. 9.
75. A. Kolacny "Cartographic information - a fundamental concept and term in modern cartography," Cartographic Journal 6 (1969), pp. 47-9; C. Koeman, "The principle of cartographic communication in cartography," International Yearbook of Cartography 11 (1971), p. 174; A. H. Robinson and Barbara Petchenik, "The map as a communication system," Cartographic Journal 12 (1975), pp. 7-15. A good historical survey of this subject is C. Board, "The development of concepts of cartographic communication with special reference to the role of Professor Ratajski," International Yearbook of Cartography 23 (1983), pp. 19-29. See also J.S. Keates, Understanding Maps (NewYork, 1982), ch. 9.
76. A. Kolacny "Cartographic information - a fundamental concept and term in modern cartography," Cartographic Journal 6 (1969), pp. 47-9; C. Koeman, "The principle of cartographic communication in cartography," International Yearbook of Cartography 11 (1971), p. 174; A. H. Robinson and Barbara Petchenik, "The map as a communication system," Cartographic Journal 12 (1975), pp. 7-15. A good historical survey of this subject is C. Board, "The development of concepts of cartographic communication with special reference to the role of Professor Ratajski," International Yearbook of Cartography 23 (1983), pp. 19-29. See also J.S. Keates, Understanding Maps (NewYork, 1982), ch. 9.
77. A. Kolacny "Cartographic information - a fundamental concept and term in modern cartography," Cartographic Journal 6 (1969), pp. 47-9; C. Koeman, "The principle of cartographic communication in cartography," International Yearbook of Cartography 11 (1971), p. 174; A. H. Robinson and Barbara Petchenik, "The map as a communication system," Cartographic Journal 12 (1975), pp. 7-15. A good historical survey of this subject is C. Board, "The development of concepts of cartographic communication with special reference to the role of Professor Ratajski," International Yearbook of Cartography 23 (1983), pp. 19-29. See also J.S. Keates, Understanding Maps (NewYork, 1982), ch. 9.
78. A. Kolacny "Cartographic information - a fundamental concept and term in modern cartography," Cartographic Journal 6 (1969), pp. 47-9; C. Koeman, "The principle of cartographic communication in cartography," International Yearbook of Cartography 11 (1971), p. 174; A. H. Robinson and Barbara Petchenik, "The map as a communication system," Cartographic Journal 12 (1975), pp. 7-15. A good historical survey of this subject is C. Board, "The development of concepts of cartographic communication with special reference to the role of Professor Ratajski," International Yearbook of Cartography 23 (1983), pp. 19-29. See also J.S. Keates, Understanding Maps (NewYork, 1982), ch. 9.
79. Janusz Golaski, "Definition of the map," Third International Congress of Cartography, Amsterdam, 1967, Collection 59 (Skelton papers), Centre for Newfoundland Studies Archive, Memorial University of Newfoundland, II/I/2 (3), typescript, pp. 4, 5. Golaski's definition is in two parts: "A topographic transfer, relative to a given part of the earth surface, is a set of signs informing about spatial relations (conditions) occurring between objects or phenomena connected with the said part of the earth surface. The map of a given part of the earth surface is a topographic transmitter that informs only and solely by means of a disposition on the plane of signs designating objects or phenomena."
80. A.G. Hodgkiss, Understanding Maps: A Systematic History of their Use and Development (Folkestone, 1981).
81. Alan M. MacEachren, How Maps Work: Representation, Visualization and Design (New York, 1995), pp. 3-6.
82. E.C. Tolman, "Cognitive maps in rats and men," Psychological Review 55 (1948), pp. 189-208. For the later history of mental-map studies see Naomi Eilan, Rosaleen McCarthy and Bill Brewer, eds, Spatial Representation: Problems in Philosophy and Psychology (Oxford, 1993), especially chapters 3 (John O'Keefe) and 4 (John Campbell).
