Unusual allies: Elite and grass-roots origins of parental choice in Milwaukee

Teachers College Record

Volumn 98, Issue 2, 1996, Pages 266-285

  Carl, Jim ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0030299490     PISSN: 01614681     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article

References (106)

1. John Witte, "First Year Report: Milwaukee Parental Choice Program," (Robert M. La Follette Institute of Public Affairs, University of Wisconsin-Madison, November 1991). MPCP legislation required the State Department of Public Instruction to compare parental choice students with MPS students each year, and the state commissioned John Witte to do the studies. For another interpretation, see Jay Greene and Paul Peterson, et al., The Effectiveness of School Choice in Milwaukee (Cambridge: Harvard University Occasional Paper 96-3, August, 1996). Two works that are at least partly devoted to origins are Julie Underwood, "Choice Wisconsin Style" (Wisconsin Center for Educational Policy, University of Wisconsin-Madison, September 1991); and Dena Wortzel, "Strange Bedfellows and Uncertain Futures: Racial and Class Politics in the Milwaukee School Voucher Debate" (M.A. thesis, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1994). MPCP is compared with the privately funded Milwaukee voucher program in Janet Beales and Maureen Wahl, "Private Vouchers in Milwaukee: The PAVE Program," in Private Vouchers: The Case for School Choice, ed. Terry Moe (Stanford: Hoover Institution Press, 1995), pp. 41-73.
2. John Witte, "First Year Report: Milwaukee Parental Choice Program," (Robert M. La Follette Institute of Public Affairs, University of Wisconsin-Madison, November 1991). MPCP legislation required the State Department of Public Instruction to compare parental choice students with MPS students each year, and the state commissioned John Witte to do the studies. For another interpretation, see Jay Greene and Paul Peterson, et al., The Effectiveness of School Choice in Milwaukee (Cambridge: Harvard University Occasional Paper 96-3, August, 1996). Two works that are at least partly devoted to origins are Julie Underwood, "Choice Wisconsin Style" (Wisconsin Center for Educational Policy, University of Wisconsin-Madison, September 1991); and Dena Wortzel, "Strange Bedfellows and Uncertain Futures: Racial and Class Politics in the Milwaukee School Voucher Debate" (M.A. thesis, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1994). MPCP is compared with the privately funded Milwaukee voucher program in Janet Beales and Maureen Wahl, "Private Vouchers in Milwaukee: The PAVE Program," in Private Vouchers: The Case for School Choice, ed. Terry Moe (Stanford: Hoover Institution Press, 1995), pp. 41-73.
3. John Witte, "First Year Report: Milwaukee Parental Choice Program," (Robert M. La Follette Institute of Public Affairs, University of Wisconsin-Madison, November 1991). MPCP legislation required the State Department of Public Instruction to compare parental choice students with MPS students each year, and the state commissioned John Witte to do the studies. For another interpretation, see Jay Greene and Paul Peterson, et al., The Effectiveness of School Choice in Milwaukee (Cambridge: Harvard University Occasional Paper 96-3, August, 1996). Two works that are at least partly devoted to origins are Julie Underwood, "Choice Wisconsin Style" (Wisconsin Center for Educational Policy, University of Wisconsin-Madison, September 1991); and Dena Wortzel, "Strange Bedfellows and Uncertain Futures: Racial and Class Politics in the Milwaukee School Voucher Debate" (M.A. thesis, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1994). MPCP is compared with the privately funded Milwaukee voucher program in Janet Beales and Maureen Wahl, "Private Vouchers in Milwaukee: The PAVE Program," in Private Vouchers: The Case for School Choice, ed. Terry Moe (Stanford: Hoover Institution Press, 1995), pp. 41-73.
4. John Witte, "First Year Report: Milwaukee Parental Choice Program," (Robert M. La Follette Institute of Public Affairs, University of Wisconsin-Madison, November 1991). MPCP legislation required the State Department of Public Instruction to compare parental choice students with MPS students each year, and the state commissioned John Witte to do the studies. For another interpretation, see Jay Greene and Paul Peterson, et al., The Effectiveness of School Choice in Milwaukee (Cambridge: Harvard University Occasional Paper 96-3, August, 1996). Two works that are at least partly devoted to origins are Julie Underwood, "Choice Wisconsin Style" (Wisconsin Center for Educational Policy, University of Wisconsin-Madison, September 1991); and Dena Wortzel, "Strange Bedfellows and Uncertain Futures: Racial and Class Politics in the Milwaukee School Voucher Debate" (M.A. thesis, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1994). MPCP is compared with the privately funded Milwaukee voucher program in Janet Beales and Maureen Wahl, "Private Vouchers in Milwaukee: The PAVE Program," in Private Vouchers: The Case for School Choice, ed. Terry Moe (Stanford: Hoover Institution Press, 1995), pp. 41-73.
5. John Witte, "First Year Report: Milwaukee Parental Choice Program," (Robert M. La Follette Institute of Public Affairs, University of Wisconsin-Madison, November 1991). MPCP legislation required the State Department of Public Instruction to compare parental choice students with MPS students each year, and the state commissioned John Witte to do the studies. For another interpretation, see Jay Greene and Paul Peterson, et al., The Effectiveness of School Choice in Milwaukee (Cambridge: Harvard University Occasional Paper 96-3, August, 1996). Two works that are at least partly devoted to origins are Julie Underwood, "Choice Wisconsin Style" (Wisconsin Center for Educational Policy, University of Wisconsin-Madison, September 1991); and Dena Wortzel, "Strange Bedfellows and Uncertain Futures: Racial and Class Politics in the Milwaukee School Voucher Debate" (M.A. thesis, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1994). MPCP is compared with the privately funded Milwaukee voucher program in Janet Beales and Maureen Wahl, "Private Vouchers in Milwaukee: The PAVE Program," in Private Vouchers: The Case for School Choice, ed. Terry Moe (Stanford: Hoover Institution Press, 1995), pp. 41-73.
6. Section 119.23, Wisconsin Statutes.
7. Sections 3313.975-3313.98 and Section 45.05, Ohio Statutes; Cleveland Scholarship and Tutoring Program, "A Chance to Choose Your Child's School" (Pamphlet, 1995). Here are three examples of connections between Milwaukee and Cleveland school reform. State representative Polly Williams, a parental choice advocate who represented a predominantly black and working-class constituency on Milwaukee's North Side, came to Cleveland in 1994 to help generate support for vouchers. She met with city council-woman Fannie Lewis of Hough, a working-class, predominantly black district on Cleveland's East Side. Attorney and prominent neoconservative Clint Bolick, who successfully defended the 1990 Milwaukee legislation in the Wisconsin courts, is helping defend the Cleveland program. Finally, President Michael Joyce of the Bradley Foundation, a powerful proponent and funding source of educational vouchers, grew up in Cleveland ("How Vouchers Came to Cleveland," Plain Dealer, December 31, 1995, p. 11A; Scott Stephens and Desiree Hicks, "Educators, Others Sue over School Vouchers," Plain Dealer, January 10, 1996; and Bruce Murphy, "The Right Stuff," Milwaukee Magazine, December 1988, pp. 62-65).
