Vertical boundaries, national identities: British mountaineering on the frontiers of Europe and the empire, 1868-1914

Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History

Volumn 24, Issue 1, 1996, Pages 48-71

  Hansen, Peter H ^a  

^a WORCESTER POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0030306734     PISSN: 03086534     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/03086539608582968     Document Type: Article

References (167)

1. 1. Locating the boundary between two continents on the same landmass has vexed geographers for centuries. See W.H. Parker, 'Europe - How Far?', Geographical Journal, 126 (1960), 278-97; D. Hay, Europe: The Emergence of an Idea (Edinburgh, 1968); and M. Bassin, 'Russia between Europe and Asia: the Ideological Construction of Geographical Space', Slavic Review, 50 (1991), 1-17.
2. 1. Locating the boundary between two continents on the same landmass has vexed geographers for centuries. See W.H. Parker, 'Europe - How Far?', Geographical Journal, 126 (1960), 278-97; D. Hay, Europe: The Emergence of an Idea (Edinburgh, 1968); and M. Bassin, 'Russia between Europe and Asia: the Ideological Construction of Geographical Space', Slavic Review, 50 (1991), 1-17.
3. 1. Locating the boundary between two continents on the same landmass has vexed geographers for centuries. See W.H. Parker, 'Europe - How Far?', Geographical Journal, 126 (1960), 278-97; D. Hay, Europe: The Emergence of an Idea (Edinburgh, 1968); and M. Bassin, 'Russia between Europe and Asia: the Ideological Construction of Geographical Space', Slavic Review, 50 (1991), 1-17.
4. 2. H.B. George, 'Mount Elbrouz, and the Attempted Ascent of it by a Russian Expedition', Alpine Journal, 2 (1865), 169, 177.
5. 3. Recent accounts, however, take seriously the claims that a Circassian guide climbed Elbruz in 1829. See A. Salkeld and J.L. Bermúdez, On the Edge of Europe: Mountaineering in the Caucasus (London, 1993), 241-4.
6. 4. See A. Godlewska and N. Smith (eds.), Geography and Empire (Oxford, 1994), and M. Bell, R. Butlin and M. Heffernan, Geography and Imperialism, 1820-1940 (Manchester, 1995); B. Hudson, 'The New Geography and the New Imperialism: 1870-1918', Antipode, 9 (1977), 12-19; R.A. Stafford, 'Geological Surveys, Mineral Discoveries, and British Expansion, 1835-71', Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, 12 (1984), 5-32; D.R. Stoddart, On Geography and its History (Oxford, 1986); P. Carter, The Road to Botany Bay (Chicago, 1987); M. Bassin, 'Imperialism and the Nation State in Friedrich Ratzel's Political Geography', Progress in Human Geography, 11 (1987), 473-95; R. Stafford, Scientist of Empire: Sir Roderick Murchison, Scientific Exploration and Victorian Imperialism (Cambridge, 1989); J.M. MacKenzie (ed.), Imperialism and the Natural World (Manchester, 1990); D.N. Livingstone, The Geographical Tradition (Oxford, 1992); M.L. Pratt, Imperial Eyes: Travel Writing and Transculturation (London, 1992); F. Driver, 'Geography's Empire: Histories of Geographical Knowledge', Environment and Planning D: Society and Space, 10 (1992), 23-40; T. Bayliss-Smith, 'Papuan Exploration, Colonial Expansion and the Royal Geographical Society: Questions of Power/Knowledge Relations', Journal of Historical Geography, 18 (1992), 319-29; B. Riffenburgh, The Myth of the Explorer: The Press, Sensationalism, and Geographical Discovery (Oxford, 1994); D. Gregory, Geographical Imaginations (Oxford, 1994); A. Blunt and G. Rose, Writing Women and Space: Colonial and Postcolonial Geographies (New York, 1994).
7. 4. See A. Godlewska and N. Smith (eds.), Geography and Empire (Oxford, 1994), and M. Bell, R. Butlin and M. Heffernan, Geography and Imperialism, 1820-1940 (Manchester, 1995); B. Hudson, 'The New Geography and the New Imperialism: 1870-1918', Antipode, 9 (1977), 12-19; R.A. Stafford, 'Geological Surveys, Mineral Discoveries, and British Expansion, 1835-71', Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, 12 (1984), 5-32; D.R. Stoddart, On Geography and its History (Oxford, 1986); P. Carter, The Road to Botany Bay (Chicago, 1987); M. Bassin, 'Imperialism and the Nation State in Friedrich Ratzel's Political Geography', Progress in Human Geography, 11 (1987), 473-95; R. Stafford, Scientist of Empire: Sir Roderick Murchison, Scientific Exploration and Victorian Imperialism (Cambridge, 1989); J.M. MacKenzie (ed.), Imperialism and the Natural World (Manchester, 1990); D.N. Livingstone, The Geographical Tradition (Oxford, 1992); M.L. Pratt, Imperial Eyes: Travel Writing and Transculturation (London, 1992); F. Driver, 'Geography's Empire: Histories of Geographical Knowledge', Environment and Planning D: Society and Space, 10 (1992), 23-40; T. Bayliss-Smith, 'Papuan Exploration, Colonial Expansion and the Royal Geographical Society: Questions of Power/Knowledge Relations', Journal of Historical Geography, 18 (1992), 319-29; B. Riffenburgh, The Myth of the Explorer: The Press, Sensationalism, and Geographical Discovery (Oxford, 1994); D. Gregory, Geographical Imaginations (Oxford, 1994); A. Blunt and G. Rose, Writing Women and Space: Colonial and Postcolonial Geographies (New York, 1994).
8. 4. See A. Godlewska and N. Smith (eds.), Geography and Empire (Oxford, 1994), and M. Bell, R. Butlin and M. Heffernan, Geography and Imperialism, 1820-1940 (Manchester, 1995); B. Hudson, 'The New Geography and the New Imperialism: 1870-1918', Antipode, 9 (1977), 12-19; R.A. Stafford, 'Geological Surveys, Mineral Discoveries, and British Expansion, 1835-71', Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, 12 (1984), 5-32; D.R. Stoddart, On Geography and its History (Oxford, 1986); P. Carter, The Road to Botany Bay (Chicago, 1987); M. Bassin, 'Imperialism and the Nation State in Friedrich Ratzel's Political Geography', Progress in Human Geography, 11 (1987), 473-95; R. Stafford, Scientist of Empire: Sir Roderick Murchison, Scientific Exploration and Victorian Imperialism (Cambridge, 1989); J.M. MacKenzie (ed.), Imperialism and the Natural World (Manchester, 1990); D.N. Livingstone, The Geographical Tradition (Oxford, 1992); M.L. Pratt, Imperial Eyes: Travel Writing and Transculturation (London, 1992); F. Driver, 'Geography's Empire: Histories of Geographical Knowledge', Environment and Planning D: Society and Space, 10 (1992), 23-40; T. Bayliss-Smith, 'Papuan Exploration, Colonial Expansion and the Royal Geographical Society: Questions of Power/Knowledge Relations', Journal of Historical Geography, 18 (1992), 319-29; B. Riffenburgh, The Myth of the Explorer: The Press, Sensationalism, and Geographical Discovery (Oxford, 1994); D. Gregory, Geographical Imaginations (Oxford, 1994); A. Blunt and G. Rose, Writing Women and Space: Colonial and Postcolonial Geographies (New York, 1994).
9. 4. See A. Godlewska and N. Smith (eds.), Geography and Empire (Oxford, 1994), and M. Bell, R. Butlin and M. Heffernan, Geography and Imperialism, 1820-1940 (Manchester, 1995); B. Hudson, 'The New Geography and the New Imperialism: 1870-1918', Antipode, 9 (1977), 12-19; R.A. Stafford, 'Geological Surveys, Mineral Discoveries, and British Expansion, 1835-71', Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, 12 (1984), 5-32; D.R. Stoddart, On Geography and its History (Oxford, 1986); P. Carter, The Road to Botany Bay (Chicago, 1987); M. Bassin, 'Imperialism and the Nation State in Friedrich Ratzel's Political Geography', Progress in Human Geography, 11 (1987), 473-95; R. Stafford, Scientist of Empire: Sir Roderick Murchison, Scientific Exploration and Victorian Imperialism (Cambridge, 1989); J.M. MacKenzie (ed.), Imperialism and the Natural World (Manchester, 1990); D.N. Livingstone, The Geographical Tradition (Oxford, 1992); M.L. Pratt, Imperial Eyes: Travel Writing and Transculturation (London, 1992); F. Driver, 'Geography's Empire: Histories of Geographical Knowledge', Environment and Planning D: Society and Space, 10 (1992), 23-40; T. Bayliss-Smith, 'Papuan Exploration, Colonial Expansion and the Royal Geographical Society: Questions of Power/Knowledge Relations', Journal of Historical Geography, 18 (1992), 319-29; B. Riffenburgh, The Myth of the Explorer: The Press, Sensationalism, and Geographical Discovery (Oxford, 1994); D. Gregory, Geographical Imaginations (Oxford, 1994); A. Blunt and G. Rose, Writing Women and Space: Colonial and Postcolonial Geographies (New York, 1994).
