Beyond Stress and Arousal: A Reconceptualization of Alcohol-Emotion Relations with Reference to Psychophysiological Methods

Psychological Bulletin

Volumn 122, Issue 3, 1996, Pages 376-395

  Stritzke, Werner G K ^a   Lang, Alan R ^a   Patrick, Christopher J ^a  

^a FLORIDA STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ALCOHOL;

AFFECT; AROUSAL; BRAIN; DRINKING BEHAVIOR; DRUG EFFECT; HUMAN; MENTAL STRESS; METABOLISM; PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECT; REVIEW;

AFFECT; ALCOHOL DRINKING; AROUSAL; BRAIN; ETHANOL; HUMANS; STRESS, PSYCHOLOGICAL;

EID: 0030293659     PISSN: 00332909     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1037//0033-2909.120.3.376     Document Type: Article

References (178)

1. Abrams, D. B., & Wilson, G. T. (1979). Effects of alcohol on social anxiety in women: Cognitive versus physiological processes. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 88, 161-173.
2. Aggleton, J. P., & Mishkin, M. (1986). The amygdala: Sensory gateway to the emotions. In R. Plutchik & H. Kellerman (Eds.), Emotion theory, research, and experience (Vol. 3, pp. 281-299). New York: Academic Press.
3. Amaral, D. G., Price, J. L., Pitkänen, A., & Carmichael, S. T. (1992). Anatomical organization of the primate amygdaloid complex. In J. P. Aggleton (Ed.), The amygdala: Neurobiological aspects of emotion, memory, and mental dysfunction (pp. 1 -66). New York: Wiley.
4. Bower, G. H. (1981). Mood and memory. American Psychologist, 36, 129-148.
5. Bradley, M. M., Cuthbert, B. N., & Lang, P. J. (1990). Startle reflex modification: Emotion or attention? Psychophysiology, 27, 513-522.
6. Bradley, M. M., Lang, P. J., & Cuthbert, B. N. (1993). Startle reflex habituation in human beings: Emotion, novelty, and context. Behavioral Neuroscience, 107, 970-980.
7. Bradley, M. M., Zack, J., & Lang, P. J. (1994). Cries, screams, and shouts of joy: Affective responses to environmental sounds. Psychophysiology. 31 (Suppl. 1), S29.
8. Bradlyn, A. S., Strickler, D. P., & Maxwell, W. A. (1981). Alcohol, expectancy and stress: Methodological concerns with the expectancy design. Addictive Behaviors, 6, 1-8.
9. Brown, J. S., Kalish, H. I., & Farber, I. E. (1951). Conditioned fear as revealed by magnitude of startle responses to an auditory stimulus. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 32, 317-328.
10. Buck, R. (1988). Human motivation and emotion. New York: Wiley.
11. Cacioppo, J. T., Petty, R. E., Losch, M. E., & Kim, H. S. (1986). Electromyographic activity over facial muscle regions can differentiate the valence and intensity of affective reactions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 50, 260-268.
12. Cacioppo, J. T., & Tassinary, L. G. (1990). Inferring psychological significance from physiological signals. American Psychologist, 45, 16-28.
13. Cacioppo, J. T., Tassinary, L. G., & Fridlund, A. J. (1990). The skeletomotor system. In J. T. Cacioppo & L. G. Tassinary (Eds.), Principles of psychophysiology: Physical, social, and inferential elements (pp. 325-384). New York: Cambridge University Press.
14. Cameron, D., Spence, M. T., & Drewery, J. (1978). Rate of onset of drunkenness: A preliminary study. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 39, 517-524.
15. Cappell, H., & Greeley, J. (1987). Alcohol and tension reduction: An update on research and theory. In H. T. Blane & K. E. Leonard (Eds.), Psychological theories of drinking and alcoholism (pp. 15-54). New York: Guilford Press.
16. Carpenter, J. A. (1957). Effects of alcoholic beverages on skin conductance. Quarterly Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 18, 1-18.
17. Coopersmith, S. (1964). The effects of alcohol on reactions to affective stimuli. Quarterly Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 25, 459-475.