8. Sections 3313.975-3313.98 and Section 45.05, Ohio Statutes; Cleveland Scholarship and Tutoring Program, "A Chance to Choose Your Child's School" (Pamphlet, 1995). Here are three examples of connections between Milwaukee and Cleveland school reform. State representative Polly Williams, a parental choice advocate who represented a predominantly black and working-class constituency on Milwaukee's North Side, came to Cleveland in 1994 to help generate support for vouchers. She met with city council-woman Fannie Lewis of Hough, a working-class, predominantly black district on Cleveland's East Side. Attorney and prominent neoconservative Clint Bolick, who successfully defended the 1990 Milwaukee legislation in the Wisconsin courts, is helping defend the Cleveland program. Finally, President Michael Joyce of the Bradley Foundation, a powerful proponent and funding source of educational vouchers, grew up in Cleveland ("How Vouchers Came to Cleveland," Plain Dealer, December 31, 1995, p. 11A; Scott Stephens and Desiree Hicks, "Educators, Others Sue over School Vouchers," Plain Dealer, January 10, 1996; and Bruce Murphy, "The Right Stuff," Milwaukee Magazine, December 1988, pp. 62-65).
9. Sections 3313.975-3313.98 and Section 45.05, Ohio Statutes; Cleveland Scholarship and Tutoring Program, "A Chance to Choose Your Child's School" (Pamphlet, 1995). Here are three examples of connections between Milwaukee and Cleveland school reform. State representative Polly Williams, a parental choice advocate who represented a predominantly black and working-class constituency on Milwaukee's North Side, came to Cleveland in 1994 to help generate support for vouchers. She met with city council-woman Fannie Lewis of Hough, a working-class, predominantly black district on Cleveland's East Side. Attorney and prominent neoconservative Clint Bolick, who successfully defended the 1990 Milwaukee legislation in the Wisconsin courts, is helping defend the Cleveland program. Finally, President Michael Joyce of the Bradley Foundation, a powerful proponent and funding source of educational vouchers, grew up in Cleveland ("How Vouchers Came to Cleveland," Plain Dealer, December 31, 1995, p. 11A; Scott Stephens and Desiree Hicks, "Educators, Others Sue over School Vouchers," Plain Dealer, January 10, 1996; and Bruce Murphy, "The Right Stuff," Milwaukee Magazine, December 1988, pp. 62-65).
10. Sections 3313.975-3313.98 and Section 45.05, Ohio Statutes; Cleveland Scholarship and Tutoring Program, "A Chance to Choose Your Child's School" (Pamphlet, 1995). Here are three examples of connections between Milwaukee and Cleveland school reform. State representative Polly Williams, a parental choice advocate who represented a predominantly black and working-class constituency on Milwaukee's North Side, came to Cleveland in 1994 to help generate support for vouchers. She met with city council-woman Fannie Lewis of Hough, a working-class, predominantly black district on Cleveland's East Side. Attorney and prominent neoconservative Clint Bolick, who successfully defended the 1990 Milwaukee legislation in the Wisconsin courts, is helping defend the Cleveland program. Finally, President Michael Joyce of the Bradley Foundation, a powerful proponent and funding source of educational vouchers, grew up in Cleveland ("How Vouchers Came to Cleveland," Plain Dealer, December 31, 1995, p. 11A; Scott Stephens and Desiree Hicks, "Educators, Others Sue over School Vouchers," Plain Dealer, January 10, 1996; and Bruce Murphy, "The Right Stuff," Milwaukee Magazine, December 1988, pp. 62-65).
11. Simon Gunn, Revolution of the Right (London: Pluto Press, 1989), pp. 10-12; Steve Fraser and Gary Gerstle, The Rise and Fall of the New Deal Order, 1930-1980 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1989); Harvey Kantor and Barbara Brenzel, "Urban Education and the 'Truly Disadvantaged': The Historical Roots of the Contemporary Crisis, 1945-1990," in The Underclass Debate: Views from History, ed. Michael Katz (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993), pp. 366-402.
12. Simon Gunn, Revolution of the Right (London: Pluto Press, 1989), pp. 10-12; Steve Fraser and Gary Gerstle, The Rise and Fall of the New Deal Order, 1930-1980 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1989); Harvey Kantor and Barbara Brenzel, "Urban Education and the 'Truly Disadvantaged': The Historical Roots of the Contemporary Crisis, 1945-1990," in The Underclass Debate: Views from History, ed. Michael Katz (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993), pp. 366-402.
13. Simon Gunn, Revolution of the Right (London: Pluto Press, 1989), pp. 10-12; Steve Fraser and Gary Gerstle, The Rise and Fall of the New Deal Order, 1930-1980 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1989); Harvey Kantor and Barbara Brenzel, "Urban Education and the 'Truly Disadvantaged': The Historical Roots of the Contemporary Crisis, 1945-1990," in The Underclass Debate: Views from History, ed. Michael Katz (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993), pp. 366-402.
14. For a general overview of laissez-faire and authoritarian strands in modern conservatism, see Rebecca Klatch, "Complexities of Conservatism," in America at Century's End, ed. Alan Wolfe (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991), pp. 361-375. For a nuanced analysis of the conservative restoration as it impacts education, see Michael Apple, Official Knowledge (New York: Routledge, 1993), pp. 15-43. For a brief discussion of neoliberal and neoconservative ideology, see Jim Carl, "Parental Choice as National Policy in England and the United States," Comparative Education Review 38 (August 1994): 297-301.
15. For a general overview of laissez-faire and authoritarian strands in modern conservatism, see Rebecca Klatch, "Complexities of Conservatism," in America at Century's End, ed. Alan Wolfe (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991), pp. 361-375. For a nuanced analysis of the conservative restoration as it impacts education, see Michael Apple, Official Knowledge (New York: Routledge, 1993), pp. 15-43. For a brief discussion of neoliberal and neoconservative ideology, see Jim Carl, "Parental Choice as National Policy in England and the United States," Comparative Education Review 38 (August 1994): 297-301.
16. For a general overview of laissez-faire and authoritarian strands in modern conservatism, see Rebecca Klatch, "Complexities of Conservatism," in America at Century's End, ed. Alan Wolfe (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991), pp. 361-375. For a nuanced analysis of the conservative restoration as it impacts education, see Michael Apple, Official Knowledge (New York: Routledge, 1993), pp. 15-43. For a brief discussion of neoliberal and neoconservative ideology, see Jim Carl, "Parental Choice as National Policy in England and the United States," Comparative Education Review 38 (August 1994): 297-301.
