The demise of unemployment?

Politics and Society

Volumn 24, Issue 3, 1996, Pages 197-219

  Walters, William ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 0030240140     PISSN: 00323292     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/0032329296024003002     Document Type: Article

References (103)

1. 1. Barrie Stevens and Wolfgang Michalski (Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development [OECD] Secretariat, Advisory Unit to the Secretary General), "Long-Term Prospects for Work and Social Cohesion in OECD Countries: An Overview of the Issues," in OECD Societies in Transition: The Future of Work and Leisure (Paris: OECD, 1974), 7-23.
2. 2. This way of approaching a problem like unemployment draws on recent work concerning the theme of "governmentality." This is not so much a "Foucauldian" approach to politics as a series of thought-experiments made possible by a "Foucault effect." See, for example, Graham Burchell, Colin Gordon, and Peter Miller, eds., The Foucault Effect (Hemel Hempstead: Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1991), which includes Foucault's seminal essay "Governmentality." The clearest and most useful statements of a government perspective are Peter Miller and Nikolas Rose, "Governing Economic Life," Economy and Society 19, no. 1 (1990): 1-31; Nikolas Rose and Peter Miller, "Political Power beyond the State: Problematics of Government," British Journal of Sociology 43, no. 2 (1992): 173-205; Mitchell Dean, Critical and Effective Histories. Foucault's Methods and Historical Sociology (London: Routledge, 1994).
3. 2. This way of approaching a problem like unemployment draws on recent work concerning the theme of "governmentality." This is not so much a "Foucauldian" approach to politics as a series of thought-experiments made possible by a "Foucault effect." See, for example, Graham Burchell, Colin Gordon, and Peter Miller, eds., The Foucault Effect (Hemel Hempstead: Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1991), which includes Foucault's seminal essay "Governmentality." The clearest and most useful statements of a government perspective are Peter Miller and Nikolas Rose, "Governing Economic Life," Economy and Society 19, no. 1 (1990): 1-31; Nikolas Rose and Peter Miller, "Political Power beyond the State: Problematics of Government," British Journal of Sociology 43, no. 2 (1992): 173-205; Mitchell Dean, Critical and Effective Histories. Foucault's Methods and Historical Sociology (London: Routledge, 1994).
4. 2. This way of approaching a problem like unemployment draws on recent work concerning the theme of "governmentality." This is not so much a "Foucauldian" approach to politics as a series of thought-experiments made possible by a "Foucault effect." See, for example, Graham Burchell, Colin Gordon, and Peter Miller, eds., The Foucault Effect (Hemel Hempstead: Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1991), which includes Foucault's seminal essay "Governmentality." The clearest and most useful statements of a government perspective are Peter Miller and Nikolas Rose, "Governing Economic Life," Economy and Society 19, no. 1 (1990): 1-31; Nikolas Rose and Peter Miller, "Political Power beyond the State: Problematics of Government," British Journal of Sociology 43, no. 2 (1992): 173-205; Mitchell Dean, Critical and Effective Histories. Foucault's Methods and Historical Sociology (London: Routledge, 1994).
5. 2. This way of approaching a problem like unemployment draws on recent work concerning the theme of "governmentality." This is not so much a "Foucauldian" approach to politics as a series of thought-experiments made possible by a "Foucault effect." See, for example, Graham Burchell, Colin Gordon, and Peter Miller, eds., The Foucault Effect (Hemel Hempstead: Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1991), which includes Foucault's seminal essay "Governmentality." The clearest and most useful statements of a government perspective are Peter Miller and Nikolas Rose, "Governing Economic Life," Economy and Society 19, no. 1 (1990): 1-31; Nikolas Rose and Peter Miller, "Political Power beyond the State: Problematics of Government," British Journal of Sociology 43, no. 2 (1992): 173-205; Mitchell Dean, Critical and Effective Histories. Foucault's Methods and Historical Sociology (London: Routledge, 1994).
6. 3. The question that disciplines like sociology and political economy pose is ostensibly: what causes unemployment? A genealogical analysis of unemployment would instead ask: how does unemployment come to have "causes"? One point of departure for such a genealogy would then be an historical account of how the various disciplines have rendered unemployment intelligible.