18. Curtin, J. J., Lang, A. R., Patrick, C. J., & Stritzke, W. G. K., (1995). Alcohol and fear potentiated startle: A test of stress response dampening and attention allocation theories. Psychophysiology, 32 (Suppl. 1), S26.
19. Cuthbert, B. N., Bradley, M. M., & Lang, P. J. (1996). Probing picture perception: Activation and emotion. Psychophysiology, 33, 103-111.
20. Davidson, R. J. (1984). Hemispheric asymmetry and emotion. In K. R. Scherer & P. Ekman (Eds.), Approaches to emotion (pp. 39-57). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
21. Davidson, R. J. (1992). Emotion and affective style: Hemispheric substrates. Psychological Science, 3, 39-43.
22. Davidson, R. J. (1993). Cerebral asymmetry and emotion: Conceptual and methodological conundrums. Cognition and Emotion, 7, 115-138.
23. Davidson, R. J., Ekman, P., Saron, C. D., Senulis, J. A., & Friesen, W. V. (1990). Approach-withdrawal and cerebral asymmetry: Emotional expression and brain physiology I. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 58, 330-341.
24. Davidson, R. J., Kalin, N. H., & Shelton, S. E. (1992). Lateralized effects of diazepam on frontal brain electrical asymmetries in rhesus monkeys. Biological Psychiatry, 32, 438-451.
25. Davis, M. (1979). Diazepam and flurazepam: Effects on conditioned fear as measured with the potentiated startle paradigm. Psychopharmacology, 62, 1-7.
26. Davis, M. (1986). Pharmacological and anatomical analysis of fear conditioning using the fear-potentiated startle paradigm. Behavioral Neuroscience, 100, 814-824.
27. Davis, M. (1988). The potentiated startle as a measure of conditioned fear and its relevance to the neurobiology of anxiety. In P. Simon (Ed.), Selected models of anxiety, depression, and psychosis (pp. 61-89). Basel, Switzerland: Karger.
28. Davis, M. (1989). Neural systems involved in fear-potentiated startle. In M. Davis, B. L. Jacobs, & R. I. Schoenfeld (Eds.), Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. Vol. 563: Modulation of defined neural vertebrate circuits (pp. 165-183). New York: New York Academy of Science.
29. Dawson, M. E., & Schell, A. M. (1985). Information processing and human autonomic classical conditioning. In P. K. Ackles, J. R. Jennings, & M. G. H. Coles (Eds.), Advances in psychophysiology(Vol. 1, pp. 89-165). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.
30. Dengerink, H. A.,& Fagan, N. J. (1978). Effect of alcohol on emotional responses to stress. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 39, 525-539.
31. Dimberg, U. (1982). Facial reactions to facial expressions. Psychophysiology, 19, 643-647.
32. Dimberg, U. (1987). Facial reactions, autonomic activity and experienced emotion: A three component model of emotional conditioning. Biological Psychology, 24, 105-122.
33. Dimberg, U. (1990a). Facial electromyographic reactions and autonomic activity to auditory stimuli. Biological Psychology, 31, 137-147.
34. Dimberg, U. (1990b). Facial electromyography and emotional reactions. Psychophysiology, 27, 481-494.
35. Dimberg, U. (1990c). Facial reactions to fear-relevant stimuli for subjects high and low in specific fear. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 31, 65-69.
36. Dimberg, U. (1990d). Perceived unpleasantness and facial reactions to auditory stimuli. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 31, 70-75.
37. Docter, R. F., Naitoh, P., & Smith, J. C. (1966). Electroencephalographic changes and vigilance behavior during experimentally induced intoxication with alcoholic subjects. Psychosomatic Medicine, 25, 605-615.
38. Docter, R. F., & Perkins, R. B. (1960). The effects of ethyl alcohol on autonomic and muscular responses in humans. Quarterly Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 22, 374-386.
39. Ekman, P. (1984). Expression and the nature of emotion. In K. Scherer & P. Ekman (Eds.), Approaches to emotion (pp. 319-344). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
40. Ekman, P., & Friesen, W. V. (1978). Facial action coding system: A technique for the measurement of facial movement. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.
