Social medicine and the new society: Medicine and scientific humanism in mid-twentieth century Britain

Journal of Historical Sociology

Volumn 9, Issue 2, 1996, Pages 168-187

  Porter, Dorothy ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0030306940     PISSN: 09521909     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-6443.1996.tb00182.x     Document Type: Article

References (141)

1. Gary Werskey, The Visible College (London, Allen Lane, 1978).
2. Sarah W. Tracy, 'George Draper and American Constitutional Medicine, 1916-1946: Reinventing the Sick Man', Bulletin of the History of Medicine, 66 (1992), 53-89; Steven J. Cross and W.R. Albury, 'Walter B. Cannon, L.J. Henderson, and the Organic Analogy', Osiris, 3(New Series) (1987), 165-92.
3. Sarah W. Tracy, 'George Draper and American Constitutional Medicine, 1916-1946: Reinventing the Sick Man', Bulletin of the History of Medicine, 66 (1992), 53-89; Steven J. Cross and W.R. Albury, 'Walter B. Cannon, L.J. Henderson, and the Organic Analogy', Osiris, 3(New Series) (1987), 165-92.
4. J.A. Ryle to Miriam Ryle, 14th October 1917.
5. Ibid.
6. For previous discussion of Ryle's career see Dorothy Porter, 'John Ryle: Doctor of Revolution?', in Dorothy Porter and Roy Porter (eds), Doctors, Politics and Society: Historical Essays (Amsterdam, Rodopi, 1993), 229-47; Dorothy Porter, 'Changing Disciplines: John Ryle and the Making of Social Medicine in Twentieth Century Britain', History of Science, 30 (1992), 119-47; Michael Shepherd, 'Introduction', to J.A. Ryle, The Natural History of Disease (reprint London, Keynes Press, 1988), xi-xix. (1st edition, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1936; 2nd edition, 1946).
7. For previous discussion of Ryle's career see Dorothy Porter, 'John Ryle: Doctor of Revolution?', in Dorothy Porter and Roy Porter (eds), Doctors, Politics and Society: Historical Essays (Amsterdam, Rodopi, 1993), 229-47; Dorothy Porter, 'Changing Disciplines: John Ryle and the Making of Social Medicine in Twentieth Century Britain', History of Science, 30 (1992), 119-47; Michael Shepherd, 'Introduction', to J.A. Ryle, The Natural History of Disease (reprint London, Keynes Press, 1988), xi-xix. (1st edition, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1936; 2nd edition, 1946).
8. For previous discussion of Ryle's career see Dorothy Porter, 'John Ryle: Doctor of Revolution?', in Dorothy Porter and Roy Porter (eds), Doctors, Politics and Society: Historical Essays (Amsterdam, Rodopi, 1993), 229-47; Dorothy Porter, 'Changing Disciplines: John Ryle and the Making of Social Medicine in Twentieth Century Britain', History of Science, 30 (1992), 119-47; Michael Shepherd, 'Introduction', to J.A. Ryle, The Natural History of Disease (reprint London, Keynes Press, 1988), xi-xix. (1st edition, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1936; 2nd edition, 1946).
9. See Aldous Huxley, Science, Liberty and Peace (London, Chatto and Windus, 1947). For further discussion see D.E.H. Edgerton, 'Science and War', in R.C. Olby, et al (eds), Companion to the History of Modern Science (London, Routledge, 1990), 934-45.
10. See Aldous Huxley, Science, Liberty and Peace (London, Chatto and Windus, 1947). For further discussion see D.E.H. Edgerton, 'Science and War', in R.C. Olby, et al (eds), Companion to the History of Modern Science (London, Routledge, 1990), 934-45.
11. J.B.S. Haldane, Daedalus or Science and the Future (London, Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner, 1924; New York, E.P. Button, 1924); see also several essays in his, The Inequality of Man (London, Pelican, 1937. 1st edn 1932) and, Possible Worlds and Other Essays (London, Chatto and Windus, 1927).
12. J.B.S. Haldane, Daedalus or Science and the Future (London, Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner, 1924; New York, E.P. Button, 1924); see also several essays in his, The Inequality of Man (London, Pelican, 1937. 1st edn 1932) and, Possible Worlds and Other Essays (London, Chatto and Windus, 1927).