83. E.C. Tolman, "Cognitive maps in rats and men," Psychological Review 55 (1948), pp. 189-208. For the later history of mental-map studies see Naomi Eilan, Rosaleen McCarthy and Bill Brewer, eds, Spatial Representation: Problems in Philosophy and Psychology (Oxford, 1993), especially chapters 3 (John O'Keefe) and 4 (John Campbell).
84. Charles Hartshorne and Paul Weiss, Collected Papers of Charles Sanders Peine, iv (Cambridge, Mass., 1933), p. 400. Peirce was a cartographer as well as a philosopher: he invented the quincuncial projection (John P. Snyder, Flattening the Earth: Two Thousand Years of Map Projections (Chicago, 1993), pp. 136-37).
85. Charles Hartshorne and Paul Weiss, Collected Papers of Charles Sanders Peine, iv (Cambridge, Mass., 1933), p. 400. Peirce was a cartographer as well as a philosopher: he invented the quincuncial projection (John P. Snyder, Flattening the Earth: Two Thousand Years of Map Projections (Chicago, 1993), pp. 136-37).
86. Diagrams showing logical relationships can be traced to the eighteenth century. Their similarity to maps was sometimes noted obliquely, for instance by John Venn (Symbolic Logic (London, 1881), pp. 121, 437) and Lewis Carroll (W.A. Bartley III, ed., Lewis Carroll's Symbolic Logic (Hassocks, 1977), p. 244) , but the first writer known to have actually called them maps is Bertrand Russell (Introduction to Mathematical Philosophy (London, 1919), p. 60).
87. Diagrams showing logical relationships can be traced to the eighteenth century. Their similarity to maps was sometimes noted obliquely, for instance by John Venn (Symbolic Logic (London, 1881), pp. 121, 437) and Lewis Carroll (W.A. Bartley III, ed., Lewis Carroll's Symbolic Logic (Hassocks, 1977), p. 244) , but the first writer known to have actually called them maps is Bertrand Russell (Introduction to Mathematical Philosophy (London, 1919), p. 60).
88. Diagrams showing logical relationships can be traced to the eighteenth century. Their similarity to maps was sometimes noted obliquely, for instance by John Venn (Symbolic Logic (London, 1881), pp. 121, 437) and Lewis Carroll (W.A. Bartley III, ed., Lewis Carroll's Symbolic Logic (Hassocks, 1977), p. 244) , but the first writer known to have actually called them maps is Bertrand Russell (Introduction to Mathematical Philosophy (London, 1919), p. 60).
89. John Ogilvie, The Imperial Dictionary of the English Language (London etc., n.d., circa 1885). The word "atlas" has been similarly generalized: William Turner's An Atlas of Human Anatomy and Physiology was published in Edinburgh as early as 1857.
90. John Ogilvie, The Imperial Dictionary of the English Language (London etc., n.d., circa 1885). The word "atlas" has been similarly generalized: William Turner's An Atlas of Human Anatomy and Physiology was published in Edinburgh as early as 1857.
91. A much earlier though less general example is "a delineation of some portion of a sphere, or of the earth, on a plane" (J.E. Worcester, A Comprehensive Dictionary of the English Language (Philadelphia, 1860)).
92. "Cartographical" was used in a purely analogical sense by Nelson Godman in The Structure of Appearance (Indianapolis, 2nd ed., 1966), pp. 317-18, but the main vehicle for this lexicographical revolution has been a series of papers in and after 1994 by R. Paulston and M. Liebman, cited in Rolland G. Paulston, ed., Social Cartography: Mapping Ways of Seeing Social and Educational Change (New York and London, 1996). These authors also favour the term "cartograph," apparently as a modern equivalent for "diagram" (Martin Liebman and Rolland G. Paulston, "Social cartography: a new methodology for comparative studies," Compare, a Journal of Comparative Education 24/3 (1994), p. 233 ff.).