41. Ekman, P., Levenson, R. W., & Friesen, W. V. (1983, September 16). Autonomic nervous system activity distinguishes between emotions. Science, 221, 1208-1210.
42. Evans, S. H., & Anatasios, E. J. (1968). Misuse of analysis of covariance when treatment effect and covariate are confounded. Psychological Bulletin, 69, 225-234.
43. Ewing, J. A., & McCarty, D. (1983). Are the endorphins involved in mediating the mood effects of alcohol? Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 7, 271-275.
44. Fanselow, M. S. (1994). Neural organization of the defensive behavior system responsible for fear. Psychonomic Bulletin and Review, 1, 429-438.
45. Fenigstein, A., Scheier, M. F., & Buss, A. H. (1975). Public and private self-consciousness: Assessment and theory. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 43, 522-527.
46. Finn, P. R., & Pihl, R. O. (1987). Men at high risk for alcoholism: The effect of alcohol on cardiovascular response to unavoidable shock. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 96, 230-236.
47. Finn, P. R., Zeitouni, N. C., & Pihl, R. O. (1990). Effects of alcohol on psychophysiological hyperreactivity to nonaversive and aversive stimuli in men at high risk for alcoholism. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 99, 79-85.
48. Fowles, D. C. (1980). The three-arousal model: Implications of Gray's two-factor learning theory for heart rate, electrodermal activity, and psychopathy. Psychophysiology, 17, 87-104.
49. Gabel, P. C., Noel, N. E., Keane, T. M., & Lisman, S. A. (1980). Effect of sexual versus fear arousal on alcohol consumption in college males. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 18, 519-526.
50. Geenen, R., & Van De Vijver, F. J. R. (1993). A simple test of the law of initial values. Psychophysiology, 30, 525-530.
51. Gray, J. A. (1987). The psychology of fear and stress (2nd ed.). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
52. Greenberg, L., & Carpenter, J. (1957). The effect of alcoholic beverages on skin conductance and emotional tension. I: Wine, whiskey and alcohol. Quarterly Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 18, 190-204.
53. Greenwald, M. K., Cook, E. W., III, & Lang, P. J. (1989). Affective judgment and psychophysiological response: Dimensional covariation in the evaluation of pictorial stimuli. Journal of Psychophysiology, 3, 51-64.
54. Grillion, C., Ameli, R., Woods, S. W., Merikangas, K., & Davis, M. (1991). Fear-potentiated startle in humans: Effects of anticipatory anxiety on the acoustic blink reflex. Psychophysiology, 28, 588-595.
55. Hamm, A. O., Stark, R., & Vaitl, D. (1990). Classical fear conditioning and the startle probe reflex. Psychophysiology, 27(Suppl. 1), S37.
56. Hamm, A. O., & Vaitl, D. (in press). Affective learning: Awareness and aversion. Psychophysiology.
57. Heller, W. (1990). The neuropsychology of emotion: Developmental patterns and implications for psychopathology. In N. L. Stein, B. Leventhal, & T. Trabasso (Eds.), Psychological and biological approaches to emotion (pp. 167-211). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
58. Heller, W. (1993). Neuropsychological mechanisms of individual differences in emotion, personality, and arousal. Neuropsychology, 7, 476-489.
59. Hodgson, R., & Rachman, S. (1978). Desynchrony in measures of fear. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 12, 319-326.
60. Hubert, W., & de Jong-Meyer, R. (1990). Psychophysiological response patterns to positive and negative film stimuli. Biological Psychology, 31, 73-93.
61. Hull, J. G. (1981). A self-awareness model of the causes and effects of alcohol consumption. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 90, 586-600.
62. Hull, J. G. (1987). Self-awareness model. In H. T. Blane & K. E. Leonard (Eds.), Psychological theories of drinking and alcoholism (pp. 272-304). New York: Guilford Press.
63. Hull, J. G., & Young, R. D. (1983). Self-consciousness, self-esteem, and success-failure as determinants of alcohol consumption in male social drinkers. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 44, 1097-1109.