10. 4. See A. Godlewska and N. Smith (eds.), Geography and Empire (Oxford, 1994), and M. Bell, R. Butlin and M. Heffernan, Geography and Imperialism, 1820-1940 (Manchester, 1995); B. Hudson, 'The New Geography and the New Imperialism: 1870-1918', Antipode, 9 (1977), 12-19; R.A. Stafford, 'Geological Surveys, Mineral Discoveries, and British Expansion, 1835-71', Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, 12 (1984), 5-32; D.R. Stoddart, On Geography and its History (Oxford, 1986); P. Carter, The Road to Botany Bay (Chicago, 1987); M. Bassin, 'Imperialism and the Nation State in Friedrich Ratzel's Political Geography', Progress in Human Geography, 11 (1987), 473-95; R. Stafford, Scientist of Empire: Sir Roderick Murchison, Scientific Exploration and Victorian Imperialism (Cambridge, 1989); J.M. MacKenzie (ed.), Imperialism and the Natural World (Manchester, 1990); D.N. Livingstone, The Geographical Tradition (Oxford, 1992); M.L. Pratt, Imperial Eyes: Travel Writing and Transculturation (London, 1992); F. Driver, 'Geography's Empire: Histories of Geographical Knowledge', Environment and Planning D: Society and Space, 10 (1992), 23-40; T. Bayliss-Smith, 'Papuan Exploration, Colonial Expansion and the Royal Geographical Society: Questions of Power/Knowledge Relations', Journal of Historical Geography, 18 (1992), 319-29; B. Riffenburgh, The Myth of the Explorer: The Press, Sensationalism, and Geographical Discovery (Oxford, 1994); D. Gregory, Geographical Imaginations (Oxford, 1994); A. Blunt and G. Rose, Writing Women and Space: Colonial and Postcolonial Geographies (New York, 1994).
11. 4. See A. Godlewska and N. Smith (eds.), Geography and Empire (Oxford, 1994), and M. Bell, R. Butlin and M. Heffernan, Geography and Imperialism, 1820-1940 (Manchester, 1995); B. Hudson, 'The New Geography and the New Imperialism: 1870-1918', Antipode, 9 (1977), 12-19; R.A. Stafford, 'Geological Surveys, Mineral Discoveries, and British Expansion, 1835-71', Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, 12 (1984), 5-32; D.R. Stoddart, On Geography and its History (Oxford, 1986); P. Carter, The Road to Botany Bay (Chicago, 1987); M. Bassin, 'Imperialism and the Nation State in Friedrich Ratzel's Political Geography', Progress in Human Geography, 11 (1987), 473-95; R. Stafford, Scientist of Empire: Sir Roderick Murchison, Scientific Exploration and Victorian Imperialism (Cambridge, 1989); J.M. MacKenzie (ed.), Imperialism and the Natural World (Manchester, 1990); D.N. Livingstone, The Geographical Tradition (Oxford, 1992); M.L. Pratt, Imperial Eyes: Travel Writing and Transculturation (London, 1992); F. Driver, 'Geography's Empire: Histories of Geographical Knowledge', Environment and Planning D: Society and Space, 10 (1992), 23-40; T. Bayliss-Smith, 'Papuan Exploration, Colonial Expansion and the Royal Geographical Society: Questions of Power/Knowledge Relations', Journal of Historical Geography, 18 (1992), 319-29; B. Riffenburgh, The Myth of the Explorer: The Press, Sensationalism, and Geographical Discovery (Oxford, 1994); D. Gregory, Geographical Imaginations (Oxford, 1994); A. Blunt and G. Rose, Writing Women and Space: Colonial and Postcolonial Geographies (New York, 1994).
12. 4. See A. Godlewska and N. Smith (eds.), Geography and Empire (Oxford, 1994), and M. Bell, R. Butlin and M. Heffernan, Geography and Imperialism, 1820-1940 (Manchester, 1995); B. Hudson, 'The New Geography and the New Imperialism: 1870-1918', Antipode, 9 (1977), 12-19; R.A. Stafford, 'Geological Surveys, Mineral Discoveries, and British Expansion, 1835-71', Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, 12 (1984), 5-32; D.R. Stoddart, On Geography and its History (Oxford, 1986); P. Carter, The Road to Botany Bay (Chicago, 1987); M. Bassin, 'Imperialism and the Nation State in Friedrich Ratzel's Political Geography', Progress in Human Geography, 11 (1987), 473-95; R. Stafford, Scientist of Empire: Sir Roderick Murchison, Scientific Exploration and Victorian Imperialism (Cambridge, 1989); J.M. MacKenzie (ed.), Imperialism and the Natural World (Manchester, 1990); D.N. Livingstone, The Geographical Tradition (Oxford, 1992); M.L. Pratt, Imperial Eyes: Travel Writing and Transculturation (London, 1992); F. Driver, 'Geography's Empire: Histories of Geographical Knowledge', Environment and Planning D: Society and Space, 10 (1992), 23-40; T. Bayliss-Smith, 'Papuan Exploration, Colonial Expansion and the Royal Geographical Society: Questions of Power/Knowledge Relations', Journal of Historical Geography, 18 (1992), 319-29; B. Riffenburgh, The Myth of the Explorer: The Press, Sensationalism, and Geographical Discovery (Oxford, 1994); D. Gregory, Geographical Imaginations (Oxford, 1994); A. Blunt and G. Rose, Writing Women and Space: Colonial and Postcolonial Geographies (New York, 1994).
13. 4. See A. Godlewska and N. Smith (eds.), Geography and Empire (Oxford, 1994), and M. Bell, R. Butlin and M. Heffernan, Geography and Imperialism, 1820-1940 (Manchester, 1995); B. Hudson, 'The New Geography and the New Imperialism: 1870-1918', Antipode, 9 (1977), 12-19; R.A. Stafford, 'Geological Surveys, Mineral Discoveries, and British Expansion, 1835-71', Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, 12 (1984), 5-32; D.R. Stoddart, On Geography and its History (Oxford, 1986); P. Carter, The Road to Botany Bay (Chicago, 1987); M. Bassin, 'Imperialism and the Nation State in Friedrich Ratzel's Political Geography', Progress in Human Geography, 11 (1987), 473-95; R. Stafford, Scientist of Empire: Sir Roderick Murchison, Scientific Exploration and Victorian Imperialism (Cambridge, 1989); J.M. MacKenzie (ed.), Imperialism and the Natural World (Manchester, 1990); D.N. Livingstone, The Geographical Tradition (Oxford, 1992); M.L. Pratt, Imperial Eyes: Travel Writing and Transculturation (London, 1992); F. Driver, 'Geography's Empire: Histories of Geographical Knowledge', Environment and Planning D: Society and Space, 10 (1992), 23-40; T. Bayliss-Smith, 'Papuan Exploration, Colonial Expansion and the Royal Geographical Society: Questions of Power/Knowledge Relations', Journal of Historical Geography, 18 (1992), 319-29; B. Riffenburgh, The Myth of the Explorer: The Press, Sensationalism, and Geographical Discovery (Oxford, 1994); D. Gregory, Geographical Imaginations (Oxford, 1994); A. Blunt and G. Rose, Writing Women and Space: Colonial and Postcolonial Geographies (New York, 1994).
14. 4. See A. Godlewska and N. Smith (eds.), Geography and Empire (Oxford, 1994), and M. Bell, R. Butlin and M. Heffernan, Geography and Imperialism, 1820-1940 (Manchester, 1995); B. Hudson, 'The New Geography and the New Imperialism: 1870-1918', Antipode, 9 (1977), 12-19; R.A. Stafford, 'Geological Surveys, Mineral Discoveries, and British Expansion, 1835-71', Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, 12 (1984), 5-32; D.R. Stoddart, On Geography and its History (Oxford, 1986); P. Carter, The Road to Botany Bay (Chicago, 1987); M. Bassin, 'Imperialism and the Nation State in Friedrich Ratzel's Political Geography', Progress in Human Geography, 11 (1987), 473-95; R. Stafford, Scientist of Empire: Sir Roderick Murchison, Scientific Exploration and Victorian Imperialism (Cambridge, 1989); J.M. MacKenzie (ed.), Imperialism and the Natural World (Manchester, 1990); D.N. Livingstone, The Geographical Tradition (Oxford, 1992); M.L. Pratt, Imperial Eyes: Travel Writing and Transculturation (London, 1992); F. Driver, 'Geography's Empire: Histories of Geographical Knowledge', Environment and Planning D: Society and Space, 10 (1992), 23-40; T. Bayliss-Smith, 'Papuan Exploration, Colonial Expansion and the Royal Geographical Society: Questions of Power/Knowledge Relations', Journal of Historical Geography, 18 (1992), 319-29; B. Riffenburgh, The Myth of the Explorer: The Press, Sensationalism, and Geographical Discovery (Oxford, 1994); D. Gregory, Geographical Imaginations (Oxford, 1994); A. Blunt and G. Rose, Writing Women and Space: Colonial and Postcolonial Geographies (New York, 1994).