13. J.B.S. Haldane, Daedalus or Science and the Future (London, Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner, 1924; New York, E.P. Button, 1924); see also several essays in his, The Inequality of Man (London, Pelican, 1937. 1st edn 1932) and, Possible Worlds and Other Essays (London, Chatto and Windus, 1927).
14. Samuel Butler, Erewhon (Harmondsworth, Penguin, 1985. 1st edn 1872).
15. Haldane, Daedalus.
16. John Desmond Bernal, The Social Function of Science (London, Routledge, Kegan and Paul, 1939); Julian Huxley, The Uniqueness of Man (London, Chatto and Windus, 1941); Julian Huxley, Essays of a Biologist (London, Chatto and Windus, 1923).
17. John Desmond Bernal, The Social Function of Science (London, Routledge, Kegan and Paul, 1939); Julian Huxley, The Uniqueness of Man (London, Chatto and Windus, 1941); Julian Huxley, Essays of a Biologist (London, Chatto and Windus, 1923).
18. John Desmond Bernal, The Social Function of Science (London, Routledge, Kegan and Paul, 1939); Julian Huxley, The Uniqueness of Man (London, Chatto and Windus, 1941); Julian Huxley, Essays of a Biologist (London, Chatto and Windus, 1923).
19. Werksey, The Visible College.
20. Bertrand Russell, Icarus or the Future of Science (London, Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner, 1926; New York, E.P. Dutton, 1926); J.D. Bernal, The World the Flesh and the Devil. An Enquiry into the Future of the Three Enemies of the Rational Soul (London, Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner, 1929; New York, E.P. Dutton, 1929). For the 'Today and Tomorrow' series see the dust covers of any of these books - the lists are fascinating. For brief discussion see W.H.G. Armytage, Yesterday's Tomorrows. A Historical Survey of Future Societies (London, Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1968), 150-151; on 'Utopias' see Frank E. Manuel and Fritzie P. Manuel, Utopian Thought in the Western World (Cambridge, Mass., Belknap of Harvard University Press, 1979), 759-800.
21. Bertrand Russell, Icarus or the Future of Science (London, Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner, 1926; New York, E.P. Dutton, 1926); J.D. Bernal, The World the Flesh and the Devil. An Enquiry into the Future of the Three Enemies of the Rational Soul (London, Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner, 1929; New York, E.P. Dutton, 1929). For the 'Today and Tomorrow' series see the dust covers of any of these books - the lists are fascinating. For brief discussion see W.H.G. Armytage, Yesterday's Tomorrows. A Historical Survey of Future Societies (London, Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1968), 150-151; on 'Utopias' see Frank E. Manuel and Fritzie P. Manuel, Utopian Thought in the Western World (Cambridge, Mass., Belknap of Harvard University Press, 1979), 759-800.
22. Bertrand Russell, Icarus or the Future of Science (London, Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner, 1926; New York, E.P. Dutton, 1926); J.D. Bernal, The World the Flesh and the Devil. An Enquiry into the Future of the Three Enemies of the Rational Soul (London, Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner, 1929; New York, E.P. Dutton, 1929). For the 'Today and Tomorrow' series see the dust covers of any of these books - the lists are fascinating. For brief discussion see W.H.G. Armytage, Yesterday's Tomorrows. A Historical Survey of Future Societies (London, Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1968), 150-151; on 'Utopias' see Frank E. Manuel and Fritzie P. Manuel, Utopian Thought in the Western World (Cambridge, Mass., Belknap of Harvard University Press, 1979), 759-800.
23. Bertrand Russell, Icarus or the Future of Science (London, Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner, 1926; New York, E.P. Dutton, 1926); J.D. Bernal, The World the Flesh and the Devil. An Enquiry into the Future of the Three Enemies of the Rational Soul (London, Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner, 1929; New York, E.P. Dutton, 1929). For the 'Today and Tomorrow' series see the dust covers of any of these books - the lists are fascinating. For brief discussion see W.H.G. Armytage, Yesterday's Tomorrows. A Historical Survey of Future Societies (London, Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1968), 150-151; on 'Utopias' see Frank E. Manuel and Fritzie P. Manuel, Utopian Thought in the Western World (Cambridge, Mass., Belknap of Harvard University Press, 1979), 759-800.