7. 4. This is an argument I have made elsewhere. See William Walters, "The Discovery of 'Unemployment': New Forms for the Government of Poverty," in Economy and Society 23, no. 3 (1994): 265-90. But see also the definitive history of unemployment policy in Britain, Jose Harris's marvelous Unemployment and Politics. A Study in English Social Policy 1886-1914 (Oxford: Clarendon, 1972). For a comparative perspective on the "invention" of unemployment, see Christian Topalov, "Invention du chômage et politiques sociales au début du siècle," Les Temps Modernes 497/7 (1987): 53-93.
8. 4. This is an argument I have made elsewhere. See William Walters, "The Discovery of 'Unemployment': New Forms for the Government of Poverty," in Economy and Society 23, no. 3 (1994): 265-90. But see also the definitive history of unemployment policy in Britain, Jose Harris's marvelous Unemployment and Politics. A Study in English Social Policy 1886-1914 (Oxford: Clarendon, 1972). For a comparative perspective on the "invention" of unemployment, see Christian Topalov, "Invention du chômage et politiques sociales au début du siècle," Les Temps Modernes 497/7 (1987): 53-93.
9. 4. This is an argument I have made elsewhere. See William Walters, "The Discovery of 'Unemployment': New Forms for the Government of Poverty," in Economy and Society 23, no. 3 (1994): 265-90. But see also the definitive history of unemployment policy in Britain, Jose Harris's marvelous Unemployment and Politics. A Study in English Social Policy 1886-1914 (Oxford: Clarendon, 1972). For a comparative perspective on the "invention" of unemployment, see Christian Topalov, "Invention du chômage et politiques sociales au début du siècle," Les Temps Modernes 497/7 (1987): 53-93.
10. 5. On pauperism and its links to the emergence of a liberal mode of governance, see Mitchell Dean, The Constitution of Poverty (London: Routledge, 1991). See also Karel Williams, From Pauperism to Poverty (London: RKP, 1981), and Giovanna Procacci, "Sociology and its Poor," Politics and Society 17, no. 2 (1989): 163-87.
11. 5. On pauperism and its links to the emergence of a liberal mode of governance, see Mitchell Dean, The Constitution of Poverty (London: Routledge, 1991). See also Karel Williams, From Pauperism to Poverty (London: RKP, 1981), and Giovanna Procacci, "Sociology and its Poor," Politics and Society 17, no. 2 (1989): 163-87.
12. 5. On pauperism and its links to the emergence of a liberal mode of governance, see Mitchell Dean, The Constitution of Poverty (London: Routledge, 1991). See also Karel Williams, From Pauperism to Poverty (London: RKP, 1981), and Giovanna Procacci, "Sociology and its Poor," Politics and Society 17, no. 2 (1989): 163-87.
13. 6. See Walters, "The Discovery of 'Unemployment.' "
14. 7. Milton Friedman was one of the first economists to make this argument when he put forth the concept of the "natural rate of unemployment"; see his Inflation and Unemployment: The New Dimension of Politics (London: Institute of Economic Affairs, 1977). The New Classical Macroeconomics, which is influenced by Friedman, takes this argument further and argues that the scope for management of unemployment by fiscal and monetary policy is much narrower than Friedman perceived; see, for example, Robert E. Lucas and Thomas J. Sargent, eds., Rational Expectations and Econometric Practice (London: Allen and Unwin, 1981).
15. 7. Milton Friedman was one of the first economists to make this argument when he put forth the concept of the "natural rate of unemployment"; see his Inflation and Unemployment: The New Dimension of Politics (London: Institute of Economic Affairs, 1977). The New Classical Macroeconomics, which is influenced by Friedman, takes this argument further and argues that the scope for management of unemployment by fiscal and monetary policy is much narrower than Friedman perceived; see, for example, Robert E. Lucas and Thomas J. Sargent, eds., Rational Expectations and Econometric Practice (London: Allen and Unwin, 1981).