17. Praxis Publications, Decade of Discontent (Madison, Wisconsin, documentary); William Dahlk, "The Black Educational Reform Movement in Milwaukee, 1963-1975 (Masters' thesis, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, 1990); Michael Stolee, "The Milwaukee Desegregation Case," in Seeds of Crisis: Public Schooling in Milwaukee Since 1920, ed. John Rury and Frank Cassell (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1993), pp. 238-56. As ideology, Black Power is complex and difficult to briefly define because it contains so many currents, among them black nationalism, black socialism, and black capitalism. As a common denominator, each current focuses on community control - the power to govern and even replace public and private institutions that affect African Americans. See, for example, Manning Marable, Race, Reform, and Rebellion: The Second Reconstruction in Black America (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 1991), pp. 96-99.
18. Praxis Publications, Decade of Discontent (Madison, Wisconsin, documentary); William Dahlk, "The Black Educational Reform Movement in Milwaukee, 1963-1975 (Masters' thesis, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, 1990); Michael Stolee, "The Milwaukee Desegregation Case," in Seeds of Crisis: Public Schooling in Milwaukee Since 1920, ed. John Rury and Frank Cassell (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1993), pp. 238-56. As ideology, Black Power is complex and difficult to briefly define because it contains so many currents, among them black nationalism, black socialism, and black capitalism. As a common denominator, each current focuses on community control - the power to govern and even replace public and private institutions that affect African Americans. See, for example, Manning Marable, Race, Reform, and Rebellion: The Second Reconstruction in Black America (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 1991), pp. 96-99.
19. Praxis Publications, Decade of Discontent (Madison, Wisconsin, documentary); William Dahlk, "The Black Educational Reform Movement in Milwaukee, 1963-1975 (Masters' thesis, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, 1990); Michael Stolee, "The Milwaukee Desegregation Case," in Seeds of Crisis: Public Schooling in Milwaukee Since 1920, ed. John Rury and Frank Cassell (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1993), pp. 238-56. As ideology, Black Power is complex and difficult to briefly define because it contains so many currents, among them black nationalism, black socialism, and black capitalism. As a common denominator, each current focuses on community control - the power to govern and even replace public and private institutions that affect African Americans. See, for example, Manning Marable, Race, Reform, and Rebellion: The Second Reconstruction in Black America (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 1991), pp. 96-99.
20. Praxis Publications, Decade of Discontent (Madison, Wisconsin, documentary); William Dahlk, "The Black Educational Reform Movement in Milwaukee, 1963-1975 (Masters' thesis, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, 1990); Michael Stolee, "The Milwaukee Desegregation Case," in Seeds of Crisis: Public Schooling in Milwaukee Since 1920, ed. John Rury and Frank Cassell (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1993), pp. 238-56. As ideology, Black Power is complex and difficult to briefly define because it contains so many currents, among them black nationalism, black socialism, and black capitalism. As a common denominator, each current focuses on community control - the power to govern and even replace public and private institutions that affect African Americans. See, for example, Manning Marable, Race, Reform, and Rebellion: The Second Reconstruction in Black America (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 1991), pp. 96-99.
21. Amos v. Board of School Directors, 408 F. Supp. 765 (1976); Armstrong v. Board of School Directors 471 F. Supp. 800 (1979); Armstrong v. Board of School Directors, 616 F. 2d 305 (1980); and Bruce Murphy and John Pawasarat, "Why It Failed: School Desegregation Ten Years Later," Milwaukee Magazine, September 1986, p. 37.
22. Amos v. Board of School Directors, 408 F. Supp. 765 (1976); Armstrong v. Board of School Directors 471 F. Supp. 800 (1979); Armstrong v. Board of School Directors, 616 F. 2d 305 (1980); and Bruce Murphy and John Pawasarat, "Why It Failed: School Desegregation Ten Years Later," Milwaukee Magazine, September 1986, p. 37.
23. Amos v. Board of School Directors, 408 F. Supp. 765 (1976); Armstrong v. Board of School Directors 471 F. Supp. 800 (1979); Armstrong v. Board of School Directors, 616 F. 2d 305 (1980); and Bruce Murphy and John Pawasarat, "Why It Failed: School Desegregation Ten Years Later," Milwaukee Magazine, September 1986, p. 37.
24. Amos v. Board of School Directors, 408 F. Supp. 765 (1976); Armstrong v. Board of School Directors 471 F. Supp. 800 (1979); Armstrong v. Board of School Directors, 616 F. 2d 305 (1980); and Bruce Murphy and John Pawasarat, "Why It Failed: School Desegregation Ten Years Later," Milwaukee Magazine, September 1986, p. 37.
25. Legislative Fiscal Bureau, "School Integration (Chapter 220) Aid," State of Wisconsin, Madison, 1993, pp. 1-16.
26. Howard Fuller, "The Impact of the Milwaukee Public School System's Desegregation Plan on Black Students and the Black Community (1976-1982)" (Ph.D. diss., Marquette University, 1985); Ian Harris, "Criteria for Evaluating School Desegregation in Milwaukee," Journal of Negro Education 52(1983): 423-35; Murphy and Pawasarat, "Why It Failed," pp. 34-50; and Legislative Fiscal Bureau, "School Integration Aid."
27. Howard Fuller, "The Impact of the Milwaukee Public School System's Desegregation Plan on Black Students and the Black Community (1976-1982)" (Ph.D. diss., Marquette University, 1985); Ian Harris, "Criteria for Evaluating School Desegregation in Milwaukee," Journal of Negro Education 52(1983): 423-35; Murphy and Pawasarat, "Why It Failed," pp. 34-50; and Legislative Fiscal Bureau, "School Integration Aid."
28. Howard Fuller, "The Impact of the Milwaukee Public School System's Desegregation Plan on Black Students and the Black Community (1976-1982)" (Ph.D. diss., Marquette University, 1985); Ian Harris, "Criteria for Evaluating School Desegregation in Milwaukee," Journal of Negro Education 52(1983): 423-35; Murphy and Pawasarat, "Why It Failed," pp. 34-50; and Legislative Fiscal Bureau, "School Integration Aid."
29. Howard Fuller, "The Impact of the Milwaukee Public School System's Desegregation Plan on Black Students and the Black Community (1976-1982)" (Ph.D. diss., Marquette University, 1985); Ian Harris, "Criteria for Evaluating School Desegregation in Milwaukee," Journal of Negro Education 52(1983): 423-35; Murphy and Pawasarat, "Why It Failed," pp. 34-50; and Legislative Fiscal Bureau, "School Integration Aid."
30. For examples of lower rates of academic achievement for African-American students, see Milwaukee Public Schools, African American Male Task Force, "Educating African American Males: A Dream Deferred" (Milwaukee Public Schools May 1990); and John Witte, "Educational Inequality and Metropolitan Integration in Milwaukee" (Paper prepared for the National Conference on School Desegregation Research, University of Chicago, September 5, 1986).