24. Aldous Huxley, Brave New World (London, Chatto and Windus, 1932).
25. See Pnina Abir-Am, 'The Biotheoretical Gathering, Trans-disciplinary Authority and the Incipient Legitimation of Molecular Biology in the 1930s: New Perspective on the Historical Sociology of Science', History of Science, 25 (1987), 1-70. The 'Biotheoretical Gathering' was the term given to the group by one of its members, Dorothy Wrinch. Joseph Needham termed it the Theoretical Biology Club' when he dedicated his book, Order and Life (New Haven, Yale University Press, 1936) to the group. For further discussion see Werskey, The Visible College; D.J. Haraway, Crystals, Fabrics and Fields: Metaphors of Organicism in Twentieth Century Developmental Biology (New Haven, Yale University Press, 1976); R.C. Olby, The Path to the Double Helix (London, Routledge, 1974).
26. See Pnina Abir-Am, 'The Biotheoretical Gathering, Trans-disciplinary Authority and the Incipient Legitimation of Molecular Biology in the 1930s: New Perspective on the Historical Sociology of Science', History of Science, 25 (1987), 1-70. The 'Biotheoretical Gathering' was the term given to the group by one of its members, Dorothy Wrinch. Joseph Needham termed it the Theoretical Biology Club' when he dedicated his book, Order and Life (New Haven, Yale University Press, 1936) to the group. For further discussion see Werskey, The Visible College; D.J. Haraway, Crystals, Fabrics and Fields: Metaphors of Organicism in Twentieth Century Developmental Biology (New Haven, Yale University Press, 1976); R.C. Olby, The Path to the Double Helix (London, Routledge, 1974).
27. See Pnina Abir-Am, 'The Biotheoretical Gathering, Trans-disciplinary Authority and the Incipient Legitimation of Molecular Biology in the 1930s: New Perspective on the Historical Sociology of Science', History of Science, 25 (1987), 1-70. The 'Biotheoretical Gathering' was the term given to the group by one of its members, Dorothy Wrinch. Joseph Needham termed it the Theoretical Biology Club' when he dedicated his book, Order and Life (New Haven, Yale University Press, 1936) to the group. For further discussion see Werskey, The Visible College; D.J. Haraway, Crystals, Fabrics and Fields: Metaphors of Organicism in Twentieth Century Developmental Biology (New Haven, Yale University Press, 1976); R.C. Olby, The Path to the Double Helix (London, Routledge, 1974).
28. See Pnina Abir-Am, 'The Biotheoretical Gathering, Trans-disciplinary Authority and the Incipient Legitimation of Molecular Biology in the 1930s: New Perspective on the Historical Sociology of Science', History of Science, 25 (1987), 1-70. The 'Biotheoretical Gathering' was the term given to the group by one of its members, Dorothy Wrinch. Joseph Needham termed it the Theoretical Biology Club' when he dedicated his book, Order and Life (New Haven, Yale University Press, 1936) to the group. For further discussion see Werskey, The Visible College; D.J. Haraway, Crystals, Fabrics and Fields: Metaphors of Organicism in Twentieth Century Developmental Biology (New Haven, Yale University Press, 1976); R.C. Olby, The Path to the Double Helix (London, Routledge, 1974).
29. See C.H. Waddington, Science and Ethics (London, Allen and Unwin, 1942) , 'Introduction'.
30. See C.H. Waddington, Science and Ethics (London, Allen and Unwin, 1942) , 'Introduction'.
31. Participants in the debate included The Right Rev. E.W. Barnes, Bishop of Birmingham, The Very Rev. W.R. Matthews, Dean of St. Pauls, A.D. Ritchie, Julian Huxley, J. Needham, Melanie Klein, J.D. Bernal and Chauncey Leake. See Waddington, Science and Ethics.
32. Ibid.
33. Ibid., 8-16.
34. T.H. Huxley, Science and Ethics (London, MacMillan, 1894).
35. See Julian Huxley, Evolution, The Modern Synthesis (London, Allen and Unwin, 1942); for discussion see Peter Bowler, Evolution. The History of an Idea (Berkeley, University of California Press, 1984), 289-316; Peter Bowler, The Fontana History of the Environmental Sciences (London, Fontana Press, 1992), 445-73; Joan Fisher Box, The Life of a Scientist (New York, Wiley, 1978); J.C. Greene, 'The Interaction of Science and World View in Sir Julian Huxley's Evolutionary Biology', History of Biology, 23 (1990), 39-55.