64. Hull, J. G., Young, R. D., & Jouriles, E. (1986). Applications of the self-awareness model of alcohol consumption. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 790-796.
65. Izard, C. E. (1972). The face of emotion. New York: Appleton.
66. Izard, C. E. (1993). Four systems for emotion activation: Cognitive and noncognitive processes. Psychological Review, 100, 68-90.
67. James, W. (1884). What is emotion? Mind, 9, 188-205.
68. James, W. (1894). The physical basis of emotion. Psychological Review, 1, 516-529.
69. Jansen, D. M., & Frijda, N. (1994). Modulation of acoustic startle response by film-induced fear and sexual arousal. Psychophysiology, 31, 565-571.
70. Jin, P. (1992). Toward a reconceptualization of the law of initial value. Psychological Bulletin, 111, 176-184.
71. Jones, B. M., Parsons, O. A., & Rundell, O. H. (1976). Psychophysiological correlates of alcoholism. In R. E. Tarter & A. A. Sugerman (Eds.), Alcoholism: Interdisciplinary approaches to an enduring problem (pp. 435-477). Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
72. Josephs, R. A., & Steele, C. M. (1990). The two faces of alcohol myopia: Attentional mediation of psychological stress. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 99, 115-126.
73. Keane, T. M., & Lisman, S. A. (1980). Alcohol and social anxiety in males: Behavioral, cognitive and physiological effects. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 89, 213-223.
74. Konorski, J. (1967). Integrative activity of the brain: An interdisciplinary approach. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
75. Lacey, J. I. (1959). Psychophysiological approaches to the evaluation of pychotherapeutic process and outcome. In E. A. Rubinstein & M. B. Parloff (Eds.), Research in psychotherapy (Vol. 1, pp. 160-208). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
76. Lacey, J. I. (1967). Somatic response patterning and stress: Some revisions of activation theory. In M. H. Appley & R. Turnbull (Eds.), Psychological stress: Issues in research. New York: Appleton.
77. Lang, P. J. (1968). Fear reduction and fear behavior: Problems in treating a construct. Research in Psychotherapy, 3, 90-102.
78. Lang, P. J. (1971). The application of psychophysiological methods to the study of psychotherapy and behavior modification. In A. E. Bergen & S. L. Garfield (Eds.), Handbook of psychotherapy and behavior change (pp. 75-125). New York: Wiley.
79. Lang, P. J. (1979). A bio-informational theory of emotional imagery. Psychophysiology, 16, 495-512.
80. Lang, P. J. (1994a). The motivational organization of emotion: Affectreflex connections. In S. Van Goozen, N. E. Van de Poll, & J. A. Sergeant (Eds.), The emotions: Essays on emotion theory (pp. 61-93). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
81. Lang, P. J. (1994b). The varieties of emotional experience: A mediation on James-Lange Theory. Psychological Review, 101, 211-221.
82. Lang, P. J. (1995). The emotion probe: Studies of motivation and attention. American Psychologist, 50, 372-385.
83. Lang, P. J., Bradley, M. M., & Cuthbert, B. N. (1990). Emotion, attention, and the startle reflex. Psychological Review, 97, 377-395.
84. Lang, P. J., Bradley, M. M., Cuthbert, B. N., & Patrick, C. J. (1993). Emotion and psychopathology: A startle probe analysis. In L. Chapman & D. Fowles (Eds.), Progress in experimental personality and psychopathology research (Vol. 16, pp. 163-199). New York: Springer.
85. Lang, P. J., Greenwald, M. K., Bradley, M. M., & Hamm, A. O. (1993). Looking at pictures: Affective, facial, visceral, and behavioral reactions. Psychophysiology, 30, 261-273.
86. Lansky, D., & Wilson, G. T. (1981). Alcohol, expectations, and sexual arousal in males: An information processing analysis. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 90, 35-45.