31. For examples of lower rates of academic achievement for African-American students, see Milwaukee Public Schools, African American Male Task Force, "Educating African American Males: A Dream Deferred" (Milwaukee Public Schools May 1990); and John Witte, "Educational Inequality and Metropolitan Integration in Milwaukee" (Paper prepared for the National Conference on School Desegregation Research, University of Chicago, September 5, 1986).
32. Stolee, "The Milwaukee Desegregation Case," pp. 250-53; Fuller, "The Impact of the Milwaukee Public School System's Desegregation Plan," pp. 233-39; Murphy and Pawasarat, "Why It Failed," p. 45; and Harris, "Criteria for Evaluating School Desegregation in Milwaukee," p. 433.
33. Stolee, "The Milwaukee Desegregation Case," pp. 250-53; Fuller, "The Impact of the Milwaukee Public School System's Desegregation Plan," pp. 233-39; Murphy and Pawasarat, "Why It Failed," p. 45; and Harris, "Criteria for Evaluating School Desegregation in Milwaukee," p. 433.
34. Stolee, "The Milwaukee Desegregation Case," pp. 250-53; Fuller, "The Impact of the Milwaukee Public School System's Desegregation Plan," pp. 233-39; Murphy and Pawasarat, "Why It Failed," p. 45; and Harris, "Criteria for Evaluating School Desegregation in Milwaukee," p. 433.
35. Stolee, "The Milwaukee Desegregation Case," pp. 250-53; Fuller, "The Impact of the Milwaukee Public School System's Desegregation Plan," pp. 233-39; Murphy and Pawasarat, "Why It Failed," p. 45; and Harris, "Criteria for Evaluating School Desegregation in Milwaukee," p. 433.
36. Sharon Gibson, "Fuller: MPS Failing, Now Community's Turn," Milwaukee Community Journal, November 18, 1987, pp. 1, 5; Derrick Bell, "The Case for a Separate Black School System," Urban League Review 11 (1987-1988): 141-45; and Peter Murrell, Jr., "North Division Plan: 'Our Children Deserve Better,' " Rethinking Schools 2 (December-January 1988): 1, 4, 15.
37. Sharon Gibson, "Fuller: MPS Failing, Now Community's Turn," Milwaukee Community Journal, November 18, 1987, pp. 1, 5; Derrick Bell, "The Case for a Separate Black School System," Urban League Review 11 (1987-1988): 141-45; and Peter Murrell, Jr., "North Division Plan: 'Our Children Deserve Better,' " Rethinking Schools 2 (December-January 1988): 1, 4, 15.
38. Sharon Gibson, "Fuller: MPS Failing, Now Community's Turn," Milwaukee Community Journal, November 18, 1987, pp. 1, 5; Derrick Bell, "The Case for a Separate Black School System," Urban League Review 11 (1987-1988): 141-45; and Peter Murrell, Jr., "North Division Plan: 'Our Children Deserve Better,' " Rethinking Schools 2 (December-January 1988): 1, 4, 15.
39. Mikel Holt, "School District Proponents Take City to Task, Cite Errors," Milwaukee Community Journal, October 7, 1987, pp. 1, 6; Derrick Bell, "Harvard Professor Says Proposed District Plan on Sound Legal Footing," Milwaukee Community Journal, October 14, 1987, pp. 2, 6; Taki Raton, "Proposed School District Gets Shot in the Arm, Hundreds Express Support," Milwaukee Community Journal, October 21, 1987, pp. 1, 6; Mikel Holt, "Ministers Reject North Division Proposal," Milwaukee Community Journal, March 2, 1988, pp. 1, 9; Tom Fonfara Interview, Policy Director, Office of the Governor, July 27, 1993; and "Action on Proposal Sends Message to MPS," Milwaukee Community Journal, April 6, 1988, p. 2.
40. Mikel Holt, "School District Proponents Take City to Task, Cite Errors," Milwaukee Community Journal, October 7, 1987, pp. 1, 6; Derrick Bell, "Harvard Professor Says Proposed District Plan on Sound Legal Footing," Milwaukee Community Journal, October 14, 1987, pp. 2, 6; Taki Raton, "Proposed School District Gets Shot in the Arm, Hundreds Express Support," Milwaukee Community Journal, October 21, 1987, pp. 1, 6; Mikel Holt, "Ministers Reject North Division Proposal," Milwaukee Community Journal, March 2, 1988, pp. 1, 9; Tom Fonfara Interview, Policy Director, Office of the Governor, July 27, 1993; and "Action on Proposal Sends Message to MPS," Milwaukee Community Journal, April 6, 1988, p. 2.
41. Mikel Holt, "School District Proponents Take City to Task, Cite Errors," Milwaukee Community Journal, October 7, 1987, pp. 1, 6; Derrick Bell, "Harvard Professor Says Proposed District Plan on Sound Legal Footing," Milwaukee Community Journal, October 14, 1987, pp. 2, 6; Taki Raton, "Proposed School District Gets Shot in the Arm, Hundreds Express Support," Milwaukee Community Journal, October 21, 1987, pp. 1, 6; Mikel Holt, "Ministers Reject North Division Proposal," Milwaukee Community Journal, March 2, 1988, pp. 1, 9; Tom Fonfara Interview, Policy Director, Office of the Governor, July 27, 1993; and "Action on Proposal Sends Message to MPS," Milwaukee Community Journal, April 6, 1988, p. 2.
42. Mikel Holt, "School District Proponents Take City to Task, Cite Errors," Milwaukee Community Journal, October 7, 1987, pp. 1, 6; Derrick Bell, "Harvard Professor Says Proposed District Plan on Sound Legal Footing," Milwaukee Community Journal, October 14, 1987, pp. 2, 6; Taki Raton, "Proposed School District Gets Shot in the Arm, Hundreds Express Support," Milwaukee Community Journal, October 21, 1987, pp. 1, 6; Mikel Holt, "Ministers Reject North Division Proposal," Milwaukee Community Journal, March 2, 1988, pp. 1, 9; Tom Fonfara Interview, Policy Director, Office of the Governor, July 27, 1993; and "Action on Proposal Sends Message to MPS," Milwaukee Community Journal, April 6, 1988, p. 2.
43. Mikel Holt, "School District Proponents Take City to Task, Cite Errors," Milwaukee Community Journal, October 7, 1987, pp. 1, 6; Derrick Bell, "Harvard Professor Says Proposed District Plan on Sound Legal Footing," Milwaukee Community Journal, October 14, 1987, pp. 2, 6; Taki Raton, "Proposed School District Gets Shot in the Arm, Hundreds Express Support," Milwaukee Community Journal, October 21, 1987, pp. 1, 6; Mikel Holt, "Ministers Reject North Division Proposal," Milwaukee Community Journal, March 2, 1988, pp. 1, 9; Tom Fonfara Interview, Policy Director, Office of the Governor, July 27, 1993; and "Action on Proposal Sends Message to MPS," Milwaukee Community Journal, April 6, 1988, p. 2.