36. See Julian Huxley, Evolution, The Modern Synthesis (London, Allen and Unwin, 1942); for discussion see Peter Bowler, Evolution. The History of an Idea (Berkeley, University of California Press, 1984), 289-316; Peter Bowler, The Fontana History of the Environmental Sciences (London, Fontana Press, 1992), 445-73; Joan Fisher Box, The Life of a Scientist (New York, Wiley, 1978); J.C. Greene, 'The Interaction of Science and World View in Sir Julian Huxley's Evolutionary Biology', History of Biology, 23 (1990), 39-55.
37. See Julian Huxley, Evolution, The Modern Synthesis (London, Allen and Unwin, 1942); for discussion see Peter Bowler, Evolution. The History of an Idea (Berkeley, University of California Press, 1984), 289-316; Peter Bowler, The Fontana History of the Environmental Sciences (London, Fontana Press, 1992), 445-73; Joan Fisher Box, The Life of a Scientist (New York, Wiley, 1978); J.C. Greene, 'The Interaction of Science and World View in Sir Julian Huxley's Evolutionary Biology', History of Biology, 23 (1990), 39-55.
38. See Julian Huxley, Evolution, The Modern Synthesis (London, Allen and Unwin, 1942); for discussion see Peter Bowler, Evolution. The History of an Idea (Berkeley, University of California Press, 1984), 289-316; Peter Bowler, The Fontana History of the Environmental Sciences (London, Fontana Press, 1992), 445-73; Joan Fisher Box, The Life of a Scientist (New York, Wiley, 1978); J.C. Greene, 'The Interaction of Science and World View in Sir Julian Huxley's Evolutionary Biology', History of Biology, 23 (1990), 39-55.
39. See Julian Huxley, Evolution, The Modern Synthesis (London, Allen and Unwin, 1942); for discussion see Peter Bowler, Evolution. The History of an Idea (Berkeley, University of California Press, 1984), 289-316; Peter Bowler, The Fontana History of the Environmental Sciences (London, Fontana Press, 1992), 445-73; Joan Fisher Box, The Life of a Scientist (New York, Wiley, 1978); J.C. Greene, 'The Interaction of Science and World View in Sir Julian Huxley's Evolutionary Biology', History of Biology, 23 (1990), 39-55.
40. Waddington, Science and Ethics, 18.
41. Reproduced in Julian Huxley, On Living in a Revolution. Fifteen Essays by Julian Huxley (London, Chatto and Windus, 1944), 69-82, p.69.
42. Ibid., 70.
43. Reproduced in Ibid, 83-95.
44. Ibid., 70-82.
45. Huxley, Evolution, 562-78.
46. Huxley, On Living in a Revolution, 16.
47. Ibid.
48. Ibid., 18.
49. Ibid., 16-27.
50. Peter Clarke, A Question of Leadership. Gladstone to Thatcher (London, Hamish Hamilton, 1991), 147-210; John Stevenson, British Society 1914-45 (London, Allen Lane, 1984), 444-61; Arthur Marwick, British Society Since 1945 (London, Allen Lane, 1982), 49-63.
51. Peter Clarke, A Question of Leadership. Gladstone to Thatcher (London, Hamish Hamilton, 1991), 147-210; John Stevenson, British Society 1914-45 (London, Allen Lane, 1984), 444-61; Arthur Marwick, British Society Since 1945 (London, Allen Lane, 1982), 49-63.
52. Peter Clarke, A Question of Leadership. Gladstone to Thatcher (London, Hamish Hamilton, 1991), 147-210; John Stevenson, British Society 1914-45 (London, Allen Lane, 1984), 444-61; Arthur Marwick, British Society Since 1945 (London, Allen Lane, 1982), 49-63.
53. T.H. Marshall, 'Social Citizenship', 1950, The Keynes Lecture, University of Cambridge.
54. Peter Clarke, The Keynsian Revolution in the Making, 1924-36 (Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1988); Harold Perkin, The Rise of Professional Society. England Since 1880 (London, Routledge, 1989).
55. Peter Clarke, The Keynsian Revolution in the Making, 1924-36 (Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1988); Harold Perkin, The Rise of Professional Society. England Since 1880 (London, Routledge, 1989).
56. Jose Harris, William Beveridge (Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1977); Trevor Burridge, Clement Attlee (London, Cape, 1985); Henry Pelling, The Labour Governments, 1945-51 (London, Macmillan, 1984); Peter Hennessey, Never Again (London, Cassell, 1993).