15. 4. See A. Godlewska and N. Smith (eds.), Geography and Empire (Oxford, 1994), and M. Bell, R. Butlin and M. Heffernan, Geography and Imperialism, 1820-1940 (Manchester, 1995); B. Hudson, 'The New Geography and the New Imperialism: 1870-1918', Antipode, 9 (1977), 12-19; R.A. Stafford, 'Geological Surveys, Mineral Discoveries, and British Expansion, 1835-71', Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, 12 (1984), 5-32; D.R. Stoddart, On Geography and its History (Oxford, 1986); P. Carter, The Road to Botany Bay (Chicago, 1987); M. Bassin, 'Imperialism and the Nation State in Friedrich Ratzel's Political Geography', Progress in Human Geography, 11 (1987), 473-95; R. Stafford, Scientist of Empire: Sir Roderick Murchison, Scientific Exploration and Victorian Imperialism (Cambridge, 1989); J.M. MacKenzie (ed.), Imperialism and the Natural World (Manchester, 1990); D.N. Livingstone, The Geographical Tradition (Oxford, 1992); M.L. Pratt, Imperial Eyes: Travel Writing and Transculturation (London, 1992); F. Driver, 'Geography's Empire: Histories of Geographical Knowledge', Environment and Planning D: Society and Space, 10 (1992), 23-40; T. Bayliss-Smith, 'Papuan Exploration, Colonial Expansion and the Royal Geographical Society: Questions of Power/Knowledge Relations', Journal of Historical Geography, 18 (1992), 319-29; B. Riffenburgh, The Myth of the Explorer: The Press, Sensationalism, and Geographical Discovery (Oxford, 1994); D. Gregory, Geographical Imaginations (Oxford, 1994); A. Blunt and G. Rose, Writing Women and Space: Colonial and Postcolonial Geographies (New York, 1994).
16. 4. See A. Godlewska and N. Smith (eds.), Geography and Empire (Oxford, 1994), and M. Bell, R. Butlin and M. Heffernan, Geography and Imperialism, 1820-1940 (Manchester, 1995); B. Hudson, 'The New Geography and the New Imperialism: 1870-1918', Antipode, 9 (1977), 12-19; R.A. Stafford, 'Geological Surveys, Mineral Discoveries, and British Expansion, 1835-71', Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, 12 (1984), 5-32; D.R. Stoddart, On Geography and its History (Oxford, 1986); P. Carter, The Road to Botany Bay (Chicago, 1987); M. Bassin, 'Imperialism and the Nation State in Friedrich Ratzel's Political Geography', Progress in Human Geography, 11 (1987), 473-95; R. Stafford, Scientist of Empire: Sir Roderick Murchison, Scientific Exploration and Victorian Imperialism (Cambridge, 1989); J.M. MacKenzie (ed.), Imperialism and the Natural World (Manchester, 1990); D.N. Livingstone, The Geographical Tradition (Oxford, 1992); M.L. Pratt, Imperial Eyes: Travel Writing and Transculturation (London, 1992); F. Driver, 'Geography's Empire: Histories of Geographical Knowledge', Environment and Planning D: Society and Space, 10 (1992), 23-40; T. Bayliss-Smith, 'Papuan Exploration, Colonial Expansion and the Royal Geographical Society: Questions of Power/Knowledge Relations', Journal of Historical Geography, 18 (1992), 319-29; B. Riffenburgh, The Myth of the Explorer: The Press, Sensationalism, and Geographical Discovery (Oxford, 1994); D. Gregory, Geographical Imaginations (Oxford, 1994); A. Blunt and G. Rose, Writing Women and Space: Colonial and Postcolonial Geographies (New York, 1994).
17. 4. See A. Godlewska and N. Smith (eds.), Geography and Empire (Oxford, 1994), and M. Bell, R. Butlin and M. Heffernan, Geography and Imperialism, 1820-1940 (Manchester, 1995); B. Hudson, 'The New Geography and the New Imperialism: 1870-1918', Antipode, 9 (1977), 12-19; R.A. Stafford, 'Geological Surveys, Mineral Discoveries, and British Expansion, 1835-71', Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, 12 (1984), 5-32; D.R. Stoddart, On Geography and its History (Oxford, 1986); P. Carter, The Road to Botany Bay (Chicago, 1987); M. Bassin, 'Imperialism and the Nation State in Friedrich Ratzel's Political Geography', Progress in Human Geography, 11 (1987), 473-95; R. Stafford, Scientist of Empire: Sir Roderick Murchison, Scientific Exploration and Victorian Imperialism (Cambridge, 1989); J.M. MacKenzie (ed.), Imperialism and the Natural World (Manchester, 1990); D.N. Livingstone, The Geographical Tradition (Oxford, 1992); M.L. Pratt, Imperial Eyes: Travel Writing and Transculturation (London, 1992); F. Driver, 'Geography's Empire: Histories of Geographical Knowledge', Environment and Planning D: Society and Space, 10 (1992), 23-40; T. Bayliss-Smith, 'Papuan Exploration, Colonial Expansion and the Royal Geographical Society: Questions of Power/Knowledge Relations', Journal of Historical Geography, 18 (1992), 319-29; B. Riffenburgh, The Myth of the Explorer: The Press, Sensationalism, and Geographical Discovery (Oxford, 1994); D. Gregory, Geographical Imaginations (Oxford, 1994); A. Blunt and G. Rose, Writing Women and Space: Colonial and Postcolonial Geographies (New York, 1994).
18. 4. See A. Godlewska and N. Smith (eds.), Geography and Empire (Oxford, 1994), and M. Bell, R. Butlin and M. Heffernan, Geography and Imperialism, 1820-1940 (Manchester, 1995); B. Hudson, 'The New Geography and the New Imperialism: 1870-1918', Antipode, 9 (1977), 12-19; R.A. Stafford, 'Geological Surveys, Mineral Discoveries, and British Expansion, 1835-71', Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, 12 (1984), 5-32; D.R. Stoddart, On Geography and its History (Oxford, 1986); P. Carter, The Road to Botany Bay (Chicago, 1987); M. Bassin, 'Imperialism and the Nation State in Friedrich Ratzel's Political Geography', Progress in Human Geography, 11 (1987), 473-95; R. Stafford, Scientist of Empire: Sir Roderick Murchison, Scientific Exploration and Victorian Imperialism (Cambridge, 1989); J.M. MacKenzie (ed.), Imperialism and the Natural World (Manchester, 1990); D.N. Livingstone, The Geographical Tradition (Oxford, 1992); M.L. Pratt, Imperial Eyes: Travel Writing and Transculturation (London, 1992); F. Driver, 'Geography's Empire: Histories of Geographical Knowledge', Environment and Planning D: Society and Space, 10 (1992), 23-40; T. Bayliss-Smith, 'Papuan Exploration, Colonial Expansion and the Royal Geographical Society: Questions of Power/Knowledge Relations', Journal of Historical Geography, 18 (1992), 319-29; B. Riffenburgh, The Myth of the Explorer: The Press, Sensationalism, and Geographical Discovery (Oxford, 1994); D. Gregory, Geographical Imaginations (Oxford, 1994); A. Blunt and G. Rose, Writing Women and Space: Colonial and Postcolonial Geographies (New York, 1994).
19. 4. See A. Godlewska and N. Smith (eds.), Geography and Empire (Oxford, 1994), and M. Bell, R. Butlin and M. Heffernan, Geography and Imperialism, 1820-1940 (Manchester, 1995); B. Hudson, 'The New Geography and the New Imperialism: 1870-1918', Antipode, 9 (1977), 12-19; R.A. Stafford, 'Geological Surveys, Mineral Discoveries, and British Expansion, 1835-71', Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, 12 (1984), 5-32; D.R. Stoddart, On Geography and its History (Oxford, 1986); P. Carter, The Road to Botany Bay (Chicago, 1987); M. Bassin, 'Imperialism and the Nation State in Friedrich Ratzel's Political Geography', Progress in Human Geography, 11 (1987), 473-95; R. Stafford, Scientist of Empire: Sir Roderick Murchison, Scientific Exploration and Victorian Imperialism (Cambridge, 1989); J.M. MacKenzie (ed.), Imperialism and the Natural World (Manchester, 1990); D.N. Livingstone, The Geographical Tradition (Oxford, 1992); M.L. Pratt, Imperial Eyes: Travel Writing and Transculturation (London, 1992); F. Driver, 'Geography's Empire: Histories of Geographical Knowledge', Environment and Planning D: Society and Space, 10 (1992), 23-40; T. Bayliss-Smith, 'Papuan Exploration, Colonial Expansion and the Royal Geographical Society: Questions of Power/Knowledge Relations', Journal of Historical Geography, 18 (1992), 319-29; B. Riffenburgh, The Myth of the Explorer: The Press, Sensationalism, and Geographical Discovery (Oxford, 1994); D. Gregory, Geographical Imaginations (Oxford, 1994); A. Blunt and G. Rose, Writing Women and Space: Colonial and Postcolonial Geographies (New York, 1994).