44. Charles Willie, Michael Alves, and David Hartmann, "Long-Range Educational Equity Plan for Milwaukee Public Schools" (Proposal submitted to the Milwaukee Board of School Directors, February 1990); Thomas Mitchell, Jr., "Plan to Reorganize School System Debated at Forum," Milwaukee Community Journal, April 19, 1989, pp. 1-2; Howard Fuller Interview, MPS Superintendent, June 7, 1994; Commission on the Quality of Education in the Metropolitan Milwaukee Public Schools, Better Public Schools (Madison: Department of Public Instruction, 1986); and Fonfara Interview.
45. Charles Willie, Michael Alves, and David Hartmann, "Long-Range Educational Equity Plan for Milwaukee Public Schools" (Proposal submitted to the Milwaukee Board of School Directors, February 1990); Thomas Mitchell, Jr., "Plan to Reorganize School System Debated at Forum," Milwaukee Community Journal, April 19, 1989, pp. 1-2; Howard Fuller Interview, MPS Superintendent, June 7, 1994; Commission on the Quality of Education in the Metropolitan Milwaukee Public Schools, Better Public Schools (Madison: Department of Public Instruction, 1986); and Fonfara Interview.
46. Charles Willie, Michael Alves, and David Hartmann, "Long-Range Educational Equity Plan for Milwaukee Public Schools" (Proposal submitted to the Milwaukee Board of School Directors, February 1990); Thomas Mitchell, Jr., "Plan to Reorganize School System Debated at Forum," Milwaukee Community Journal, April 19, 1989, pp. 1-2; Howard Fuller Interview, MPS Superintendent, June 7, 1994; Commission on the Quality of Education in the Metropolitan Milwaukee Public Schools, Better Public Schools (Madison: Department of Public Instruction, 1986); and Fonfara Interview.
47. Mikel Holt, "Governor Supports Williams' Bill," Milwaukee Community Journal, November 1, 1989, pp. 1, 7; Wisconsin Dept. of Public Instruction, DPI Bulletin, November 1990 and August, 1991; and Sr. Callista Robinson Interview, Principal of Harambee Community School, May 16, 1995.
48. Mikel Holt, "Governor Supports Williams' Bill," Milwaukee Community Journal, November 1, 1989, pp. 1, 7; Wisconsin Dept. of Public Instruction, DPI Bulletin, November 1990 and August, 1991; and Sr. Callista Robinson Interview, Principal of Harambee Community School, May 16, 1995.
49. Robinson Interview; Mikel Holt Telephone Interview, Editor of Milwaukee Community Journal, April 22, 1994; and Harambee Community School Pledge, mimeographed.
50. Dahlk, "The Black Education Reform Movement in Milwaukee," p. 168; Patrick Flood, Telephone Interview, March 2, 1995; and Joanna Richardson, "The Unexpected Superintendent," Education Week, May 25, 1994, p. 22.
51. Dahlk, "The Black Education Reform Movement in Milwaukee," p. 168; Patrick Flood, Telephone Interview, March 2, 1995; and Joanna Richardson, "The Unexpected Superintendent," Education Week, May 25, 1994, p. 22.
52. Dahlk, "The Black Education Reform Movement in Milwaukee," pp. 166-67; and Jules Moldinski and Esther Zaret, The Federation of Independent Community Schools (Milwaukee: Federation of Independent Community Schools, April 1970), pp. 15-16.
53. Dahlk, "The Black Education Reform Movement in Milwaukee," pp. 166-67; and Jules Moldinski and Esther Zaret, The Federation of Independent Community Schools (Milwaukee: Federation of Independent Community Schools, April 1970), pp. 15-16.
54. Dismas Becker Interview, March 15, 1995; Flood Telephone Interview; and Fr. Leslie Darnieder Telephone Interview, Assistant Superintendent, Milwaukee Catholic Schools, November 2, 1994.
55. Dan Ritsche and Gary Watchke, "List of Bills Related to Providing State Financial Aid to Nonpublic schools in Wisconsin," Madison: Legislative Reference Bureau, 1993, pp. 2-4; Becker Interview; and Flood Telephone Interview.
56. Robinson Interview; Holt Telephone Interview; Flood Telephone Interview; Susan Wing Telephone Interview, Principal of Woodlands School, October 14, 1994; and Mikel Holt, "Reps, Private Schools Eye Choice Bill," Milwaukee Community Journal, August 23, 1989, pp. 1, 9.
57. Peter Eisinger, Patterns of Interracial Politics (New York: Academic Press, 1976), p. 118; Kenneth Wong, City Choices: Education and Housing (Albany: SUNY Press, 1990), p. 85; Becker Interview; and Holt Telephone Interview.
58. Peter Eisinger, Patterns of Interracial Politics (New York: Academic Press, 1976), p. 118; Kenneth Wong, City Choices: Education and Housing (Albany: SUNY Press, 1990), p. 85; Becker Interview; and Holt Telephone Interview.
59. Larry Harwell Interview, Policy Director, Rep. Williams's Office, August 23, 1993; Fuller Interview; and Robinson Interview.
60. Dahlk, "The Black Education Reform Movement in Milwaukee," p. 177; Richardson, "The Unexpected Superintendent," p. 22; Ron Grossman, "Polly's Political Paradox," Chicago Tribune, August 20, 1993, p. 1; and Holt Telephone Interview.
61. Dahlk, "The Black Education Reform Movement in Milwaukee," p. 177; Richardson, "The Unexpected Superintendent," p. 22; Ron Grossman, "Polly's Political Paradox," Chicago Tribune, August 20, 1993, p. 1; and Holt Telephone Interview.
62. Dahlk, "The Black Education Reform Movement in Milwaukee," p. 177; Richardson, "The Unexpected Superintendent," p. 22; Ron Grossman, "Polly's Political Paradox," Chicago Tribune, August 20, 1993, p. 1; and Holt Telephone Interview.
63. Mikel Holt, "Lawmakers Bombarded with Support for Choice Proposal," Milwaukee Community Journal, February 28, 1990, pp. 1, 14; Legislative History of Assembly Bill 601, p. 166; Gary George and Walter Farrell, "School Choice and African American Students: A Legislative View," Journal of Negro Education 59(1990): 524; Bulletin of the Proceedings of the Wisconsin Legislature, 1989-1990 session, at 1-141; 1989 Senate Bill 542, p. 68; Field Hearing of Parental Choice, Committee on Education and Labor, House of Representatives, 101st Congress, hearing held in Milwaukee Wisconsin, November 16, 1990; and Mikel Holt, "Board Director, Senator Endorse Choice Bill," Milwaukee Community Journal, February 21, 1990, pp. 1, 6.