57. Jose Harris, William Beveridge (Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1977); Trevor Burridge, Clement Attlee (London, Cape, 1985); Henry Pelling, The Labour Governments, 1945-51 (London, Macmillan, 1984); Peter Hennessey, Never Again (London, Cassell, 1993).
58. Jose Harris, William Beveridge (Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1977); Trevor Burridge, Clement Attlee (London, Cape, 1985); Henry Pelling, The Labour Governments, 1945-51 (London, Macmillan, 1984); Peter Hennessey, Never Again (London, Cassell, 1993).
59. Jose Harris, William Beveridge (Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1977); Trevor Burridge, Clement Attlee (London, Cape, 1985); Henry Pelling, The Labour Governments, 1945-51 (London, Macmillan, 1984); Peter Hennessey, Never Again (London, Cassell, 1993).
60. H.G. Wells, Julian Huxley and G.P. Wells, The Science of Life (London, Cassell, 1931).
61. Huxley, Uniqueness of Man, 260-90.
62. Ibid.
63. For more discussions of ethics amongst contemporary evolutionary scientists see Patrick Bateson, 'Evolution and Ethics', in Milo Keynes and G Ainsworth Harrison (eds), Evolutionary Studies. A Centenary Celebration of the Life of Julian Huxley (London, Macmillan in association with the Eugenics Society, 1988), 168-85.
64. See Dorothy Porter, 'Changing Disciplines'.
65. Ibid.; N.T.A. Oswald, 'Social Health Service Without Doctors', Social History of Medicine, iv (1991), 295-315.
66. Ibid.; N.T.A. Oswald, 'Social Health Service Without Doctors', Social History of Medicine, iv (1991), 295-315.
67. John Ryle, Fears May Be Liars (London, Allen and Unwin, 1941).
68. J.A. Ryle, 'A Social Medicine its Meaning and its Scope', British Medical Journal, ii (1943), 633-36, p.636. See also his The Science of Health', Bristish Medical Journal, ii (1942), 745-48.
69. J.A. Ryle, 'A Social Medicine its Meaning and its Scope', British Medical Journal, ii (1943), 633-36, p.636. See also his The Science of Health', Bristish Medical Journal, ii (1942), 745-48.
70. Ryle, Fears, 41.
71. Ibid.
72. J.D. Bernal, The Social Function of Science (London, Routledge, 1940; second edition), 353-56. For discussion of Bernal see Maurice Godsmith, Sage. A Life of J.D. Bernal (London, Hutchinson, 1980). For recent discussion of Social Function of Science, see Mikulàs Teich, 'Reflecting on the Golden Jubilee of Bernal's Social Function of Science', History of Science, 28 (1990), 411-18. For discussion of Bernal's circle see Werskey, The Visible College.
73. J.D. Bernal, The Social Function of Science (London, Routledge, 1940; second edition), 353-56. For discussion of Bernal see Maurice Godsmith, Sage. A Life of J.D. Bernal (London, Hutchinson, 1980). For recent discussion of Social Function of Science, see Mikulàs Teich, 'Reflecting on the Golden Jubilee of Bernal's Social Function of Science', History of Science, 28 (1990), 411-18. For discussion of Bernal's circle see Werskey, The Visible College.
74. J.D. Bernal, The Social Function of Science (London, Routledge, 1940; second edition), 353-56. For discussion of Bernal see Maurice Godsmith, Sage. A Life of J.D. Bernal (London, Hutchinson, 1980). For recent discussion of Social Function of Science, see Mikulàs Teich, 'Reflecting on the Golden Jubilee of Bernal's Social Function of Science', History of Science, 28 (1990), 411-18. For discussion of Bernal's circle see Werskey, The Visible College.
75. J.D. Bernal, The Social Function of Science (London, Routledge, 1940; second edition), 353-56. For discussion of Bernal see Maurice Godsmith, Sage. A Life of J.D. Bernal (London, Hutchinson, 1980). For recent discussion of Social Function of Science, see Mikulàs Teich, 'Reflecting on the Golden Jubilee of Bernal's Social Function of Science', History of Science, 28 (1990), 411-18. For discussion of Bernal's circle see Werskey, The Visible College.
76. J.D. Bernal, The Social Function of Science (London, Routledge, 1940; second edition), 353-56. For discussion of Bernal see Maurice Godsmith, Sage. A Life of J.D. Bernal (London, Hutchinson, 1980). For recent discussion of Social Function of Science, see Mikulàs Teich, 'Reflecting on the Golden Jubilee of Bernal's Social Function of Science', History of Science, 28 (1990), 411-18. For discussion of Bernal's circle see Werskey, The Visible College.