16. 8. As Nigel Lawson, former Chancellor of the Exchequer, put it: "It is not sufficiently understood that it simply isn't within the government's power to determine the level of unemployment." (cited from Guy Standing, "The Need for a New Social Consensus," in Arguing for Basic Income, ed. Philippe Van Parijs (London: Verso, 1992).
17. 9. Labour has stated that this would be its aim if elected. As Labour's leader, Tony Blair, has put it in a recent lecture, "The control of inflation through a tough macroeconomic policy framework is even more important than the Tories have said." The Mais Lecture delivered at the City University, London, 22 May 1995 (Labour Party Press Release).
18. 10. On the shift from work to employment, see John Keane, "Work and the Civilising Process," in his Democracy and Civil Society (London: Verso, 1988); Kristan Kumar, "From Work to Employment and Unemployment: The English Experience," in On Work, ed. R. E. Pahl (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1988), 138-66. For an account of how workers have to be classifiable as "employees" for it to be possible to classify them as "unemployed," see Robert Salais, "Why Was Unemployment So Low in France During the 1930s?" in Interwar Unemployment in International Perspective, ed. Barry Eichengreen and T. J. Hatton (Netherlands: Kluwer, 1988), 247-88.
19. 10. On the shift from work to employment, see John Keane, "Work and the Civilising Process," in his Democracy and Civil Society (London: Verso, 1988); Kristan Kumar, "From Work to Employment and Unemployment: The English Experience," in On Work, ed. R. E. Pahl (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1988), 138-66. For an account of how workers have to be classifiable as "employees" for it to be possible to classify them as "unemployed," see Robert Salais, "Why Was Unemployment So Low in France During the 1930s?" in Interwar Unemployment in International Perspective, ed. Barry Eichengreen and T. J. Hatton (Netherlands: Kluwer, 1988), 247-88.
20. 10. On the shift from work to employment, see John Keane, "Work and the Civilising Process," in his Democracy and Civil Society (London: Verso, 1988); Kristan Kumar, "From Work to Employment and Unemployment: The English Experience," in On Work, ed. R. E. Pahl (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1988), 138-66. For an account of how workers have to be classifiable as "employees" for it to be possible to classify them as "unemployed," see Robert Salais, "Why Was Unemployment So Low in France During the 1930s?" in Interwar Unemployment in International Perspective, ed. Barry Eichengreen and T. J. Hatton (Netherlands: Kluwer, 1988), 247-88.
21. 11. Edward Balls and Paul Gregg, Work and Welfare: Tackling the Jobs Deficit (London: Institute of Public Policy Research, 1993), 2.
22. 12. John Schmitt and Jonathan Wadsworth, "The Rise in Economic Inactivity," in Paying for Inequality, ed. Andrew Glyn and David Miliband (London: Institute for Public Policy Research/River Orams Press, 1994).
23. 13. See Eithne McLaughlin, "Flexibility or Polarization?" in Unemployment and Public Policy in a Changing Labour Market, ed. Michael White (London: Policy Studies Institute, 1994), 7-28.
24. 14. For example, Richard Freeman, "Crime and the Labour Market," in Crime, ed. James Q. Wilson and Joan Petersilia (San Francisco: ICS Press, 1994); Richard Freeman, "The Limits of Wage Flexibility to Curing Unemployment," in Oxford Review of Economic Policy 11, no. 1 (1995): 63-72.
25. 14. For example, Richard Freeman, "Crime and the Labour Market," in Crime, ed. James Q. Wilson and Joan Petersilia (San Francisco: ICS Press, 1994); Richard Freeman, "The Limits of Wage Flexibility to Curing Unemployment," in Oxford Review of Economic Policy 11, no. 1 (1995): 63-72.
26. 15. The changing shape of the labor market in the United Kingdom has been summarized thus: "In international terms, a high proportion of the kinds of jobs which the United States and the United Kingdom have managed to create in the 1980s have been relatively low-wage, often part-time, casual or temporary unskilled service sector jobs. Between 1979 and 1992, service sector employment rose by 23.8 per cent in Britain, 21.2 per cent in the United States, but only 13.6 per cent in France. By the early 1990s, about 40 per cent of the employed labor force in the United Kingdom was employed in the low-skill low-wage 'non-standard' and mainly services-dominated section of the labour market." cited from McLaughlin, "Flexibility," 14. The United Kingdom seems to be leading the rest of the western economies as far as the proportion of its workforce that is employed part-time is concerned: 21.8 percent were in this type of employment in 1990, compared with 16.7 percent in the United States, 12 percent in France, and only 5.7 percent in Italy. In the United Kingdom, 87 percent of these part-time jobs are taken by women; see Balls and Gregg, Work and Welfare, 21.