64. Mikel Holt, "Lawmakers Bombarded with Support for Choice Proposal," Milwaukee Community Journal, February 28, 1990, pp. 1, 14; Legislative History of Assembly Bill 601, p. 166; Gary George and Walter Farrell, "School Choice and African American Students: A Legislative View," Journal of Negro Education 59(1990): 524; Bulletin of the Proceedings of the Wisconsin Legislature, 1989-1990 session, at 1-141; 1989 Senate Bill 542, p. 68; Field Hearing of Parental Choice, Committee on Education and Labor, House of Representatives, 101st Congress, hearing held in Milwaukee Wisconsin, November 16, 1990; and Mikel Holt, "Board Director, Senator Endorse Choice Bill," Milwaukee Community Journal, February 21, 1990, pp. 1, 6.
65. Mikel Holt, "Lawmakers Bombarded with Support for Choice Proposal," Milwaukee Community Journal, February 28, 1990, pp. 1, 14; Legislative History of Assembly Bill 601, p. 166; Gary George and Walter Farrell, "School Choice and African American Students: A Legislative View," Journal of Negro Education 59(1990): 524; Bulletin of the Proceedings of the Wisconsin Legislature, 1989-1990 session, at 1-141; 1989 Senate Bill 542, p. 68; Field Hearing of Parental Choice, Committee on Education and Labor, House of Representatives, 101st Congress, hearing held in Milwaukee Wisconsin, November 16, 1990; and Mikel Holt, "Board Director, Senator Endorse Choice Bill," Milwaukee Community Journal, February 21, 1990, pp. 1, 6.
66. Mikel Holt, "Lawmakers Bombarded with Support for Choice Proposal," Milwaukee Community Journal, February 28, 1990, pp. 1, 14; Legislative History of Assembly Bill 601, p. 166; Gary George and Walter Farrell, "School Choice and African American Students: A Legislative View," Journal of Negro Education 59(1990): 524; Bulletin of the Proceedings of the Wisconsin Legislature, 1989-1990 session, at 1-141; 1989 Senate Bill 542, p. 68; Field Hearing of Parental Choice, Committee on Education and Labor, House of Representatives, 101st Congress, hearing held in Milwaukee Wisconsin, November 16, 1990; and Mikel Holt, "Board Director, Senator Endorse Choice Bill," Milwaukee Community Journal, February 21, 1990, pp. 1, 6.
67. Mikel Holt, "Lawmakers Bombarded with Support for Choice Proposal," Milwaukee Community Journal, February 28, 1990, pp. 1, 14; Legislative History of Assembly Bill 601, p. 166; Gary George and Walter Farrell, "School Choice and African American Students: A Legislative View," Journal of Negro Education 59(1990): 524; Bulletin of the Proceedings of the Wisconsin Legislature, 1989-1990 session, at 1-141; 1989 Senate Bill 542, p. 68; Field Hearing of Parental Choice, Committee on Education and Labor, House of Representatives, 101st Congress, hearing held in Milwaukee Wisconsin, November 16, 1990; and Mikel Holt, "Board Director, Senator Endorse Choice Bill," Milwaukee Community Journal, February 21, 1990, pp. 1, 6.
68. Mikel Holt, "Lawmakers Bombarded with Support for Choice Proposal," Milwaukee Community Journal, February 28, 1990, pp. 1, 14; Legislative History of Assembly Bill 601, p. 166; Gary George and Walter Farrell, "School Choice and African American Students: A Legislative View," Journal of Negro Education 59(1990): 524; Bulletin of the Proceedings of the Wisconsin Legislature, 1989-1990 session, at 1-141; 1989 Senate Bill 542, p. 68; Field Hearing of Parental Choice, Committee on Education and Labor, House of Representatives, 101st Congress, hearing held in Milwaukee Wisconsin, November 16, 1990; and Mikel Holt, "Board Director, Senator Endorse Choice Bill," Milwaukee Community Journal, February 21, 1990, pp. 1, 6.
69. For Norquist's educational views, see his "No More Tin Cups," WI: Wisconsin Interest 1(Winter/Spring 1992); and "Lawmaker, MCJ Editor call Choice 'Grass Root' Solution," Milwaukee Community Journal, May 2, 1990, pp. 1, 16.
70. For Norquist's educational views, see his "No More Tin Cups," WI: Wisconsin Interest 1(Winter/Spring 1992); and "Lawmaker, MCJ Editor call Choice 'Grass Root' Solution," Milwaukee Community Journal, May 2, 1990, pp. 1, 16.
71. Harwell Interview; Douglas Haselow, MPS Government Relations Coordinator, Telephone Interview, April 29, 1994; and Priscilla Ahlgren, "Bill Would Aid Private School Option," Milwaukee Journal, June 27, 1989.
72. Harwell Interview; Holt Interview; Mikel Holt, "Democrats Kill Parental Choice Legislation," Milwaukee Community Journal, July 5, 1989, pp. 1, 13; Rogers Worthington, "Public Funding for Private Schools Faces Legal Test," Chicago Tribune, July 22, 1990, pp. 1, 8; and Frank Aukofer, "Williams on Ascent with Ideas for Schools," Milwaukee Journal, May 13, 1990, p. 20.
73. Harwell Interview; Holt Interview; Mikel Holt, "Democrats Kill Parental Choice Legislation," Milwaukee Community Journal, July 5, 1989, pp. 1, 13; Rogers Worthington, "Public Funding for Private Schools Faces Legal Test," Chicago Tribune, July 22, 1990, pp. 1, 8; and Frank Aukofer, "Williams on Ascent with Ideas for Schools," Milwaukee Journal, May 13, 1990, p. 20.
74. Harwell Interview; Holt Interview; Mikel Holt, "Democrats Kill Parental Choice Legislation," Milwaukee Community Journal, July 5, 1989, pp. 1, 13; Rogers Worthington, "Public Funding for Private Schools Faces Legal Test," Chicago Tribune, July 22, 1990, pp. 1, 8; and Frank Aukofer, "Williams on Ascent with Ideas for Schools," Milwaukee Journal, May 13, 1990, p. 20.
75. Paul A. Gigot, "A Republican Who's Unafraid to Experiment," Wall Street Journal, April 26, 1991.
76. Debra Viadero, "Wisconsin 'Learnfare' Law Delayed to Ease Expected Enrollment Rush," Education Week, November 25, 1987, p. 1; Judith Davidoff, "Is 'Reformer' Thompson Robbing the Poor?" Isthmus, July 2-8, 1993, pp. 5-6; Steve Schultze, "Learnfare May Mean Turmoil for Schools," Milwaukee Journal, October 5, 1987, pp. A1, 17; and Mike Mulvey, "Lawsuit Challenges Learnfare Program, Milwaukee Sentinel, November 7, 1989, pp. 1, 8.