20. 4. See A. Godlewska and N. Smith (eds.), Geography and Empire (Oxford, 1994), and M. Bell, R. Butlin and M. Heffernan, Geography and Imperialism, 1820-1940 (Manchester, 1995); B. Hudson, 'The New Geography and the New Imperialism: 1870-1918', Antipode, 9 (1977), 12-19; R.A. Stafford, 'Geological Surveys, Mineral Discoveries, and British Expansion, 1835-71', Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, 12 (1984), 5-32; D.R. Stoddart, On Geography and its History (Oxford, 1986); P. Carter, The Road to Botany Bay (Chicago, 1987); M. Bassin, 'Imperialism and the Nation State in Friedrich Ratzel's Political Geography', Progress in Human Geography, 11 (1987), 473-95; R. Stafford, Scientist of Empire: Sir Roderick Murchison, Scientific Exploration and Victorian Imperialism (Cambridge, 1989); J.M. MacKenzie (ed.), Imperialism and the Natural World (Manchester, 1990); D.N. Livingstone, The Geographical Tradition (Oxford, 1992); M.L. Pratt, Imperial Eyes: Travel Writing and Transculturation (London, 1992); F. Driver, 'Geography's Empire: Histories of Geographical Knowledge', Environment and Planning D: Society and Space, 10 (1992), 23-40; T. Bayliss-Smith, 'Papuan Exploration, Colonial Expansion and the Royal Geographical Society: Questions of Power/Knowledge Relations', Journal of Historical Geography, 18 (1992), 319-29; B. Riffenburgh, The Myth of the Explorer: The Press, Sensationalism, and Geographical Discovery (Oxford, 1994); D. Gregory, Geographical Imaginations (Oxford, 1994); A. Blunt and G. Rose, Writing Women and Space: Colonial and Postcolonial Geographies (New York, 1994).
21. 4. See A. Godlewska and N. Smith (eds.), Geography and Empire (Oxford, 1994), and M. Bell, R. Butlin and M. Heffernan, Geography and Imperialism, 1820-1940 (Manchester, 1995); B. Hudson, 'The New Geography and the New Imperialism: 1870-1918', Antipode, 9 (1977), 12-19; R.A. Stafford, 'Geological Surveys, Mineral Discoveries, and British Expansion, 1835-71', Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, 12 (1984), 5-32; D.R. Stoddart, On Geography and its History (Oxford, 1986); P. Carter, The Road to Botany Bay (Chicago, 1987); M. Bassin, 'Imperialism and the Nation State in Friedrich Ratzel's Political Geography', Progress in Human Geography, 11 (1987), 473-95; R. Stafford, Scientist of Empire: Sir Roderick Murchison, Scientific Exploration and Victorian Imperialism (Cambridge, 1989); J.M. MacKenzie (ed.), Imperialism and the Natural World (Manchester, 1990); D.N. Livingstone, The Geographical Tradition (Oxford, 1992); M.L. Pratt, Imperial Eyes: Travel Writing and Transculturation (London, 1992); F. Driver, 'Geography's Empire: Histories of Geographical Knowledge', Environment and Planning D: Society and Space, 10 (1992), 23-40; T. Bayliss-Smith, 'Papuan Exploration, Colonial Expansion and the Royal Geographical Society: Questions of Power/Knowledge Relations', Journal of Historical Geography, 18 (1992), 319-29; B. Riffenburgh, The Myth of the Explorer: The Press, Sensationalism, and Geographical Discovery (Oxford, 1994); D. Gregory, Geographical Imaginations (Oxford, 1994); A. Blunt and G. Rose, Writing Women and Space: Colonial and Postcolonial Geographies (New York, 1994).
22. 5. See, for example, E. Said, Orientalism (New York, 1978), and E. Said, Culture and Imperialism (New York, 1993).
23. 5. See, for example, E. Said, Orientalism (New York, 1978), and E. Said, Culture and Imperialism (New York, 1993).
24. 6. See R. Cohen, Frontiers of Identity: the British and the Others (London, 1994); L. Colley, 'Britishness and Otherness: an Argument', Journal of British Studies, 31 (1992), 307-29; L. Colley, Britons: Forging the Nation, 1707-1837 (New Haven, 1992); and A.P. Cohen, Symbolizing Boundaries: Identity and Diversity in British Cultures (Manchester, 1986). For related discussions, see also P. Sahlins, Boundaries: The Making of France and Spain in the Pyrenees (Berkeley, 1989); and M. Bassin, 'Turner, Lolov'ev, and the "Frontier Hypothesis": The Nationalist Signification of Open Spaces', Journal of Modern History, 65 (1993), 473-511.
25. 6. See R. Cohen, Frontiers of Identity: the British and the Others (London, 1994); L. Colley, 'Britishness and Otherness: an Argument', Journal of British Studies, 31 (1992), 307-29; L. Colley, Britons: Forging the Nation, 1707-1837 (New Haven, 1992); and A.P. Cohen, Symbolizing Boundaries: Identity and Diversity in British Cultures (Manchester, 1986). For related discussions, see also P. Sahlins, Boundaries: The Making of France and Spain in the Pyrenees (Berkeley, 1989); and M. Bassin, 'Turner, Lolov'ev, and the "Frontier Hypothesis": The Nationalist Signification of Open Spaces', Journal of Modern History, 65 (1993), 473-511.
26. 6. See R. Cohen, Frontiers of Identity: the British and the Others (London, 1994); L. Colley, 'Britishness and Otherness: an Argument', Journal of British Studies, 31 (1992), 307-29; L. Colley, Britons: Forging the Nation, 1707-1837 (New Haven, 1992); and A.P. Cohen, Symbolizing Boundaries: Identity and Diversity in British Cultures (Manchester, 1986). For related discussions, see also P. Sahlins, Boundaries: The Making of France and Spain in the Pyrenees (Berkeley, 1989); and M. Bassin, 'Turner, Lolov'ev, and the "Frontier Hypothesis": The Nationalist Signification of Open Spaces', Journal of Modern History, 65 (1993), 473-511.
27. 6. See R. Cohen, Frontiers of Identity: the British and the Others (London, 1994); L. Colley, 'Britishness and Otherness: an Argument', Journal of British Studies, 31 (1992), 307-29; L. Colley, Britons: Forging the Nation, 1707-1837 (New Haven, 1992); and A.P. Cohen, Symbolizing Boundaries: Identity and Diversity in British Cultures (Manchester, 1986). For related discussions, see also P. Sahlins, Boundaries: The Making of France and Spain in the Pyrenees (Berkeley, 1989); and M. Bassin, 'Turner, Lolov'ev, and the "Frontier Hypothesis": The Nationalist Signification of Open Spaces', Journal of Modern History, 65 (1993), 473-511.
28. 6. See R. Cohen, Frontiers of Identity: the British and the Others (London, 1994); L. Colley, 'Britishness and Otherness: an Argument', Journal of British Studies, 31 (1992), 307-29; L. Colley, Britons: Forging the Nation, 1707-1837 (New Haven, 1992); and A.P. Cohen, Symbolizing Boundaries: Identity and Diversity in British Cultures (Manchester, 1986). For related discussions, see also P. Sahlins, Boundaries: The Making of France and Spain in the Pyrenees (Berkeley, 1989); and M. Bassin, 'Turner, Lolov'ev, and the "Frontier Hypothesis": The Nationalist Signification of Open Spaces', Journal of Modern History, 65 (1993), 473-511.
29. 6. See R. Cohen, Frontiers of Identity: the British and the Others (London, 1994); L. Colley, 'Britishness and Otherness: an Argument', Journal of British Studies, 31 (1992), 307-29; L. Colley, Britons: Forging the Nation, 1707-1837 (New Haven, 1992); and A.P. Cohen, Symbolizing Boundaries: Identity and Diversity in British Cultures (Manchester, 1986). For related discussions, see also P. Sahlins, Boundaries: The Making of France and Spain in the Pyrenees (Berkeley, 1989); and M. Bassin, 'Turner, Lolov'ev, and the "Frontier Hypothesis": The Nationalist Signification of Open Spaces', Journal of Modern History, 65 (1993), 473-511.
30. 7. For recent discussions of the myth of the 'frontier', see R.H. MacDonald, The Language of Empire: Myths and Metaphors of Popular Imperialism, 1880-1918 (Manchester, 1994), and R.H. MacDonald, Sons of the Empire: the Frontier and the Boy Scout Movement, 1890-1918 (Toronto, 1993).