87. Larson, R. J., & Diener, E. (1992). Promises and problems with the circumplex model of emotion. In M. S. Clark (Ed.), Review of personality and social psychology (Vol. 13, pp. 25-59). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
88. LeDoux, J. E. (1989). Cognitive-emotional interactions in the brain. Cognition and Emotion, 3, 267-290.
89. LeDoux, J. E. (1995). Emotion: Clues from the brain. Annual Review of Psychology, 46, 209-235.
90. Levenson, R. W. (1987). Alcohol, affect, and physiology: Positive effects in the early stages of drinking. In E. Gottheil, K. Druley, S. Pasko, & S. Weinstein (Eds.), Stress and addiction (pp. 173-196). New York: Brunner Mazel.
91. Levenson, R. W. (1992). Autonomic nervous system differences among emotions. Psychological Science, 3, 23-27.
92. Levenson, R. W., Oyama, O. N., & Meek, P. S. (1987). Greater reinforcement from alcohol for those at risk: Parental risk, personality risk, and sex. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 96, 242-253.
93. Levenson, R. W., Sher, K. J., Grossman, L. M., Newman, J., & Newlin, D. B. (1980). Alcohol and stress response dampening: Pharmacological effects, expectancy, and tension reduction. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 89, 528-538.
94. Lienert, G. A., & Traxel, W. (1959). The effects of meprobamate and alcohol on galvanic skin response. Journal of Psychology, 48, 329-334.
95. Lindman, R. (Ed.). (1980). Anxiety and alcohol: Limitations of tension reduction theory in nonalcoholics (Monograph, Suppl. 1). Abo, Finland: Abo Akademi.
96. Lindman, R. (1982). Social and solitary drinking: Effects on consumption and mood in male social drinkers. Physiology & Behavior, 28, 1093-1095.
97. Lindman, R., Lindfors, B., Dahla, E., & Toivola, H. (1987). Alcohol and ambiance: Social and environmental determinants of intake and mood. Alcohol & Alcoholism (Suppl. 1), 385-388.
98. Lindsley, D. B. (1951). Emotion. In S. S. Stevens (Ed.), Handbook of experimental psychology (pp. 473-516). New York: Wiley.
99. Lukas, S. E., Mendelson, J. H., Amass, L., Benedikt, R. A., Henry, J. N., Jr., & Kouri, E. M. (1991). Electrophysiological correlates of ethanol reinforcement. In R. E. Meyer, G. F. Koob, M. J. Lewis, & S. M. Paul (Eds.), Neuropharmacology of ethanol: New approaches (pp. 201-231). Boston: Birkhäser.
100. Lukas, S. E., Mendelson, J. H., Benedikt, R. A., & Jones, B. (1986). EEG alpha activity increases during transient episodes of ethanol-induced euphoria. Pharmacology Biochemistry & Behavior, 25, 889-895.
101. Marlatt, G. A. (1976). Alcohol, stress, and cognitive control. In I. G. Sarason & C. D. Spielberger (Eds.), Stress and anxiety (Vol. 3, pp. 271-296). Washington, DC: Hemisphere.
102. Marlatt, G. A. (1987). Alcohol, the magic elixir: Stress, expectancy, and the transformation of emotional states. In E. Gottheil, K. Druley, S. Pasko, & S. Weinstein (Eds.), Stress and addiction (pp. 302-322). New York: Brunner Mazel.
103. Mathew, R. J., Wilson, W. J., & Daniel, D. G. (1985). The effect of nonsedating doses of diazepam on regional blood flow. Biological Psychiatry, 20, 1109-1116.
104. McCollam, J. B. (1977). The effects of ethyl alcohol on self-report and physiological measures of affect and arousal. Unpublished master's thesis, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN.
105. McCollam, J. B., Burish, T. G., Maisto, S. A., & Sobell, M. B. (1980). Alcohol's effects on physiological arousing and self-reported affect and sensations. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 89, 224-233.
106. McGonnell, P. C., & Beach, H. D. (1968). The effects of ethanol on the acquisition of conditioned GSR. Quarterly Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 29, 845-855.
107. Mello, N. K. (1968). Some aspects of the behavioral pharmacology of alcohol. In D. H. Efrow (Ed.), Psychopharmacology: A review of progress, 1957-1967 (Public Health Service Publication 1836, pp. 787-809). Washington, DC: Government Printing Office.