27. 15. The changing shape of the labor market in the United Kingdom has been summarized thus: "In international terms, a high proportion of the kinds of jobs which the United States and the United Kingdom have managed to create in the 1980s have been relatively low-wage, often part-time, casual or temporary unskilled service sector jobs. Between 1979 and 1992, service sector employment rose by 23.8 per cent in Britain, 21.2 per cent in the United States, but only 13.6 per cent in France. By the early 1990s, about 40 per cent of the employed labor force in the United Kingdom was employed in the low-skill low-wage 'non-standard' and mainly services-dominated section of the labour market." cited from McLaughlin, "Flexibility," 14. The United Kingdom seems to be leading the rest of the western economies as far as the proportion of its workforce that is employed part-time is concerned: 21.8 percent were in this type of employment in 1990, compared with 16.7 percent in the United States, 12 percent in France, and only 5.7 percent in Italy. In the United Kingdom, 87 percent of these part-time jobs are taken by women; see Balls and Gregg, Work and Welfare, 21.
28. 16. Committee on Social Justice, Social Justice. Strategies for Renewal. The Report of the Committee on Social Justice (chair: Sir. Gordon Borrie) (London: Vintage, 1994), 154.
29. 17. Stephen Machin and Jane Waldfogel, The Decline of the Male Breadwinner (London: LSE Welfare State Programme no. 103, 1994).
30. 18. Jane Jenson, Elisabeth Hagen, and Ceallaigh Reddy, eds., Feminization of the Labour Force (Cambridge: Polity, 1988).
31. 19. Union of Shop, Distributive and Allied Workers. Press release on zero-hours working, Manchester, 1994.
32. 20. The numbers in self-employment in Britain grew dramatically in the early part of the 1980s. Between 1981 and 1987 the number of people reporting self-employment as their main job grew from just over 2 million to almost 2.8 million, or from 9 percent to 12 percent of total employment. On this see Catherine Hakim, "Self-Employment in Britain: Recent Trends and Current Issues," Work, Employment and Society 2, no. 4 (1988): 421-50. The number of people officially classified as self-employed was put at just over 2.9 million in 1993 (Ruth Kelly and Larry Elliot, "Part-Time Jobs No Working Solution," The Guardian (U.K.), 26 Feb. 1994, p. 34.
33. 20. The numbers in self-employment in Britain grew dramatically in the early part of the 1980s. Between 1981 and 1987 the number of people reporting self-employment as their main job grew from just over 2 million to almost 2.8 million, or from 9 percent to 12 percent of total employment. On this see Catherine Hakim, "Self-Employment in Britain: Recent Trends and Current Issues," Work, Employment and Society 2, no. 4 (1988): 421-50. The number of people officially classified as self-employed was put at just over 2.9 million in 1993 (Ruth Kelly and Larry Elliot, "Part-Time Jobs No Working Solution," The Guardian (U.K.), 26 Feb. 1994, p. 34.
34. 21. It is estimated that as many as 50,000 people in Glasgow earn as little as 90 pence per hour working at home. Ninety percent are women. Cited from Amanda Eleftheriades, "When Home is a Working,Woman's Poverty Trap." The Scotsman, 28 Mar. 1996, p. 21.
35. 22. See, for example, A.I. Ogus, "Great Britain," in The Evolution of Social Insurance 1881-1981, ed. Peter Köhler, Hans Zacher (with Matthew Partington) (New York: St. Martin's, 1982), 150-264; Salais, "Why Was Unemployment So Low?"
36. 22. See, for example, A.I. Ogus, "Great Britain," in The Evolution of Social Insurance 1881-1981, ed. Peter Köhler, Hans Zacher (with Matthew Partington) (New York: St. Martin's, 1982), 150-264; Salais, "Why Was Unemployment So Low?"