77. Debra Viadero, "Wisconsin 'Learnfare' Law Delayed to Ease Expected Enrollment Rush," Education Week, November 25, 1987, p. 1; Judith Davidoff, "Is 'Reformer' Thompson Robbing the Poor?" Isthmus, July 2-8, 1993, pp. 5-6; Steve Schultze, "Learnfare May Mean Turmoil for Schools," Milwaukee Journal, October 5, 1987, pp. A1, 17; and Mike Mulvey, "Lawsuit Challenges Learnfare Program, Milwaukee Sentinel, November 7, 1989, pp. 1, 8.
78. Debra Viadero, "Wisconsin 'Learnfare' Law Delayed to Ease Expected Enrollment Rush," Education Week, November 25, 1987, p. 1; Judith Davidoff, "Is 'Reformer' Thompson Robbing the Poor?" Isthmus, July 2-8, 1993, pp. 5-6; Steve Schultze, "Learnfare May Mean Turmoil for Schools," Milwaukee Journal, October 5, 1987, pp. A1, 17; and Mike Mulvey, "Lawsuit Challenges Learnfare Program, Milwaukee Sentinel, November 7, 1989, pp. 1, 8.
79. Debra Viadero, "Wisconsin 'Learnfare' Law Delayed to Ease Expected Enrollment Rush," Education Week, November 25, 1987, p. 1; Judith Davidoff, "Is 'Reformer' Thompson Robbing the Poor?" Isthmus, July 2-8, 1993, pp. 5-6; Steve Schultze, "Learnfare May Mean Turmoil for Schools," Milwaukee Journal, October 5, 1987, pp. A1, 17; and Mike Mulvey, "Lawsuit Challenges Learnfare Program, Milwaukee Sentinel, November 7, 1989, pp. 1, 8.
80. Neil H. Shively, "WEAC Leader Raps School Choice Plan," Milwaukee Sentinel, March 1, 1989; Marcia Coggs, "Coggs, Legislature Fight Uphill Battle against Governor Thompson's Vetoes," Milwaukee Community Journal, May 25, 1988, pp. 2, 6; and Kenneth Lamke, "No Educational Innovation This Legislative Session," Milwaukee Sentinel, August 11, 1989, p. 20.
81. Neil H. Shively, "WEAC Leader Raps School Choice Plan," Milwaukee Sentinel, March 1, 1989; Marcia Coggs, "Coggs, Legislature Fight Uphill Battle against Governor Thompson's Vetoes," Milwaukee Community Journal, May 25, 1988, pp. 2, 6; and Kenneth Lamke, "No Educational Innovation This Legislative Session," Milwaukee Sentinel, August 11, 1989, p. 20.
82. Neil H. Shively, "WEAC Leader Raps School Choice Plan," Milwaukee Sentinel, March 1, 1989; Marcia Coggs, "Coggs, Legislature Fight Uphill Battle against Governor Thompson's Vetoes," Milwaukee Community Journal, May 25, 1988, pp. 2, 6; and Kenneth Lamke, "No Educational Innovation This Legislative Session," Milwaukee Sentinel, August 11, 1989, p. 20.
83. Marable, Race, Reform, and Rebellion, p. 98; and Mikel Holt, "GOP Landslide Leaves Black Voters in Mud?," Milwaukee Community Journal, November 9, 1994, pp. 1, 12.
84. Marable, Race, Reform, and Rebellion, p. 98; and Mikel Holt, "GOP Landslide Leaves Black Voters in Mud?," Milwaukee Community Journal, November 9, 1994, pp. 1, 12.
85. See, for example, Ellen Condliffe Lagemann, The Politics of Knowledge: The Carnegie Corporation, Philanthropy, and Public Policy (Middleton, Conn.: Wesleyan University Press, 1989).
86. Murphy, "The Right Stuff," pp. 54-55; Internal Revenue Service Form 990, Return for Organization Exempt from Income Tax, Filed by the Lynde and Harry Bradley Foundation for 1988, p. 3 (Hereafter, Bradley IRS Return). Another Milwaukee grantmaker, the Jane and Lloyd Pettit Foundation, established by Bradley heir Jane Pettit, also expanded after the Allen-Bradley sale (Foundation Reporter [Washington, D.C.: Taft Group, 1994], pp. 145-46, 433-438, 1031-1034; Bradley IRS Return, 1993).
87. Murphy, "The Right Stuff," pp. 54-55; Internal Revenue Service Form 990, Return for Organization Exempt from Income Tax, Filed by the Lynde and Harry Bradley Foundation for 1988, p. 3 (Hereafter, Bradley IRS Return). Another Milwaukee grantmaker, the Jane and Lloyd Pettit Foundation, established by Bradley heir Jane Pettit, also expanded after the Allen-Bradley sale (Foundation Reporter [Washington, D.C.: Taft Group, 1994], pp. 145-46, 433-438, 1031-1034; Bradley IRS Return, 1993).
88. Quoted in Barbara Miner, "The Power and the Money: Bradley Foundation Bankrolls Conservative Agenda," Rethinking Schools 8 (1994): 16.
89. Wisconsin Policy Research Institute, Mission Statement.
90. The following were published as Wisconsin Policy Research Institute Reports: George Mitchell, "The Rising Costs of the 'Chapter 220' Program in Wisconsin," October 1988, vol. 1, no. 4; John Chubb and Terry Moe, "Educational Choice: Answers to the Most Frequently Asked Questions about Mediocrity in American Education and What Can Be Done about It," March 1989, vol. 2, no. 3; Gordon S. Black, "The Lack of Confidence in Public Education in Wisconsin: A Survey of How 3,000 Wisconsin Residents View Public Education in Wisconsin," April 1989, vol. 2, no. 4; George Mitchell, "An Evaluation of State-financed School Integration in Metropolitan Milwaukee," June 1989, vol. 2, no. 5; and Richard Bringham and John Heywood, "Evaluating Wisconsin's Teachers: It Can Be Done," December 1989, vol. 2, no. 9.
91. The following were published as Wisconsin Policy Research Institute Reports: George Mitchell, "The Rising Costs of the 'Chapter 220' Program in Wisconsin," October 1988, vol. 1, no. 4; John Chubb and Terry Moe, "Educational Choice: Answers to the Most Frequently Asked Questions about Mediocrity in American Education and What Can Be Done about It," March 1989, vol. 2, no. 3; Gordon S. Black, "The Lack of Confidence in Public Education in Wisconsin: A Survey of How 3,000 Wisconsin Residents View Public Education in Wisconsin," April 1989, vol. 2, no. 4; George Mitchell, "An Evaluation of State-financed School Integration in Metropolitan Milwaukee," June 1989, vol. 2, no. 5; and Richard Bringham and John Heywood, "Evaluating Wisconsin's Teachers: It Can Be Done," December 1989, vol. 2, no. 9.