108. Miltner, W., Matjak, M., Braun, C., Diekmann, H., & Brody, S. (1994). Emotional qualities of odors and their influence on the startle reflex in humans. Psychophysiology, 31, 107-110.
109. Moruzzi, G., & Magoun, H. W. (1949). Brain stem reticular formation and activation of the EEG. Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology, 1, 455-473.
110. Nadel, L., & Willner, J. (1980). Context and conditioning: A place for space. Physiological Psychology, 8, 218-228.
111. Naitoh, P. (1972). The effect of alcohol on the autonomic nervous system of humans: Psychophysiological approach. In B. Kissin & H. Begleiter (Eds.), The biology of alcoholism (Vol. 2, pp. 367-433). New York: Plenum Press.
112. Newlin, D. B., & Pretorius, M. B. (1991). Prior exposures to the laboratory enhance the effect of alcohol. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 52, 470-473.
113. Newlin, D. B., & Thomson, J. B. (1990). Alcohol challenge with sons of alcoholics: A critical review and analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 108, 383-402.
114. Niaura, R., Wilson, G. T., & Westrick, E. (1988). Self-awareness, alcohol consumption, and reduced cardiovascular reactivity. Psychosomatic Medicine, 50, 360-380.
115. Öhman, A., & Soares, J. J. F. (1993). Unconscious anxiety: Phobic responses to masked stimuli. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 103, 231-240.
116. Patrick, C. J., Berthot, B., & Moore, J. D. (1996). Diazepam blocks fear-potentiated startle in humans. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 105, 89-96.
117. Pliner, P., & Cappell, H. (1974). Modification of affective consequences of alcohol: A comparison of social and solitary drinking. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 83, 418-425.
118. Pohorecky, L. A. (1991). Stress and alcohol interaction: An update of human research. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 15, 438-459.
119. Pohorecky, L. A., Brick, J., & Carpenter, J. A. (1986). Assessment of the development of tolerance to ethanol using multiple measures. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 10, 616-622.
120. Pohorecky, L. A., Cagan, M., Brick, J., & Jaffe, L. S. (1976). The startle response in rats: Effect of ethanol. Pharmacology, Biochemistry & Behavior, 4, 311-316.
121. Pohorecky, L. A., & Roberts, P. (1991). Development of tolerance to and physical dependence on ethanol: Daily versus repeated cycles treatment with ethanol. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 15, 824-833.
122. Plutchik, R. (1984). Emotions: A general psychoevolutionary theory. In K. Scherer & P. Ekman (Eds.), Approaches to emotion (pp. 197-219). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
123. Rassnick, S., Koob, G. F., & Geyer, M. A. (1992). Responding to acoustic startle during chronic ethanol intoxication and withdrawal. Psychopharmacology, 106, 351-358.
124. Rather, B. C., & Goldman, M. S. (1994). Drinking-related differences in the memory organization of alcohol expectancies. Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology, 2, 167-183.
125. Rather, B. C., Goldman, M. S., Roehrich, L., & Brannick, M. (1992). Empirical modeling of an alcohol expectancy memory network using multidimensional scaling. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 101, 174-183.
126. Reed, T. E., & Hanna, J. M. (1986). Similarities and differences in acute cardiovascular responses to alcohol among normal men of European, Japanese, and Chinese ancestry: A univariate and multivariate analysis. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 10, 560-563.
127. Roglev, M., & Moldovanska, P. (1980). Changes in skin electroconductivity due to intake of low doses of alcohol. The Folia Medica, 22, 22-27.
128. Routtenberg, A. (1968). The two-arousal hypothesis: Reticular formation and limbic system. Psychological Review, 75, 51-80.
129. Rudy, J. W., & Sutherland, R. J. (1992). Configural and elemental associations and the memory coherence problem. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 4, 208-216.
130. Russell, J. A. (1980). A circumplex model of affect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 39, 1161-1178.
131. Russell, J. A., & Mehrabian, A. (1975). The mediating role of emotions in alcohol use. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 36, 1508-1536.