77. In some 'Notes for Students Talk' which Ryle gave on 16th February - no other date - 'at home', he refers to the importance of both Bernal's book and Huxley's The Uniqueness of Man: 'There has been a rather rude awakening of recent years to the fact that we have allowed our scientists to run away with us and our intellectual interests, at the expense of our human interests. Private ownership in knowledge can, like private ownership of wealth, lead to great injustices. Now we are beginning to look ahead and see how we might do better.
78. For discussion see Sir Christopher C. Booth, Doctors in Science and Society. Essays of a Clinical Scientist (London, 1987), 238-62; 'Clinical research', in Joan Austoker and Lynda Bryder (eds), Historical Perspectives on the Role of the MRC (Oxford UP, 1989), 205-41. For Trotter see Wilfred Trotter, 'Observation and experiment and their use in the medical sciences', British Medical Journal, ii (1930), 129-34.
79. For discussion see Sir Christopher C. Booth, Doctors in Science and Society. Essays of a Clinical Scientist (London, 1987), 238-62; 'Clinical research', in Joan Austoker and Lynda Bryder (eds), Historical Perspectives on the Role of the MRC (Oxford UP, 1989), 205-41. For Trotter see Wilfred Trotter, 'Observation and experiment and their use in the medical sciences', British Medical Journal, ii (1930), 129-34.
80. For discussion see Sir Christopher C. Booth, Doctors in Science and Society. Essays of a Clinical Scientist (London, 1987), 238-62; 'Clinical research', in Joan Austoker and Lynda Bryder (eds), Historical Perspectives on the Role of the MRC (Oxford UP, 1989), 205-41. For Trotter see Wilfred Trotter, 'Observation and experiment and their use in the medical sciences', British Medical Journal, ii (1930), 129-34.
81. J.A. Ryle, 'The Hippocratic Ideal', Lancet, ii (1934), 1263-68.
82. J.A. Ryle, 'Opening remarks as a discussion on research in clinical medicine', Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine, xxiv (1930), 151-7, reproduced in J.A. Ryle, The Natural History of Disease, 384-91. For discussion of the importance of natural history and field science amongst British intellectuals, David E. Allen, The Naturalist in Britain. A Social History (London, Allen Lane, 1976).
83. J.A. Ryle, 'Opening remarks as a discussion on research in clinical medicine', Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine, xxiv (1930), 151-7, reproduced in J.A. Ryle, The Natural History of Disease, 384-91. For discussion of the importance of natural history and field science amongst British intellectuals, David E. Allen, The Naturalist in Britain. A Social History (London, Allen Lane, 1976).
84. J.A. Ryle, 'Opening remarks as a discussion on research in clinical medicine', Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine, xxiv (1930), 151-7, reproduced in J.A. Ryle, The Natural History of Disease, 384-91. For discussion of the importance of natural history and field science amongst British intellectuals, David E. Allen, The Naturalist in Britain. A Social History (London, Allen Lane, 1976).
85. W.K. Hancock, Smuts, the Sanguine Years 1870-1919 (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1962); F.S. Crafford, Jan Smuts. A Biography (London, Allen and Unwin, 1946).
86. W.K. Hancock, Smuts, the Sanguine Years 1870-1919 (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1962); F.S. Crafford, Jan Smuts. A Biography (London, Allen and Unwin, 1946).
87. J.C. Smuts, Holism and Evolution (Westport, Conn., Greenwood Press, 1973, 1st edition, 1926).
88. Ibid., 179-221.
89. J.A. Ryle,' The Physician as Naturalist', Guy's Hospital Reports, 1xxxi (1931), 278-96, p.290, reproduced in J.A. Ryle, The Natural History of Disease, 1-19, p. 12.
90. J.A. Ryle,' The Physician as Naturalist', Guy's Hospital Reports, 1xxxi (1931), 278-96, p.290, reproduced in J.A. Ryle, The Natural History of Disease, 1-19, p. 12.
91. W.F. Bynum, 'Darwin and the Doctors: Evolution, Diathesis, and Germs in 19th-century Britain', Gesnerus, x1 (1983), 43-53.
92. J.A. Ryle, 'Constitution as a Factor in Morbidity', Clinical Journal, 1x (1931), 73-81; 'Diathesis, or Variation and Disease in Man', reproduced in J.A. Ryle, The Natural History of Disease, 375-83.