31. 7. For recent discussions of the myth of the 'frontier', see R.H. MacDonald, The Language of Empire: Myths and Metaphors of Popular Imperialism, 1880-1918 (Manchester, 1994), and R.H. MacDonald, Sons of the Empire: the Frontier and the Boy Scout Movement, 1890-1918 (Toronto, 1993).
32. 8. B. Anderson, Imagined Communities, rev. ed., (London, 1991).
33. 9. H. Lamar and L. Thompson, The Frontier in History: North America and Southern Africa Compared (New Haven, 1981), 7. The literature on these border areas it extensive. For other approaches, see Pratt, Imperial Eyes; G. Anzaldúa, Borderlands/La Frontera: The New Mestiza (San Francisco, 1987), and M. Kearney, 'Borders and Boundaries of State and Self at the End of Empire', Journal of Historical Sociology, 4 (1991), 52-74.
34. 9. H. Lamar and L. Thompson, The Frontier in History: North America and Southern Africa Compared (New Haven, 1981), 7. The literature on these border areas it extensive. For other approaches, see Pratt, Imperial Eyes; G. Anzaldúa, Borderlands/La Frontera: The New Mestiza (San Francisco, 1987), and M. Kearney, 'Borders and Boundaries of State and Self at the End of Empire', Journal of Historical Sociology, 4 (1991), 52-74.
35. 9. H. Lamar and L. Thompson, The Frontier in History: North America and Southern Africa Compared (New Haven, 1981), 7. The literature on these border areas it extensive. For other approaches, see Pratt, Imperial Eyes; G. Anzaldúa, Borderlands/La Frontera: The New Mestiza (San Francisco, 1987), and M. Kearney, 'Borders and Boundaries of State and Self at the End of Empire', Journal of Historical Sociology, 4 (1991), 52-74.
36. 9. H. Lamar and L. Thompson, The Frontier in History: North America and Southern Africa Compared (New Haven, 1981), 7. The literature on these border areas it extensive. For other approaches, see Pratt, Imperial Eyes; G. Anzaldúa, Borderlands/La Frontera: The New Mestiza (San Francisco, 1987), and M. Kearney, 'Borders and Boundaries of State and Self at the End of Empire', Journal of Historical Sociology, 4 (1991), 52-74.
37. 10. A.L. Stoler, 'Rethinking Colonial Categories: European Communitites and the Boundaries of Rule', Comparative Studies in Society and History, 31 (1989), 137. See also A. Stoler, 'Sexual Affronts and Racial Frontiers: European Identities and the Cultural Politics of Exclusion in Colonial South East Asia', Comparative Studies in Society and History, 34 (1992), 514-51; and F. Cooper and A. Stoler, 'Tensions of Empire: Colonial Control and Visions of Rule', American Ethnologist, 16 (1989), 609-20.
38. 10. A.L. Stoler, 'Rethinking Colonial Categories: European Communitites and the Boundaries of Rule', Comparative Studies in Society and History, 31 (1989), 137. See also A. Stoler, 'Sexual Affronts and Racial Frontiers: European Identities and the Cultural Politics of Exclusion in Colonial South East Asia', Comparative Studies in Society and History, 34 (1992), 514-51; and F. Cooper and A. Stoler, 'Tensions of Empire: Colonial Control and Visions of Rule', American Ethnologist, 16 (1989), 609-20.
39. 10. A.L. Stoler, 'Rethinking Colonial Categories: European Communitites and the Boundaries of Rule', Comparative Studies in Society and History, 31 (1989), 137. See also A. Stoler, 'Sexual Affronts and Racial Frontiers: European Identities and the Cultural Politics of Exclusion in Colonial South East Asia', Comparative Studies in Society and History, 34 (1992), 514-51; and F. Cooper and A. Stoler, 'Tensions of Empire: Colonial Control and Visions of Rule', American Ethnologist, 16 (1989), 609-20.
40. 11. For the history of the RGS, see the works cited in note 4, especially Stoddart, On Geography, and Livingstone, Geographical Tradition. For a study of the 'imperial archive', see Thomas Richards, Imperial Archive: Knowledge and the Fantasy of Empire (London, 1993).
41. 12. See P.H. Hansen, 'Albert Smith, the Alpine Club, and the Invention of Mountaineering in Mid-Victorian Britain', Journal of British Studies, 34 (1995), 300-24.
42. 13. See Susan Layton, Russian Literature and Empire: Conquest of the Caucasus from Pushkin to Tolstoy (Cambridge, 1994), in addition to the other works in note 1.
43. 14. See G.W. Stocking, Victorian Anthropology (New York, 1987).
44. 15. See D.W. Freshfield, Travels in Central Caucasus (London, 1869), D.W. Freshfield, 'The Caucasus', in H.W. Bates (ed.), Illustrated Travels: a Record of Discovery, Geography, and Adventure, vol. 2, (London, 1870), 92-5.
45. 15. See D.W. Freshfield, Travels in Central Caucasus (London, 1869), D.W. Freshfield, 'The Caucasus', in H.W. Bates (ed.), Illustrated Travels: a Record of Discovery, Geography, and Adventure, vol. 2, (London, 1870), 92-5.
46. 16. Alpine Journal, 4 (1869), 254.
47. 17. The Times, 14 Sept. 1868; 15 Sept. 1868.
48. 18. The Times, 16 Sept. 1868; 17 Sept. 1868; see also 26 Aug. 1868, 12 Sept. 1868. Two correspondents, for example, resisted the claim that mountains 'formerly essentially Asiatic, now become the highest in Europe. Surely some definite line must be drawn, else all geography becomes a confusion of ideas.'
49. 19. R. Murchison, 25 Jan. 1869, Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society, 13 (1869), 72-3. On Murchison's career, see R. Stafford, Scientist of Empire.
50. 19. R. Murchison, 25 Jan. 1869, Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society, 13 (1869), 72-3. On Murchison's career, see R. Stafford, Scientist of Empire.
51. 20. F.C. Grove, 'The Frosty Caucasus' an Account of a Walk Through Part of the Range and of an Ascent of Elbruz in the Summer of 1874 (London, 1875), 36-7. See also The Times, 27 Aug. 1874; 28 Aug. 1874; 5 Sept. 1874.
52. 20. F.C. Grove, 'The Frosty Caucasus' an Account of a Walk Through Part of the Range and of an Ascent of Elbruz in the Summer of 1874 (London, 1875), 36-7. See also The Times, 27 Aug. 1874; 28 Aug. 1874; 5 Sept. 1874.
53. 21. Freshfield, Exploration of the Caucasus, vol. 2 (London, 1902), 22. See also A.F. Mummery, My Climbs in the Alps and Caucasus (London, 1895).
54. 21. Freshfield, Exploration of the Caucasus, vol. 2 (London, 1902), 22. See also A.F. Mummery, My Climbs in the Alps and Caucasus (London, 1895).
55. 22. C.D. Cunningham and W. Abney, Pioneers of the Alps, 2nd ed., (London, 1888), 50-1. The reference is to Melchior Anderegg, one of the most famous Swiss guides of his generation.
56. 23. See Hansen, 'Albert Smith, the Alpine Club, and the Invention of Mountaineering'.
57. 24. The Times, 6 Oct. 1888, Morning Post (1888), Pall Mall Budget (1888). See newscuttings in C124, Alpine Club Archives, London.
58. 24. The Times, 6 Oct. 1888, Morning Post (1888), Pall Mall Budget (1888). See newscuttings in C124, Alpine Club Archives, London.
59. 24. The Times, 6 Oct. 1888, Morning Post (1888), Pall Mall Budget (1888). See newscuttings in C124, Alpine Club Archives, London.
60. 25. The Field 72 (8 Dec. 1888), 811.
61. 26. Ibid., 72 (15 Dec. 1888), 871.
62. 27. S. Kern, The Culture of Time and Space (Cambridge, Mass., 1983).
63. 28. On this theme, see G. Kearns, 'Closed Space and Political Practice: Frederick Jackson Turner and Halford Mackinder', Environment and Planning D: Society and Space, 1 (1984), 23-34.
64. 29. H.J. Mackinder, The First Ascent of Mount Kenya, K.M. Barbour (ed.), (Athens, Ohio, 1991). See also B.W. Blouet, Halford Mackinder (College Sta., Tx., 1987), 73-86; W.H. Parker, Geography as an Aid to Statecraft (Oxford, 1982), and G.Ó. Tuathail, 'Putting Mackinder in his Place: Material Transformations and Myth', Political Geography, 11 (1992), 100-18.
65. 29. H.J. Mackinder, The First Ascent of Mount Kenya, K.M. Barbour (ed.), (Athens, Ohio, 1991). See also B.W. Blouet, Halford Mackinder (College Sta., Tx., 1987), 73-86; W.H. Parker, Geography as an Aid to Statecraft (Oxford, 1982), and G.Ó. Tuathail, 'Putting Mackinder in his Place: Material Transformations and Myth', Political Geography, 11 (1992), 100-18.