132. Russell, J. A., Weiss, A., & Mendelsohn, G. A. (1989). Affect grid: A single-item scale of pleasure and arousal. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57, 493-502.
133. Sayette, M. A. (1993a). An appraisal-disruption model of alcohol's effects on stress responses in social drinkers. Psychological Bulletin, 114, 459-476.
134. Sayette, M. A. (1993b). Heart rate as an index of stress response in alcohol administration research: A critical review. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 17, 802-809.
135. Sayette, M. A., Contrada, R. J., & Wilson, G. T. (1990). Alcohol and correspondence between self-report and physiological measures of anxiety. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 28, 351-354.
136. Sayette, M. A., Smith, D. W., Breiner, M. J., & Wilson, G. T. (1992). The effect of alcohol on emotional response to a social stressor. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 53, 541-545.
137. Sayette, M. A., & Wilson, G. T. (1991). Intoxication and exposure to stress: Effects of temporal patterning. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 100, 56-62.
138. Sayette, M. A., Wilson, G. T., & Carpenter, J. A. (1989). Cognitive moderators of alcohol's effect on anxiety. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 27, 685-690.
139. Schachter, S., & Singer, J. E. (1962). Cognition, social and physiological determinants of emotion. Psychological Review, 69, 379-399.
140. Scheier, M. F., & Carver, C. S. (1977). Self-focused attention and the experience of emotion: Attraction, repulsion, elation, and depression. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 35, 625-636.
141. Schwartz, G. E., Fair, P. L., Salt, P., Mandel, M. R., & Klerman, G. L. (1976, April 30). Facial muscle patterning to affective imagery in depressed and nondepressed subjects. Science, 192, 489-491.
142. Schwartz, G. E., Weinberger, D. A., & Singer, J. A. (1981). Cardiovascular differentiation of happiness, sadness, anger and fear following imagery and exercise. Psychosomatic Medicine, 43, 343-364.
143. Sher, K. J. (1985). Subjective effects of alcohol: The influence of setting and individual differences in alcohol expectancies. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 46, 137-146.
144. Sher, K. J. (1987). Stress response dampening. In H. T. Blane & K. E. Leonard (Eds.), Psychological theories of drinking and alcoholism (pp. 227-271). New York: Guilford Press.
145. Sher, K. J., Bylund, D. B., Walitzer, K. S., Hartmann, J., & Ray-Prenger, C. (1994). Platelet monoamine oxidase (MAO) activity: Personality, substance use, and the stress-response-dampening effect of alcohol. Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology, 2, 53-81.
146. Sher, K. J., & Levenson, R. W. (1982). Risk for alcoholism and individual differences in the stress-response-dampening effect of alcohol. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 91, 350-367.
147. Sher, K. J., & Walitzer, K. S. (1986). Individual differences in the stress-response-dampening effect of alcohol: A dose-response study. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 95, 159-167.
148. Smith, W. W. (1922). The measurement of emotion. New York: Harcourt, Brace.
149. Squire, L. R. (1992). Memory and the hippocampus: A synthesis from findings with rats, monkeys, and humans. Psychological Review, 99, 195-231.
150. Stacy, A. W. (1995). Memory association and ambiguous cues in models of alcohol and marijuana use. Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology, 3, 183-194.
151. Stacy, A. W., Leigh, B. C., & Weingardt, K. R. (1994). Memory accessibility and association of alcohol use and its positive outcomes. Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology, 2, 269-282.
152. Steele, C. M., & Josephs, R. A. (1988). Drinking your troubles away. II: An attention-allocation model of alcohol's effect on psychological stress. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 97, 196-205.
153. Steele, C. M., & Josephs, R. A. (1990). Alcohol myopia: Its prized and dangerous effects. American Psychologist, 45, 921-933.
154. Steele, C. M., Southwick, L., & Pagano, R. (1986). Drinking your troubles away: The role of activity in mediating alcohol's reduction of psychological stress. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 95, 173-180.