93. J.A. Ryle, 'Constitution as a Factor in Morbidity', Clinical Journal, 1x (1931), 73-81; 'Diathesis, or Variation and Disease in Man', reproduced in J.A. Ryle, The Natural History of Disease, 375-83.
94. J.A. Ryle, 'The Meaning of the Normal', Lancet, i (1947), 1-5.
95. See Bowler, Evolution. See also Pauline M.H. Mazumdar, Eugenics, Human Genetics and Human Failings. The Eugenics Society, Its Sources and Its Critics in Britain (London, Routledge, 1992).
96. See Bowler, Evolution. See also Pauline M.H. Mazumdar, Eugenics, Human Genetics and Human Failings. The Eugenics Society, Its Sources and Its Critics in Britain (London, Routledge, 1992).
97. Ryle, 'The Meaning of the Normal', 2.
98. J.A. Ryle, Changing Disciplines (London, Oxford University Press, 1948), chapter 2; 'Social Pathology', in Iago Galdston, Social Medicine its Derivations and Objectives (New York, The Commonwealth Fund, 1949), 56-75.
99. J.A. Ryle, Changing Disciplines (London, Oxford University Press, 1948), chapter 2; 'Social Pathology', in Iago Galdston, Social Medicine its Derivations and Objectives (New York, The Commonwealth Fund, 1949), 56-75.
100. For Galton see D.W. Forrest, Francis Galton: The Life and Work of a Genius (London, Paul Elek, 1974); for Galton and eugenics see Daniel Kevles, In the Name of Eugenics. Genetics and the Uses of Human Heredity (New York: Knopf, 1985); Geoffrey R. Searle, Eugenics and Politics in Britain 1900-1914 (Leyden, Noordhoff, 1976).
101. For Galton see D.W. Forrest, Francis Galton: The Life and Work of a Genius (London, Paul Elek, 1974); for Galton and eugenics see Daniel Kevles, In the Name of Eugenics. Genetics and the Uses of Human Heredity (New York: Knopf, 1985); Geoffrey R. Searle, Eugenics and Politics in Britain 1900-1914 (Leyden, Noordhoff, 1976).
102. For Galton see D.W. Forrest, Francis Galton: The Life and Work of a Genius (London, Paul Elek, 1974); for Galton and eugenics see Daniel Kevles, In the Name of Eugenics. Genetics and the Uses of Human Heredity (New York: Knopf, 1985); Geoffrey R. Searle, Eugenics and Politics in Britain 1900-1914 (Leyden, Noordhoff, 1976).
103. For a recent discussion of Huxley's life and work see Milo Keynes and G. Ainsworth Harrison (eds), Evolutionary Studies. On Huxley's eugenics see David Hubback, 'Julian Huxley and Eugenics' in ibid., 194-206. See also Huxley's autobiographical memoirs, J. S.Huxley, Memories, 2 vols (London, Allen and Unwin, 1970 and 1973).
104. For a recent discussion of Huxley's life and work see Milo Keynes and G. Ainsworth Harrison (eds), Evolutionary Studies. On Huxley's eugenics see David Hubback, 'Julian Huxley and Eugenics' in ibid., 194-206. See also Huxley's autobiographical memoirs, J. S.Huxley, Memories, 2 vols (London, Allen and Unwin, 1970 and 1973).
105. For a recent discussion of Huxley's life and work see Milo Keynes and G. Ainsworth Harrison (eds), Evolutionary Studies. On Huxley's eugenics see David Hubback, 'Julian Huxley and Eugenics' in ibid., 194-206. See also Huxley's autobiographical memoirs, J. S.Huxley, Memories, 2 vols (London, Allen and Unwin, 1970 and 1973).