66. 29. H.J. Mackinder, The First Ascent of Mount Kenya, K.M. Barbour (ed.), (Athens, Ohio, 1991). See also B.W. Blouet, Halford Mackinder (College Sta., Tx., 1987), 73-86; W.H. Parker, Geography as an Aid to Statecraft (Oxford, 1982), and G.Ó. Tuathail, 'Putting Mackinder in his Place: Material Transformations and Myth', Political Geography, 11 (1992), 100-18.
67. 29. H.J. Mackinder, The First Ascent of Mount Kenya, K.M. Barbour (ed.), (Athens, Ohio, 1991). See also B.W. Blouet, Halford Mackinder (College Sta., Tx., 1987), 73-86; W.H. Parker, Geography as an Aid to Statecraft (Oxford, 1982), and G.Ó. Tuathail, 'Putting Mackinder in his Place: Material Transformations and Myth', Political Geography, 11 (1992), 100-18.
68. 30. H. Meyer, Across East African Glaciers: An Account of the First Ascent of Kilimanjaro (London, 1891; originally Leipzig, 1890); H.H. Johnston, The Kilimanjaro Expedition: A Record of Scientific Exploration in Eastern Equatorial Africa (London, 1886).
69. 30. H. Meyer, Across East African Glaciers: An Account of the First Ascent of Kilimanjaro (London, 1891; originally Leipzig, 1890); H.H. Johnston, The Kilimanjaro Expedition: A Record of Scientific Exploration in Eastern Equatorial Africa (London, 1886).
70. 31. See I. Allan, Guide to Mount Kenya and Kilimanjaro, 4th ed., (Nairobi, 1981), 276-84. The highest point is now known as Uhuru, or Freedom Peak.
71. 32. Alpine Journal, 20 (1900), 156.
72. 33. Mackinder, First Ascent, 31, Compare Blouet, 76, and Parker, 20.
73. 34. Mackinder, First Ascent, 32.
74. 35. See the correspondence between RGS and the Foreign Office, 7 July 1899, and 17 July 1899; Foreign Office Corresp. File (1888-1902), Royal Geographical Society Archives, London, [hereafter RGS Archives].
75. 36. H. Hinde to H. Mackinder, 29 June 1899; Mackinder Papers, MP/E/100, School of Geography, Oxford.
76. 37. For conditions at the time, see also B. Berman, Crisis and Control in Colonial Kenya (1990), C.H. Ambler, Kenyan Communities in the Age of Imperialism: The Central Region in the Late Nineteenth Century (New Haven, 1988), F. Cooper, From Slaves to Squatters: Plantation Labour and Agriculture in Zanzibar and Coastal Kenya, 1890-1925 (New Haven, 1980), and R.L. Tignor, The Colonial Transformation of Kenya (Princeton, 1976).
77. 37. For conditions at the time, see also B. Berman, Crisis and Control in Colonial Kenya (1990), C.H. Ambler, Kenyan Communities in the Age of Imperialism: The Central Region in the Late Nineteenth Century (New Haven, 1988), F. Cooper, From Slaves to Squatters: Plantation Labour and Agriculture in Zanzibar and Coastal Kenya, 1890-1925 (New Haven, 1980), and R.L. Tignor, The Colonial Transformation of Kenya (Princeton, 1976).
78. 37. For conditions at the time, see also B. Berman, Crisis and Control in Colonial Kenya (1990), C.H. Ambler, Kenyan Communities in the Age of Imperialism: The Central Region in the Late Nineteenth Century (New Haven, 1988), F. Cooper, From Slaves to Squatters: Plantation Labour and Agriculture in Zanzibar and Coastal Kenya, 1890-1925 (New Haven, 1980), and R.L. Tignor, The Colonial Transformation of Kenya (Princeton, 1976).
79. 37. For conditions at the time, see also B. Berman, Crisis and Control in Colonial Kenya (1990), C.H. Ambler, Kenyan Communities in the Age of Imperialism: The Central Region in the Late Nineteenth Century (New Haven, 1988), F. Cooper, From Slaves to Squatters: Plantation Labour and Agriculture in Zanzibar and Coastal Kenya, 1890-1925 (New Haven, 1980), and R.L. Tignor, The Colonial Transformation of Kenya (Princeton, 1976).
80. 38. Mackinder, First Ascent, 112.
81. 39. Consider the spatial description of the typical camp, which also accurately represents the hierarchy of the safari. Ibid., 117.
82. 40. Ibid., 122, 150, 154.
83. 41. Ibid., 148, 151, 200, 236.
84. 42. See, especially, Mackinder's confusion over the relations between Wangombe and the Masai in ibid., 155.
85. In general, see F. Barth, Ethnic Groups and Boundaries: The Social Organization of Cultural Differences (Boston, 1969),
86. and M. Fried, The Notion of Tribe (Menlo Park, 1975).
87. 43. Mackinder, First Ascent, 126, 145. The importance of official rhetoric should be emphasized. In Mombassa, Clifford Craufurd, the Commissioner, complained that one official 'inadvertently used the word "raid" for "punitive expedition." ... False impressions as to the methods of our Government are produced by carelessly worded reports such as the one under review.' Minute, 16 June 1899, FO2/197, Public Record Office, Kew [hereafter PRO]2E
88. 44. Mackinder, First Ascent, 156, 160. On Wangombe, see J. Kenyatta, My People of Kikuyu, and the Life of Chief Wangombe (London, 1942), 31-64; and compare Mackinder's treatment of Wangombe to John Boyes' experience a year earlier. J. Boyes, John Boyes, King of the Wa-Kikuyu (London, 1911), 179-88.
89. 44. Mackinder, First Ascent, 156, 160. On Wangombe, see J. Kenyatta, My People of Kikuyu, and the Life of Chief Wangombe (London, 1942), 31-64; and compare Mackinder's treatment of Wangombe to John Boyes' experience a year earlier. J. Boyes, John Boyes, King of the Wa-Kikuyu (London, 1911), 179-88.
90. 44. Mackinder, First Ascent, 156, 160. On Wangombe, see J. Kenyatta, My People of Kikuyu, and the Life of Chief Wangombe (London, 1942), 31-64; and compare Mackinder's treatment of Wangombe to John Boyes' experience a year earlier. J. Boyes, John Boyes, King of the Wa-Kikuyu (London, 1911), 179-88.
91. 45. Ainsworth to Craufurd, 4 Sept. 1899, PRO: FO 2/197/377-379. See also Ainsworth, Diary, 28 Aug. 1899, MSS Afr. s. 378, Rhodes House Library, Oxford.
92. 46. Mackinder, First Ascent, 181.
93. 47. Ibid., 192.
94. 48. Ibid., 247. See Mackinder's diaries for the various versions of this passage. For the manuscript version, MSS Afr. r. 26; an edited typescript, MSS Afr. r. 30, 346, Rhodes House Library, Oxford; and in the later typescript, 353-4, School of Geography, Oxford.
95. 49. Although this phrase was a manuscript addition to the typescript, it does not appear in the recently published version of Mackinder's diaries. See MSS Afr. r. 30, 346, Rhodes House Library, Oxford.
96. 50. See J.R. Ryan, 'Visualizing Imperial Geography: Halford Mackinder and the Colonial Office Visual Instruction Committee, 1902-11', Ecumene, 1 (1994), 157-76.
97. 51. E.F. Knight, Where Three Empires Meet: A Narrative of Recent Travel in Kashmir, Western Tibet, Gilgit, and the Adjoining Countries (London, 1893). For the broader contexts, see D. Woodman Himalayan Frontiers: A Political Review of British, Chinese, Indian, and Russian Rivalries (London, 1969); R. English, 'Himalayan State Formation and the Impact of British Rule in the Nineteenth Century', Mountain Research and Development, 5 (1985), 61-78; and A.K.J. Singh, Himalayan Triangle: A Historical Survey of British India's Relations with Tibet, Sikkim, and Bhutan, 1765-1950 (London, 1988).
98. 51. E.F. Knight, Where Three Empires Meet: A Narrative of Recent Travel in Kashmir, Western Tibet, Gilgit, and the Adjoining Countries (London, 1893). For the broader contexts, see D. Woodman Himalayan Frontiers: A Political Review of British, Chinese, Indian, and Russian Rivalries (London, 1969); R. English, 'Himalayan State Formation and the Impact of British Rule in the Nineteenth Century', Mountain Research and Development, 5 (1985), 61-78; and A.K.J. Singh, Himalayan Triangle: A Historical Survey of British India's Relations with Tibet, Sikkim, and Bhutan, 1765-1950 (London, 1988).