92. The following were published as Wisconsin Policy Research Institute Reports: George Mitchell, "The Rising Costs of the 'Chapter 220' Program in Wisconsin," October 1988, vol. 1, no. 4; John Chubb and Terry Moe, "Educational Choice: Answers to the Most Frequently Asked Questions about Mediocrity in American Education and What Can Be Done about It," March 1989, vol. 2, no. 3; Gordon S. Black, "The Lack of Confidence in Public Education in Wisconsin: A Survey of How 3,000 Wisconsin Residents View Public Education in Wisconsin," April 1989, vol. 2, no. 4; George Mitchell, "An Evaluation of State-financed School Integration in Metropolitan Milwaukee," June 1989, vol. 2, no. 5; and Richard Bringham and John Heywood, "Evaluating Wisconsin's Teachers: It Can Be Done," December 1989, vol. 2, no. 9.
93. The following were published as Wisconsin Policy Research Institute Reports: George Mitchell, "The Rising Costs of the 'Chapter 220' Program in Wisconsin," October 1988, vol. 1, no. 4; John Chubb and Terry Moe, "Educational Choice: Answers to the Most Frequently Asked Questions about Mediocrity in American Education and What Can Be Done about It," March 1989, vol. 2, no. 3; Gordon S. Black, "The Lack of Confidence in Public Education in Wisconsin: A Survey of How 3,000 Wisconsin Residents View Public Education in Wisconsin," April 1989, vol. 2, no. 4; George Mitchell, "An Evaluation of State-financed School Integration in Metropolitan Milwaukee," June 1989, vol. 2, no. 5; and Richard Bringham and John Heywood, "Evaluating Wisconsin's Teachers: It Can Be Done," December 1989, vol. 2, no. 9.
94. The following were published as Wisconsin Policy Research Institute Reports: George Mitchell, "The Rising Costs of the 'Chapter 220' Program in Wisconsin," October 1988, vol. 1, no. 4; John Chubb and Terry Moe, "Educational Choice: Answers to the Most Frequently Asked Questions about Mediocrity in American Education and What Can Be Done about It," March 1989, vol. 2, no. 3; Gordon S. Black, "The Lack of Confidence in Public Education in Wisconsin: A Survey of How 3,000 Wisconsin Residents View Public Education in Wisconsin," April 1989, vol. 2, no. 4; George Mitchell, "An Evaluation of State-financed School Integration in Metropolitan Milwaukee," June 1989, vol. 2, no. 5; and Richard Bringham and John Heywood, "Evaluating Wisconsin's Teachers: It Can Be Done," December 1989, vol. 2, no. 9.
95. John Chubb and Terry Moe, Politics, Markets, and America's Schools (Washington, D.C.: The Brookings Institution, 1990); Carl, "Parental Choice as National Policy," p. 302; Bradley IRS Return, 1991, 1992; and Mikel Holt, "Black Parents, Activists Endorse Voucher Plan," Milwaukee Community Journal, March 9, 1988, pp. 1, 5, 12.
96. John Chubb and Terry Moe, Politics, Markets, and America's Schools (Washington, D.C.: The Brookings Institution, 1990); Carl, "Parental Choice as National Policy," p. 302; Bradley IRS Return, 1991, 1992; and Mikel Holt, "Black Parents, Activists Endorse Voucher Plan," Milwaukee Community Journal, March 9, 1988, pp. 1, 5, 12.
97. John Chubb and Terry Moe, Politics, Markets, and America's Schools (Washington, D.C.: The Brookings Institution, 1990); Carl, "Parental Choice as National Policy," p. 302; Bradley IRS Return, 1991, 1992; and Mikel Holt, "Black Parents, Activists Endorse Voucher Plan," Milwaukee Community Journal, March 9, 1988, pp. 1, 5, 12.
98. Bradley IRS Return, 1988. William Clune and John Witte, eds., Choice and Control in American Education, vol. 2 (New York: Falmer Press, 1990) (the editors acknowledge that the original idea for the conference came from Michael Joyce and Robert Haveman, director of the La Follette Institute; the Joyce Foundation and the Spencer Foundation also contributed); Commission on Schools for the 21st Century, "A New Design for Education in Wisconsin," Madison; December 1990, p. 45; Bradley IRS Return, 1990, 1991, 1992; and Harwell Interview.
99. Bradley IRS Return, 1988. William Clune and John Witte, eds., Choice and Control in American Education, vol. 2 (New York: Falmer Press, 1990) (the editors acknowledge that the original idea for the conference came from Michael Joyce and Robert Haveman, director of the La Follette Institute; the Joyce Foundation and the Spencer Foundation also contributed); Commission on Schools for the 21st Century, "A New Design for Education in Wisconsin," Madison; December 1990, p. 45; Bradley IRS Return, 1990, 1991, 1992; and Harwell Interview.
100. Bradley IRS return, 1988-1992. In 1988, Bradley granted $275,000 to the United Community Center, which absorbed Bruce Guadelupe in 1990. IRS returns of the Pettit Foundation, McBeath Foundation, Cudahy Fund, Milwaukee Foundation, and A. O. Smith Foundation were also consulted. For the origins of PAVE, see Thomas Grogan, "In the Matter of Eligibility of Messmer High School for Participation in the Milwaukee Parental Choice Program" (Oshkosh, Wisconsin, May 7, 1993).
101. Bradley's connection to big business did not go unnoticed, however. State superintendent Herbert Grover accused Bradley's Michael Joyce of being a "stalking horse" for Milwaukee's "conservative business types" (Richard Jones, "Choice Plan Is a Ploy, Grover Says," Milwaukee Journal, July 23, 1990, pp. 1, 4).
102. Apple, Official Knowledge, pp. 37-38; see especially Robert Lowe, "The Hollow Promise of School Vouchers," in False Choices: How Vouchers Threaten Our Children's Future, a special issue of Rethinking Schools, 1992.
103. Apple, Official Knowledge, pp. 37-38; see especially Robert Lowe, "The Hollow Promise of School Vouchers," in False Choices: How Vouchers Threaten Our Children's Future, a special issue of Rethinking Schools, 1992.
104. James Carl, "The Politics of Education in a New Key: The 1988 Chicago School Reform Act and the 1990 Milwaukee Parental Choice Program" (Ph.D. diss., University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1995); James Stewart, "Grand Illusion," New Yorker, October 31, 1994, pp. 65-81; and George Judson, "For Education Company, a Shift in Vision," New York Times, December 7, 1995, p. A14.
105. James Carl, "The Politics of Education in a New Key: The 1988 Chicago School Reform Act and the 1990 Milwaukee Parental Choice Program" (Ph.D. diss., University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1995); James Stewart, "Grand Illusion," New Yorker, October 31, 1994, pp. 65-81; and George Judson, "For Education Company, a Shift in Vision," New York Times, December 7, 1995, p. A14.
106. James Carl, "The Politics of Education in a New Key: The 1988 Chicago School Reform Act and the 1990 Milwaukee Parental Choice Program" (Ph.D. diss., University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1995); James Stewart, "Grand Illusion," New Yorker, October 31, 1994, pp. 65-81; and George Judson, "For Education Company, a Shift in Vision," New York Times, December 7, 1995, p. A14.