155. Stern, R. M., & Sison, C. E. E. (1990). Response patterning. In J. T. Cacioppo & L. G. Tassinary (Eds.), Principles of psychophysiology: Physical, social, and inferential elements (pp. 193-215). New York: Cambridge University Press.
156. Stewart, S. H., Finn, P. R., & Pihl, R. O. (1992). The effects of alcohol on the cardiovascular stress response in men at high risk for alcoholism: A dose response study. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 53, 499-506.
157. Stewart, S. H., & Pihl, R. O. (1994). Effects of alcohol administration on psychophysiological and subjective-emotional responses to aversive stimulation in anxiety-sensitive women. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 8, 29-42.
158. Stritzke, W. G. K., Patrick, C. J., & Lang, A. R. (1995). Alcohol and human emotion: A multidimensional analysis incorporating startle-probe methodology. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 104, 114-122.
159. Sutker, P. B., Allain, A. N., Brantley, P. J., & Randall, C. L. (1982). Acute alcohol intoxication, negative affect, and autonomic arousal in women and men. Addictive Behaviors, 7, 17-25.
160. Tassinary, L. G., & Cacioppo, J. T. (1992). Unobservable facial actions and emotion. Psychological Science, 3, 28-33.
161. Tellegen, A. (1985). Structures of mood and personality and their relevance to assessing anxiety, with an emphasis on self-report. In A. H. Tuma & J. D. Maser (Eds.), Anxiety and the anxiety disorders (pp. 681-706). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
162. Thyer, B. A., & Curtis, G. C. (1984). The effects of ethanol intoxication on phobic anxiety. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 22, 599-610.
163. Tomkins, S. S. (1984). Affect theory. In K. R. Scherer & P. Ekman (Eds.), Approaches to emotion (pp. 163-195). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
164. Tranel, D., & Damasio, H. (1994). Neuroanatomical correlates of electrodermal skin conductance responses. Psychophysiology, 31, 427-438.
165. Tucker, J. A., Vuchinich, R. E., & Sobell, M. B. (1982). Alcohol's effects on human emotions: A review of the stimulation/depression hypothesis. International Journal of the Addictions, 17, 155-180.
166. Turkkan, J. S., Stitzer, M. L., & McCaul, M. E. (1988). Psychophysiological effects of oral ethanol in alcoholics and social drinkers. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 12, 30-38.
167. Vrana, S. R. (1993). The psychophysiology of disgust: Differentiating negative emotional context with facial EMG. Psychophysiology, 30, 279-286.
168. Vrana, S. R., & Lang, P. J. (1990). Fear imagery and the startle probe reflex. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 99, 189-197.
169. Vrana, S. R., Spence, E. L., & Lang, P. J. (1988). The startle probe response: A new measure of emotion? Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 97, 487-491.
170. Watson, D., Clark, L. A., & Tellegen, A. (1988). Development and validation of brief measures of positive and negative affect: The PANAS Scales. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54, 1063-1070.
171. Weaver, J. B., Masland, J. L., Kharazmi, S., & Zillmann, D. (1985). Effect of alcoholic intoxication on the appreciation of different types of humor. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 49, 781-787.
172. Wilder, J. (1967). Stimulus response: The law of initial value. Bristol, England: Wright.
173. Wilson, G. T. (1988). Alcohol and anxiety. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 26, 369-381.
174. Wilson, G. T., & Abrams, D. B. (1977). Effects of alcohol on social anxiety and physiological arousal: Cognitive versus pharmacological processes. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 1, 195-210.
175. Wilson, G. T., Abrams, D. B., & Lipscomb, T. R. (1980). Effects of intoxication levels and drinking pattern on social anxiety in men. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 41, 250-264.
176. Wilson, G. T., Brick, J., Adler, J., Cocco, K., & Breslin, C. (1989). Alcohol and anxiety reduction in female social drinkers. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 50, 226-235.
177. Wilson, G. T., Niaura, R. S., & Adler, J. L. (1985). Alcohol, selective attention and sexual arousal in men. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 46, 107-115.
178. Witvliet, C. V., & Vrana, S. R. (1995). Psychophysiological responses as indices of affective dimensions. Psychophysiology, 32, 436-443.