99. 51. E.F. Knight, Where Three Empires Meet: A Narrative of Recent Travel in Kashmir, Western Tibet, Gilgit, and the Adjoining Countries (London, 1893). For the broader contexts, see D. Woodman Himalayan Frontiers: A Political Review of British, Chinese, Indian, and Russian Rivalries (London, 1969); R. English, 'Himalayan State Formation and the Impact of British Rule in the Nineteenth Century', Mountain Research and Development, 5 (1985), 61-78; and A.K.J. Singh, Himalayan Triangle: A Historical Survey of British India's Relations with Tibet, Sikkim, and Bhutan, 1765-1950 (London, 1988).
100. 51. E.F. Knight, Where Three Empires Meet: A Narrative of Recent Travel in Kashmir, Western Tibet, Gilgit, and the Adjoining Countries (London, 1893). For the broader contexts, see D. Woodman Himalayan Frontiers: A Political Review of British, Chinese, Indian, and Russian Rivalries (London, 1969); R. English, 'Himalayan State Formation and the Impact of British Rule in the Nineteenth Century', Mountain Research and Development, 5 (1985), 61-78; and A.K.J. Singh, Himalayan Triangle: A Historical Survey of British India's Relations with Tibet, Sikkim, and Bhutan, 1765-1950 (London, 1988).
101. 52. See K. Mason Abode of Snow: A History of Himalayan Exploration and Mountaineering from Earliest Times to the Ascent of Everest (London, 1987), 86. On the 'Great Game', see P. Hopkirk, The Great Game: The Struggle for Empire in Central Asia (London, 1992), P. Hopkirk, The Great Game: On Secret Service in High Asia (London, 1990), and J. Keay, The Gilgit Game: Explorers in the Western Himalayas, 1865-95 (London, 1979).
102. 52. See K. Mason Abode of Snow: A History of Himalayan Exploration and Mountaineering from Earliest Times to the Ascent of Everest (London, 1987), 86. On the 'Great Game', see P. Hopkirk, The Great Game: The Struggle for Empire in Central Asia (London, 1992), P. Hopkirk, The Great Game: On Secret Service in High Asia (London, 1990), and J. Keay, The Gilgit Game: Explorers in the Western Himalayas, 1865-95 (London, 1979).
103. 52. See K. Mason Abode of Snow: A History of Himalayan Exploration and Mountaineering from Earliest Times to the Ascent of Everest (London, 1987), 86. On the 'Great Game', see P. Hopkirk, The Great Game: The Struggle for Empire in Central Asia (London, 1992), P. Hopkirk, The Great Game: On Secret Service in High Asia (London, 1990), and J. Keay, The Gilgit Game: Explorers in the Western Himalayas, 1865-95 (London, 1979).
104. 52. See K. Mason Abode of Snow: A History of Himalayan Exploration and Mountaineering from Earliest Times to the Ascent of Everest (London, 1987), 86. On the 'Great Game', see P. Hopkirk, The Great Game: The Struggle for Empire in Central Asia (London, 1992), P. Hopkirk, The Great Game: On Secret Service in High Asia (London, 1990), and J. Keay, The Gilgit Game: Explorers in the Western Himalayas, 1865-95 (London, 1979).
105. 53. E. Whymper, Travels amongst the Great Andes of the Equator (London, 1892), xi. See also Whymper's diaries in the Scott Polar Research Institute, Cambridge.
106. 54. Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society, n.s. 6 (1884), 429. See also W.W. Graham, 'Up the Himalayas: Mountaineering on the Indian Alps', Good Words, 26 (1885), 18-23, 97-105, 172-8; and From the Equator to the Pole: Adventures of Recent Discovery by Eminent Travellers (London, 1887), 54-131.
107. 54. Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society, n.s. 6 (1884), 429. See also W.W. Graham, 'Up the Himalayas: Mountaineering on the Indian Alps', Good Words, 26 (1885), 18-23, 97-105, 172-8; and From the Equator to the Pole: Adventures of Recent Discovery by Eminent Travellers (London, 1887), 54-131.
108. 54. Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society, n.s. 6 (1884), 429. See also W.W. Graham, 'Up the Himalayas: Mountaineering on the Indian Alps', Good Words, 26 (1885), 18-23, 97-105, 172-8; and From the Equator to the Pole: Adventures of Recent Discovery by Eminent Travellers (London, 1887), 54-131.
109. 55. Freshfield to M.E. Grant Duff, 23 Feb. 1891; enclosed with Grant Duff to Marquess of Lansdowne, 4 March 1891, MSS. Eur. D 558/13, British Library, Oriental and India Office Collections, London [hereafter OIOC].
110. 56. Lansdowne to Grant Duff, 15 April 1891. Freshfield later postponed his Kanchenjunga plans due to the death of his son, but Freshfield later went to Kangchenjunga in 1899. See Grant Duff to Lansdowne, 15 Aug. 1891, MSS. Eur. D. 558/13, OIOC, and D.W. Freshfield, Round Kangchenjunga: A Narrative of Mountain Travel and Exploration (London, 1903).
111. 57. Grant Duff to Lansdowne, 15 Aug. 1891, MSS Eur. D. 558/13, OIOC.
112. 58. Lansdowne to Grant Duff, 14 Sept. 1891, MSS Eur. D. 558/13, OIOC. See also Lansdowne to Lord Aberdare, 15 Sept. 1891, MSS Eur. D. 558/13, OIOC, and Add. 7676/P139*, Cambridge University Library. A former President of the RGS, Lord Aberdare, was also the father of Major C.G. Bruce, one of Conway's companions.
113. 59. Grant Duff to Lansdowne, 16 Oct. 1891, with enclosure H.A. Sawyer, Quarter-Master-General in India, (Intelligence Branch), to Secretary to the Royal Geographical Society, 19 Nov. 1890, MSS. Eur. D 558/13, OIOC. Grant Duff also assured the Indian authorities that Conway was 'ready to vary their route for the purpose of paying particular attention to any point that the Indian Government may desire to have elucidated'. Grant Duff to Lansdowne, 27 Oct. 1891, MSS Eur. D 558/13, OIOC; and Add. 7676/P141, Cambridge University Library.
114. 60. Foreign Department, India, to RGS, 23 March 1892, quoted in Lansdowne to Grant Duff, 20 Sept. 1892, MSS Eur. D 558/14, OIOC.
115. 61. D.W. Freshfield, 23 Nov. 1891, Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society n.s.14 (1892), 31.
116. 62. See extracts of the 'Note', Foreign Department, Calcutta, and the full text of Freshfield to Grant Duff, May 1892, and the 'Observations on Mr. D. Freshfield's Letter', 20 Sept. 1892, all of which are printed with Lansdowne to Grant Duff, 20 Sept. 1892, MSS Eur. D 558/14, OIOC.
117. 63. See Freshfield to Grant Duff, May 1892, and 'Observations on Mr. D. Freshfield's Letter', 20 Sept. 1892, MSS Eur. D 558/14, OIOC.
118. 64. Ibid. Compare Freshfield's well-known comment in 1904: 'We should, I believe, "think imperially" to more purpose if we took pains to "think geographically".' D.W. Freshfield, 'Mountains and Mankind', Geographical Journal, 24 (1904), 446. For a related discussion, see D.R. Stoddart, 'The "New Geography" and the "New Army" in England, 1899-1914', Political Geography, 11(1992), 87-99.
119. 64. Ibid. Compare Freshfield's well-known comment in 1904: 'We should, I believe, "think imperially" to more purpose if we took pains to "think geographically".' D.W. Freshfield, 'Mountains and Mankind', Geographical Journal, 24 (1904), 446. For a related discussion, see D.R. Stoddart, 'The "New Geography" and the "New Army" in England, 1899-1914', Political Geography, 11(1992), 87-99.
120. 65. Lansdowne to Grant Duff, 20 Sept. 1892, MSS Eur. D 558/14, OIOC. Although the Viceroy cleared the RGS of the charge of publishing secrets, he did cite three papers on sensitive regions that were read to the RGS without permission. For an example of the restrictions on Conway, see W.J. Cunningham (Deputy Secretary, Government of India) to Conway, 29 Feb. 1892, Add. 7676/P152-3, Cambridge University Library.
121. 66. C.G. Bruce, Twenty Years in the Himalaya (London, 1910), vii, 135.
122. 67. W.J. Cunningham to H. Babington Smith, 21 March 1895, MSS Eur. F 84/66, OIOC.
123. 68. Elgin to Bryce, 27 March 1895, MSS. Eur. F 84/30a, OIOC.
124. 69. A. Godley to H. Babington Smith, 19 April 1895, MSS Eur. F 84/30a, OIOC.
125. 70. Babington Smith to Godley, 15 May 1895, MSS Eur. F 84/30a, OIOC.
126. 71. See Mummery to Godley, 18 April 1895, MSS Eur. F 84/3Oa; Babington Smith to Mummery, 14 June 1895, MSS Eur. F. 84/66, OIOC.
127. 72. C. Dent, 'Can Mount Everest Be Ascended', Nineteenth Century, 32 (1892), 604-13. The same question is featured in C. Dent, Above the Snowline (London, 1885), and the Badminton library volume on Mountaineering edited by Dent.