37. 23. This illustrates how a notion like welfare state can be misleading. In this case, the government of welfare entails the enlistment of nominally private agents, such as the employer, into a larger governmental network. The latter traverses public/private boundaries. Perhaps the public/private distinction is best seen not as an analytical concept, but as a device that organizes government, distributes responsibilities, and codifies proper jurisdictions.
38. 24. For example, the Committee on Social Justice, Social Justice.
39. 25. See Chris Moore and J. J. Richardson (in association with Jeremy Moon), Local Partnership and the Unemployment Crisis in Britain (London: Unwin Hyman, 1989); Nicholas Deakin and John Edwards, The Enterprise Culture and the Inner City (London: Routledge, 1993); for a programmatic statement, see Robert J. Bennett and Andrew McCoshan, Enterprise and Human Resource Development (London: Paul Chapman, 1993).
40. 25. See Chris Moore and J. J. Richardson (in association with Jeremy Moon), Local Partnership and the Unemployment Crisis in Britain (London: Unwin Hyman, 1989); Nicholas Deakin and John Edwards, The Enterprise Culture and the Inner City (London: Routledge, 1993); for a programmatic statement, see Robert J. Bennett and Andrew McCoshan, Enterprise and Human Resource Development (London: Paul Chapman, 1993).
41. 25. See Chris Moore and J. J. Richardson (in association with Jeremy Moon), Local Partnership and the Unemployment Crisis in Britain (London: Unwin Hyman, 1989); Nicholas Deakin and John Edwards, The Enterprise Culture and the Inner City (London: Routledge, 1993); for a programmatic statement, see Robert J. Bennett and Andrew McCoshan, Enterprise and Human Resource Development (London: Paul Chapman, 1993).
42. 26. This and other schemes like it are described in Richard Disney, Lutz Bellman, Alan Curruth, Wolfgang Franz, Richard Jackman, Richard Layard, Hartmut Lehmann, and John Philpott, Helping the Unemployed. Active Labour Market Policies in Britain and Germany (London: Anglo-German Foundation, 1992).
43. 27. Mitchell Dean has highlighted the ethical dimension of governance. He demonstrates how employment services and training agencies are being reorganized to make the unemployed self the object (and subject) of their interventions. See his "Governing the Unemployed Self in an Active Society," Economy and Society 24, no. 4 (1995): 559-83.
44. 28. There is a huge literature on training, and especially training for young people. See, for example, Inge Bates, John Clarke, Philip Cohen, Dan Finn, Robert Moore, and Paul Willis, eds., Schooling for the Dole. The New Vocationalism (Houndmills: MacMillan); Denis Gleeson, ed., Training and Its Alternatives (Milton Keynes: Open University Press, 1990). On the politics of training, see David Finegold and David Soskice, "The Failure of Training in Britain: Analysis and Prescription," Oxford Review of Economic Policy 4, no. 3 (1988): 21-53; Desmond S. King, "The Conservatives and Training Policy 1979-1992: From a Tripartite to a Neoliberal Regime," Political Studies 41, no. 2 (1993): 214-35; Brian Evans, The Politics of the Training Market (London: Routledge, 1993).
45. 28. There is a huge literature on training, and especially training for young people. See, for example, Inge Bates, John Clarke, Philip Cohen, Dan Finn, Robert Moore, and Paul Willis, eds., Schooling for the Dole. The New Vocationalism (Houndmills: MacMillan); Denis Gleeson, ed., Training and Its Alternatives (Milton Keynes: Open University Press, 1990). On the politics of training, see David Finegold and David Soskice, "The Failure of Training in Britain: Analysis and Prescription," Oxford Review of Economic Policy 4, no. 3 (1988): 21-53; Desmond S. King, "The Conservatives and Training Policy 1979-1992: From a Tripartite to a Neoliberal Regime," Political Studies 41, no. 2 (1993): 214-35; Brian Evans, The Politics of the Training Market (London: Routledge, 1993).