93. "Cartographical" was used in a purely analogical sense by Nelson Godman in The Structure of Appearance (Indianapolis, 2nd ed., 1966), pp. 317-18, but the main vehicle for this lexicographical revolution has been a series of papers in and after 1994 by R. Paulston and M. Liebman, cited in Rolland G. Paulston, ed., Social Cartography: Mapping Ways of Seeing Social and Educational Change (New York and London, 1996). These authors also favour the term "cartograph," apparently as a modern equivalent for "diagram" (Martin Liebman and Rolland G. Paulston, "Social cartography: a new methodology for comparative studies," Compare, a Journal of Comparative Education 24/3 (1994), p. 233 ff.).
94. "Cartographical" was used in a purely analogical sense by Nelson Godman in The Structure of Appearance (Indianapolis, 2nd ed., 1966), pp. 317-18, but the main vehicle for this lexicographical revolution has been a series of papers in and after 1994 by R. Paulston and M. Liebman, cited in Rolland G. Paulston, ed., Social Cartography: Mapping Ways of Seeing Social and Educational Change (New York and London, 1996). These authors also favour the term "cartograph," apparently as a modern equivalent for "diagram" (Martin Liebman and Rolland G. Paulston, "Social cartography: a new methodology for comparative studies," Compare, a Journal of Comparative Education 24/3 (1994), p. 233 ff.).
95. Robinson and Petchenik, Nature of Maps, p. 16.
96. Peter Lewis, Maps and Statistics (London, 1977), p. 3.
97. Michael Blakemore and J.B. Harley, "Concepts in the history of cartography: a review and perspective," Cartographica 17/4 (Winter, 1980), p. 13; Michael Blakemore and J.B. Harley, "The authors reply" in Outsell, "Concepts," pp. 82-3.
98. Michael Blakemore and J.B. Harley, "Concepts in the history of cartography: a review and perspective," Cartographica 17/4 (Winter, 1980), p. 13; Michael Blakemore and J.B. Harley, "The authors reply" in Outsell, "Concepts," pp. 82-3.
99. P.D.A. Harvey in Outsell, "Concepts," p. 68.
100. An earlier "purposive" definition is: "any graphic, conventional representation of spatial information, drawn for a purpose" (Patrick Bailey, "The map in schools: a key, a language and a set of skills," Cartographic Journal 21 (1984), p. 62).
101. J.B. Harley and David Woodward, The History of Cartography, I: Cartography in Prehistoric, Ancient, and Medieval Europe and the Mediterranean (Chicago and London, 1987), p. xvi; ii (pt 1): Cartography in the Traditional Islamic and South Asian Societies (Chicago and London, 1992), p. xxii.
102. J.B. Harley and David Woodward, The History of Cartography, I: Cartography in Prehistoric, Ancient, and Medieval Europe and the Mediterranean (Chicago and London, 1987), p. xvi; ii (pt 1): Cartography in the Traditional Islamic and South Asian Societies (Chicago and London, 1992), p. xxii.
103. Ludwig Wittgenstein, Philosophical Investigations (Oxford, 1968, first published 1953), pp. 31-5. No one seems to have suggested that Wittgenstein gave up rather too easily in his search for a definition of "game." See, however, Hansjohann Glock, A Wittgenstein Dictionary (Oxford, 1996), pp. 121-2.
104. Ludwig Wittgenstein, Philosophical Investigations (Oxford, 1968, first published 1953), pp. 31-5. No one seems to have suggested that Wittgenstein gave up rather too easily in his search for a definition of "game." See, however, Hansjohann Glock, A Wittgenstein Dictionary (Oxford, 1996), pp. 121-2.
105. MacEachren, How Maps Work, pp. 160-61. Also Jean Atkinson, Words in the Mind: An Introduction to The Mental Lexicon (Oxford, 2nd ed., 1994), pp. 51-63.
106. MacEachren, How Maps Work, pp. 160-61. Also Jean Atkinson, Words in the Mind: An Introduction to The Mental Lexicon (Oxford, 2nd ed., 1994), pp. 51-63.