128. 72. C. Dent, 'Can Mount Everest Be Ascended', Nineteenth Century, 32 (1892), 604-13. The same question is featured in C. Dent, Above the Snowline (London, 1885), and the Badminton library volume on Mountaineering edited by Dent.
129. 73. On Curzon's ceremonies, see D. Cannadine, Aspects of Aristocracy (New Haven, 1994), 77-108; B. Conn, 'Representing Authority in British India', in E. Hobsbawm and T. Ranger (eds.), The Invention of Tradition (Cambridge, 1983), 165-210; and, more generally, D. Gilmour, Curzon (London, 1994).
130. 73. On Curzon's ceremonies, see D. Cannadine, Aspects of Aristocracy (New Haven, 1994), 77-108; B. Conn, 'Representing Authority in British India', in E. Hobsbawm and T. Ranger (eds.), The Invention of Tradition (Cambridge, 1983), 165-210; and, more generally, D. Gilmour, Curzon (London, 1994).
131. 73. On Curzon's ceremonies, see D. Cannadine, Aspects of Aristocracy (New Haven, 1994), 77-108; B. Conn, 'Representing Authority in British India', in E. Hobsbawm and T. Ranger (eds.), The Invention of Tradition (Cambridge, 1983), 165-210; and, more generally, D. Gilmour, Curzon (London, 1994).
132. 74. Freshfield to Curzon, 17 May 1899; and Curzon to Freshfield, 2 July 1899; MSS Eur. F. 111/183, OIOC.
133. 75. G.N. Curzon, Frontiers, the Romanes Lecture, 1907 (Oxford, 1907), 3. Partial proofs of his book, On the Indian Frontier (1898), are in MSS. Eur. F 111/118, OIOC.
134. 75. G.N. Curzon, Frontiers, the Romanes Lecture, 1907 (Oxford, 1907), 3. Partial proofs of his book, On the Indian Frontier (1898), are in MSS. Eur. F 111/118, OIOC.
135. 76. See Curzon to Freshfield, 9 July 1899; Freshfield to Curzon, 24 Aug. 1899; Curzon to Freshfield, 31 March 1901; Freshfield to Curzon, 20 Nov. 1902; MSS Eur. F. 111/181, OIOC. See also Earl of Ronaldshay, Life of Lord Curzon, vol. 2, (London, 1928), 167; and Freshfield to Bryce, 27 July 1899; Bodleian Library, Oxford.
136. 77. The divisiveness of the debate can be seen among the advocates for the ascent of Everest. Curzon bitterly opposed admitting women; Freshfield was a strong advocate, and resigned from the leadership of the RGS in protest after women were denied admission. For recent, brief accounts of the debate, see A. Blunt, Travel, Gender, and Imperialism: Mary Kingsley and West Africa (New York, 1994), 148-54, the exchange between M. Domosh and D.R. Stoddart, in Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers, n.s. 16 (1991), 95-104, 484-90; and D. Birkett, Spinsters Abroad: Victorian Lady Explorers (Oxford, 1989). 214-27.
137. 77. The divisiveness of the debate can be seen among the advocates for the ascent of Everest. Curzon bitterly opposed admitting women; Freshfield was a strong advocate, and resigned from the leadership of the RGS in protest after women were denied admission. For recent, brief accounts of the debate, see A. Blunt, Travel, Gender, and Imperialism: Mary Kingsley and West Africa (New York, 1994), 148-54, the exchange between M. Domosh and D.R. Stoddart, in Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers, n.s. 16 (1991), 95-104, 484-90; and D. Birkett, Spinsters Abroad: Victorian Lady Explorers (Oxford, 1989). 214-27.
138. 77. The divisiveness of the debate can be seen among the advocates for the ascent of Everest. Curzon bitterly opposed admitting women; Freshfield was a strong advocate, and resigned from the leadership of the RGS in protest after women were denied admission. For recent, brief accounts of the debate, see A. Blunt, Travel, Gender, and Imperialism: Mary Kingsley and West Africa (New York, 1994), 148-54, the exchange between M. Domosh and D.R. Stoddart, in Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers, n.s. 16 (1991), 95-104, 484-90; and D. Birkett, Spinsters Abroad: Victorian Lady Explorers (Oxford, 1989). 214-27.
139. 78. C. Markham to Curzon, 9 Nov. 1911, MSS Eur. F. 112/51, OIOC. On Scott's expeditions, see R. Huntford, Scott and Amundsen (London, 1979).
140. 79. Among the many relevant works, see Blunt and Rose, Writing Women and Space; and L. Bloom, Gender on Ice: American Ideologies of Polar Expeditions (Minneapolis, 1993).
141. 79. Among the many relevant works, see Blunt and Rose, Writing Women and Space; and L. Bloom, Gender on Ice: American Ideologies of Polar Expeditions (Minneapolis, 1993).
142. 80. Curzon to Freshfield, 24 Feb. 1905; Freshfield to Curzon, 31 March 1905; Curzon to Goldie, 15 Aug. 1905; MSS Eur. F 111/183, OIOC.
143. 81. President of RGS to Secretary of State for India, 16 March 1906, India Office Corr. Block, 1881-1910, RGS Archives.
144. 82. RGS Expedition Committee, 23 Oct. 1905, Committee Minute Book, 156; and Council Minutes, vol. VII, 217, RGS Archives.
145. 83. Goldie to Curzon, 8 June 1905; Freshfield to Curzon, 28 June 1905; Goldie to Curzon, 29 June, 1905; MSS Eur. F. 111/183, OIOC.
146. 84. Curzon to Freshfield 2 Oct 1906, Everest Expeditions Corr. Block 1881-1910; RGS Archives.
147. 85. Freshfield to Curzon, 16 Oct. 1906, MSS Eur. F. 111/183, OIOC.
148. 86. Freshfield to Bryce, 2 Dec. 1906, MS. Bryce 67, fols. 187-8. Bodleian Library, Oxford.
149. 87. Minto to Goldie, 27 Dec 1906, RGS Archives.
150. 88. Morley to Minto, 15 June 1906, L/P&S/10/186, OIOC.
151. 89. See The Times, 8 March 1907, and Alpine Journal, 23 (1906-7), 50-1, 466-8.
152. 89. See The Times, 8 March 1907, and Alpine Journal, 23 (1906-7), 50-1, 466-8.
153. 90. Alpine Journal, 24 (1908), 189-90. See A.L. Mumm, Five Months in the Himalayas: A Record of Mountain Travel in Garhwal and Kashmir (London, 1909), and T.G. Longstaff, This My Voyage (London, 1950).
154. 90. Alpine Journal, 24 (1908), 189-90. See A.L. Mumm, Five Months in the Himalayas: A Record of Mountain Travel in Garhwal and Kashmir (London, 1909), and T.G. Longstaff, This My Voyage (London, 1950).
155. 90. Alpine Journal, 24 (1908), 189-90. See A.L. Mumm, Five Months in the Himalayas: A Record of Mountain Travel in Garhwal and Kashmir (London, 1909), and T.G. Longstaff, This My Voyage (London, 1950).
156. 91. Bruce to Butler, 10 Oct. 1908, FO 766/13, PRO.
157. 92. Bruce to Keltie, 24 Feb. 1909; Bruce Corr. 1881-1910; RGS Archives.
158. 93. Macdonald to Butler, 3 March 1909, FO 766/13, PRO.
159. 94. Macdonald to Cobb, 9 March 1909, FO 766/13, PRO.
160. 95. Curzon to Morley, 11 June 1909 and 20 June 1909, MSS Eur. D. 573(e), 251-261; and Curzon to Younghusband, 13 June 1912, MSS. Eur. F. 197/225, 16, OIOC.
161. 96. See Rawling to Smith, 1913 [f. 218], and other correspondence in L/P&S/10/412 195-219, OIOC, and 'Proposals for an expedition to Mount Everest in 1915', in Journal MSS India 1913 Rawling; and Rawling corr., 1911-21, RGS Archives.
162. 97. G.E. Howard, 'Scrambles in Sinai', Alpine Journal, 28 (1914), 19.
163. 98. G. Orwell, Shooting an Elephant and Other Essays (New York, 1950), 12. Compare Kenneth Mason's reminiscences on the importance of maintaining imperial prestige. C. Allen (ed.), Plain Tales from the Raj (New York, 1985), 61-2.
164. 98. G. Orwell, Shooting an Elephant and Other Essays (New York, 1950), 12. Compare Kenneth Mason's reminiscences on the importance of maintaining imperial prestige. C. Allen (ed.), Plain Tales from the Raj (New York, 1985), 61-2.
165. 99. T. Metcalf, Ideologies of the Raj (Cambridge, 1994).
166. 100. R. Strachey, 23 Nov. 1891 in Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society, n.s. 14 (1892), 33.
167. 101. See P.H. Hansen, 'The Dancing Lamas of Everest: Cinema, Orientalism, and Anglo-Tibetan Relations in the 1920s' (unpublished essay).