46. 28. There is a huge literature on training, and especially training for young people. See, for example, Inge Bates, John Clarke, Philip Cohen, Dan Finn, Robert Moore, and Paul Willis, eds., Schooling for the Dole. The New Vocationalism (Houndmills: MacMillan); Denis Gleeson, ed., Training and Its Alternatives (Milton Keynes: Open University Press, 1990). On the politics of training, see David Finegold and David Soskice, "The Failure of Training in Britain: Analysis and Prescription," Oxford Review of Economic Policy 4, no. 3 (1988): 21-53; Desmond S. King, "The Conservatives and Training Policy 1979-1992: From a Tripartite to a Neoliberal Regime," Political Studies 41, no. 2 (1993): 214-35; Brian Evans, The Politics of the Training Market (London: Routledge, 1993).
47. 28. There is a huge literature on training, and especially training for young people. See, for example, Inge Bates, John Clarke, Philip Cohen, Dan Finn, Robert Moore, and Paul Willis, eds., Schooling for the Dole. The New Vocationalism (Houndmills: MacMillan); Denis Gleeson, ed., Training and Its Alternatives (Milton Keynes: Open University Press, 1990). On the politics of training, see David Finegold and David Soskice, "The Failure of Training in Britain: Analysis and Prescription," Oxford Review of Economic Policy 4, no. 3 (1988): 21-53; Desmond S. King, "The Conservatives and Training Policy 1979-1992: From a Tripartite to a Neoliberal Regime," Political Studies 41, no. 2 (1993): 214-35; Brian Evans, The Politics of the Training Market (London: Routledge, 1993).
48. 28. There is a huge literature on training, and especially training for young people. See, for example, Inge Bates, John Clarke, Philip Cohen, Dan Finn, Robert Moore, and Paul Willis, eds., Schooling for the Dole. The New Vocationalism (Houndmills: MacMillan); Denis Gleeson, ed., Training and Its Alternatives (Milton Keynes: Open University Press, 1990). On the politics of training, see David Finegold and David Soskice, "The Failure of Training in Britain: Analysis and Prescription," Oxford Review of Economic Policy 4, no. 3 (1988): 21-53; Desmond S. King, "The Conservatives and Training Policy 1979-1992: From a Tripartite to a Neoliberal Regime," Political Studies 41, no. 2 (1993): 214-35; Brian Evans, The Politics of the Training Market (London: Routledge, 1993).
49. 29. Between 1993 and 1995 the level of participation on publicly funded youth training programs was in the general region of 275,000. For adult schemes it was between 100,000 and 150,000 people. See Labour Market Trends (incorporating the Employment Gazette) 104, no. 1 (Jan. 1996), s63.
50. 30. For example, Caroline Benn and John Fairley, Challenging the MSC on Jobs, Training and Education (London: Pluto, 1986).
51. 31. See Maurice Holt, ed., Skills and Vocationalism (Milton Keynes: Open University Press, 1987).
52. 32. For example, David Miliband, Learning by Right (London: Institute for Public Policy Research, 1990); Demos, The End of Unemployment: Bringing Work to Life (London: Demos, 1994).
53. 32. For example, David Miliband, Learning by Right (London: Institute for Public Policy Research, 1990); Demos, The End of Unemployment: Bringing Work to Life (London: Demos, 1994).
54. 33. For example, Unemployment Unit, Annual Report 1993-94 and Work Plan 1994-95 (London, 1994); Standing, "The Need for a New Social Consensus"; Balls and Gregg, Work and Welfare.
55. 33. For example, Unemployment Unit, Annual Report 1993-94 and Work Plan 1994-95 (London, 1994); Standing, "The Need for a New Social Consensus"; Balls and Gregg, Work and Welfare.
56. 33. For example, Unemployment Unit, Annual Report 1993-94 and Work Plan 1994-95 (London, 1994); Standing, "The Need for a New Social Consensus"; Balls and Gregg, Work and Welfare.
57. 34. Social Insurance and Allied Services (The "Beveridge report"), Cmd. 6404 (London: HMSO, 1942); cited from The Committee on Social Justice, Social Justice, 221.
58. 34. Social Insurance and Allied Services (The "Beveridge report"), Cmd. 6404 (London: HMSO, 1942); cited from The Committee on Social Justice, Social Justice, 221.