106. Julian Huxley, The Uniqueness of Man, op. cit. (ref. 10), 34-83
107. J.A. Ryle, 'Medicine and Eugenics', Eugenics Review, xxx (xi new series) (1938-1939), 9-19.
108. Ibid.
109. See Porter, 'Doctor of Revolution', 254-58.
110. Ibid.
111. Ibid.
112. J.A. Ryle, 'Social Medicine its Meaning and its Scope'. British 'Medical Journal, ii (1943), 633-36, 636.
113. Ryle, Fears, 27-43.
114. See J. Huxley, Essays of A Biologist, 67-101;
115. J.A. Ryle, The Science of Health', British Medical Journal, ii (1942), 745-48.
116. Ryle, 'Social Medicine its meaning and scope'.
117. Anne Harrington, 'Other ways of Knowing': The Politics of Knowledge in Interwar German Brain Science', in Anne Harrington (ed.), So Human a Brain. Knowledge and Values in the Neurosciences (Boston, Birkhäuser, 1991), 229-44. See also Paul Forman, 'Weimar Culture, Causality, and Quantum Theory, 1918-1927: Adaptation by German Physicists and Mathematicians to a Hostile Intellectual Environment', Historical Studies in the Physical Sciences, iii (1971), 1-115; John Hendry, 'Weimar Culture and Quantum Causality', History of Science, xviii (1980), 155-80.
118. Anne Harrington, 'Other ways of Knowing': The Politics of Knowledge in Interwar German Brain Science', in Anne Harrington (ed.), So Human a Brain. Knowledge and Values in the Neurosciences (Boston, Birkhäuser, 1991), 229-44. See also Paul Forman, 'Weimar Culture, Causality, and Quantum Theory, 1918-1927: Adaptation by German Physicists and Mathematicians to a Hostile Intellectual Environment', Historical Studies in the Physical Sciences, iii (1971), 1-115; John Hendry, 'Weimar Culture and Quantum Causality', History of Science, xviii (1980), 155-80.
119. Anne Harrington, 'Other ways of Knowing': The Politics of Knowledge in Interwar German Brain Science', in Anne Harrington (ed.), So Human a Brain. Knowledge and Values in the Neurosciences (Boston, Birkhäuser, 1991), 229-44. See also Paul Forman, 'Weimar Culture, Causality, and Quantum Theory, 1918-1927: Adaptation by German Physicists and Mathematicians to a Hostile Intellectual Environment', Historical Studies in the Physical Sciences, iii (1971), 1-115; John Hendry, 'Weimar Culture and Quantum Causality', History of Science, xviii (1980), 155-80.
120. See J.S. Haldane, The Philosophy of a Biologist (Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1935); J.B.S. Haldane, 'The Scientific Work of J.S. Haldane (1980-1936)', Nature, 187 (1960), 103.
121. See J.S. Haldane, The Philosophy of a Biologist (Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1935); J.B.S. Haldane, 'The Scientific Work of J.S. Haldane (1980-1936)', Nature, 187 (1960), 103.
122. J.B.S. Haldane, Possible Worlds and Other Essays, The Inequality of Man; Ronald Clark, J.B.S. The Life and Work of J.B.S. Haldane (London, Hodder and Stoughton, 1968).
123. J.B.S. Haldane, Possible Worlds and Other Essays, The Inequality of Man; Ronald Clark, J.B.S. The Life and Work of J.B.S. Haldane (London, Hodder and Stoughton, 1968).
124. See Harrington, So Human a Brain.
125. Werskey, The Visible College, 103.
126. Ibid., 60-7.
127. See Lancelot Hogben, Science for the Citizen, 2 vols (New York), Knopf, 1938).
128. Ibid.
129. See 1st edition, British Journal of Preventive and Social Medicine (1947).
130. Tracy, 'George Baker'.
131. See Dorothy Porter, 'Changing Disciplines'.
132. Cross and Albury, 'Walter B. Cannon'.
133. See Roy Porter, Doctor of Society: Thomas Beddoes and the Sick Trade in Late Enlightenment England (London: Routledge, 1991).
134. Christpher Lawrence, 'Incommunicable knowledge: science, technology and the clinical art in Britain', Journal of Contemporary History, xx (1985), 503-20; 'Still Incommunicable: Clinical Knowledge Between the Wars', (forthcoming).
135. Christpher Lawrence, 'Incommunicable knowledge: science, technology and the clinical art in Britain', Journal of Contemporary History, xx (1985), 503-20; 'Still Incommunicable: Clinical Knowledge Between the Wars', (forthcoming).
136. British Journal of Preventive and Social Medicine op.cit. (ref. 80).
137. Ibid.
138. Bernal, The Social Function of Science, 389.
139. Ibid., 385-407.
140. Dorothy Porter, 'Counting on Health. The Death of British Social Medicine in the 1960s?' (forthcoming)
141. See J Lewis, What Price Community Medicine? (Brighton, Wheatsheaf, 1986), 35-36, 100-20.