59. 35. Guy Standing, "Meshing Labour Flexibility with Security: An Answer to British Unemployment?" International Labour Review 125, no. 1 (1986): 87-106.
60. 36. John Myles, "Decline or Impasse? The Current State of the Welfare State," Studies in Political Economy 26 (1988); Daniel Moynihan, The Politics of a Guaranteed Income (New York: Vintage, 1973).
61. 36. John Myles, "Decline or Impasse? The Current State of the Welfare State," Studies in Political Economy 26 (1988); Daniel Moynihan, The Politics of a Guaranteed Income (New York: Vintage, 1973).
62. 37. David Purdy, "Citizenship, Basic Income and the State," in New Left Review 208 (1995): 30-48; see also the essays collected in Van Parijs, ed., Arguing for Basic Income.
63. 37. David Purdy, "Citizenship, Basic Income and the State," in New Left Review 208 (1995): 30-48; see also the essays collected in Van Parijs, ed., Arguing for Basic Income.
64. 38. Myles, "Decline or Impasse?"
65. 39. Standing, "Meshing Labour Flexibility."
66. 40. I owe this point to Nikolas Rose who argues that in the twentieth century social insurance is one of several technologies to have done precisely this for the idea of national community. See his inaugural lecture, Towards a Critical Sociology of Freedom (London: Goldsmiths' College, 1992).
67. 41. This expression is John Keane's. It is only with the historical emergence of employment societies that "the fact of paid work...emerges on a large scale and as an activity separate from the state and from the household and other institutions of civil society." Keane, Democracy and Civil Society, 71.
68. 42. See Nikolas Rose, "The Death of the Social? Refiguring the Territory of Government,Economy and Society (forthcoming).
69. 43. For example, the White Paper, Employment: The Challenge for the Nation (Cmnd. 9474) (London: HMSO, 1985).
70. 44. See the Chicago School's latest Nobel Laureate, Robert Lucas, Studies in Business Cycle Theory (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1981); Patrick Minford, The Supply-Side Revolution (Aldershot: Edward Elgar, 1991).
71. 44. See the Chicago School's latest Nobel Laureate, Robert Lucas, Studies in Business Cycle Theory (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1981); Patrick Minford, The Supply-Side Revolution (Aldershot: Edward Elgar, 1991).
72. 45. Disney et al., Helping the Unemployed; Ewart Keep and Ken Mayhew, "Skilling the Jobless: Time for a New Deal?" Employment Policy Institute Economic Report 8, no. 1 (Feb. 1994).
73. 45. Disney et al., Helping the Unemployed; Ewart Keep and Ken Mayhew, "Skilling the Jobless: Time for a New Deal?" Employment Policy Institute Economic Report 8, no. 1 (Feb. 1994).
74. 46. Unemployment Unit, Turning Up the Heat: The Jobseeker's Allowance (London: Unemployment Unit, 1994).
75. 47. Eithne McLaughlin, Understanding Unemployment. New Perspectives on Active Labour Market Policies (London: Routledge, 1992); Disney et al., Helping the Unemployed.
76. 47. Eithne McLaughlin, Understanding Unemployment. New Perspectives on Active Labour Market Policies (London: Routledge, 1992); Disney et al., Helping the Unemployed.
77. 48. Richard Titmuss was probably the first writer on social policy to point out that the notion of private welfare is problematic since private forms of provision are often publicly subsidized. See Richard M. Titmuss, "The Social Division of Welfare: Some Reflections on the search for Equity," in The Philosophy of Welfare. Selected Writing of Richard M. Titmuss, ed. Brian Abel-Smith and Kay Titmuss (London: Allen and Unwin, 1987).
78. 49. William Beveridge, Voluntary Action (London: Allen & Unwin, 1948).
79. 50. Nicholas Barr, The Mirage of Private Unemployment Insurance. Welfare State Programme Discussion Paper no. 34. (London: LSE, 1988). While private insurance against unemployment is barely developed, schemes to insure the individual's mortgage repayments against loss of income due to unemployment have become prevalent.
80. 51. Freeman, "The Limits of Wage Flexibility." Andrew Rutherford has recently commented on the rise of incarceration in the United States ("Enemy behind bars," The Guardian, 13 Mar. 1996): between 1980 and 1995 the combined local, state, and federal prison population in the United States has risen from 493,000 to 1,544,000. This translates into an imprisonment rate of 555 per 100,000 inhabitants, close to the rate in Russia. There is a striking racial dimension too: the incarceration rate is 306 per 100,000 for whites compared with 1,947 for blacks. For an indictment of American criminal policy, see the newly published report of the independent National Criminal Justice Commission, The Real War on Crime (New York: Harper Collins, 1996).
81. 51. Freeman, "The Limits of Wage Flexibility." Andrew Rutherford has recently commented on the rise of incarceration in the United States ("Enemy behind bars," The Guardian, 13 Mar. 1996): between 1980 and 1995 the combined local, state, and federal prison population in the United States has risen from 493,000 to 1,544,000. This translates into an imprisonment rate of 555 per 100,000 inhabitants, close to the rate in Russia. There is a striking racial dimension too: the incarceration rate is 306 per 100,000 for whites compared with 1,947 for blacks. For an indictment of American criminal policy, see the newly published report of the independent National Criminal Justice Commission, The Real War on Crime (New York: Harper Collins, 1996).
82. 51. Freeman, "The Limits of Wage Flexibility." Andrew Rutherford has recently commented on the rise of incarceration in the United States ("Enemy behind bars," The Guardian, 13 Mar. 1996): between 1980 and 1995 the combined local, state, and federal prison population in the United States has risen from 493,000 to 1,544,000. This translates into an imprisonment rate of 555 per 100,000 inhabitants, close to the rate in Russia. There is a striking racial dimension too: the incarceration rate is 306 per 100,000 for whites compared with 1,947 for blacks. For an indictment of American criminal policy, see the newly published report of the independent National Criminal Justice Commission, The Real War on Crime (New York: Harper Collins, 1996).
83. 52. T. H. Marshall, Citizenship and Social Class (republished with an essay by Tom Bottomore) (London: Pluto Press, 1992), 33.
84. 53. Mike Davis, City of Quartz (New York: Verso, 1990), which focuses on Los Angeles, is a superb case-study of this strategy of criminalization.
85. 54. Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, Employment/ Unemployment Study: Interim Report (London: HMSO, July Regional Trends, 1993); cited from Balls and Gregg, Work and Welfare, 17.
86. 54. Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, Employment/ Unemployment Study: Interim Report (London: HMSO, July Regional Trends, 1993); cited from Balls and Gregg, Work and Welfare, 17.
87. 55. The Work of Nations (New York: Vintage, 1991).
88. 56. For example, Commission of the European Communities, European Social Policy. Options for the Union (Brussels & Luxembourg: CEC, 1993).
89. 57. The Committee on Social Justice, Social Justice.
90. 58. Ibid., 151.
91. 59. Division of the European Communities, European Social Policy, 21.
92. 60. Ibid., 21.
93. 61. Hilary Metcalf, "Hidden Unemployment and the Labour Market," in Understanding Unemployment, ed. McLaughlin (London: Full Employment UK).
94. 62. Full Employment UK, After Employment Training - what next? (London: Author, 1991).
95. 63. Commission of the European Communities, European Social Policy.
96. 64. Bennett and McCoshan, Enterprise and Human Resource Development.
97. 65. The Committee on Social Justice, Social Justice, 120.
98. 66. The question of how the entrepreneurial state is to govern the social, given this logic of human capital, is a complex one we can't go into here. Further to the future of "social" governance, see Rose, "Death of the Social?"
99. 67. The Committee on Social Justice, Social Justice; Demos, The End of Unemployment.
100. 67. The Committee on Social Justice, Social Justice; Demos, The End of Unemployment.
101. 68. Bennett and McCoshan, Enterprise and Human Resource Development.
102. 69. Rosabeth Moss Kanter, "Employment and Job Security in the 21st Century," in Demos, The End of Unemployment.
103. 69. Rosabeth Moss Kanter, "Employment and Job Security in the 21st Century," in Demos, The End of Unemployment.