Comparing experimental systems: Protein synthesis in microbes and in animal tissue at Cambridge (Ernest F. Gale) and at the Massachusetts General Hospital (Paul C. Zamecnik), 1945-1960

Journal of the History of Biology

Volumn 29, Issue 3, 1996, Pages 387-416

  Rheinberger, Hans Jörg ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF SALZBURG   (Austria)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

PROTEIN;

ANIMAL; ARTICLE; BIOCHEMISTRY; HISTOLOGY; HISTORY; HOSPITAL LABORATORY; HUMAN; LABORATORY; MICROBIOLOGY; UNITED KINGDOM; UNITED STATES; UNIVERSITY;

ANIMALS; BIOCHEMISTRY; GREAT BRITAIN; HISTOLOGY; HISTORY, 20TH CENTURY; HUMANS; LABORATORIES; LABORATORIES, HOSPITAL; MICROBIOLOGY; PROTEINS; UNITED STATES; UNIVERSITIES;

EID: 0030239246     PISSN: 00225010     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/bf00127381     Document Type: Review

References (161)

1. Ernest F. Gale, "The Nitrogen Metabolism of Gram-Positive Bacteria," Bull. Johns Hopkins Hosp., 83 (1948), 174.
2. Gunther S. Stent, "That Was the Molecular Biology That Was," Science, 160 (1968), 390-395.
3. Mahlon B. Hoagland, Toward the Habit of Truth: A Life in Science (New York: W. W. Norton, 1990), p. 82.
4. See, e.g., Pnina Abir-Am, "From Biochemistry to Molecular Biology: DNA and the Acculturated Journey of the Critic of Science Erwin Chargaff," Hist. Phil. Life Sci., 2 (1980), 3-60;
5. Pnina Abir-Am, idem, "Themes, Genres and Orders of Legitimation in the Consolidation of New Scientific Disciplines: Deconstructing the Historiography of Molecular Biology," Hist. Sci., 23 (1985), 73-117;
6. Jean-Paul Gaudillière, "Biologie moléculaire et biologistes dans les années soixante: La naissance d'une discipline. Le cas français," Thèse de doctorat, Université Paris VII, 1991;
7. Pnina G. Abir-Am, "The Politics of Macromolecules: Molecular Biologists, Biochemists, and Rhetoric," Osiris, 7 (1992), 164-191;
8. Richard M. Burian, "Technique, Task Definition, and the Transition from Genetics to Molecular Genetics: Aspects of the Work on Protein Synthesis in the Laboratories of J. Monod and P. Zamecnik," J. Hist. Biol., 26 (1993), 387-407;
9. Jean-Paul Gaudillière, "Molecular Biology in the French Tradition: Redefining Local Traditions and Disciplinary Patterns," J. Hist. Biol., ibid., pp. 473-498;
10. Richard M. Burian, "Underappreciated Pathways toward Molecular Genetics as illustrated by Jean Brachet's Cytochemical Embryology," in New Perspectives on the History and Philosophy of Molecular Biology, ed. Sahotra Sarkar (Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1996), pp. 67-85;
11. Soraya de Chadarevian, "Sequences, Conformation, Information: Biochemists and Molecular Biologists in the 1950s," J. Hist. Biol., this issue;
12. Angela N. H. Creager, "Wendell Stanley's Dream of a Free-Standing Biochemistry Department at the University of California, Berkeley," J. Hist. Biol., ibid.
13. A more comprehensive account than the one presented here would have to include at least the work of Henry Borsook and his group from the Kerckhoff Laboratories of Biology at the California Institute of Technology; that of David Greenberg from the Division of Biochemistry at the University of California Medical School, Berkeley; that of Tore Hultin at the Wenner-Gren Institute for Experimental Biology in Stockholm; and that of Jean Brachet, Hubert Chantrenne, and Raymond Jeener at the University of Brussels.
14. For the development of biochemistry in Cambridge see Mark Weatherall and Harmke Kamminga, Dynamic Science: Biochemistry in Cambridge, 1898-1949 (Cambridge: Cambridge Wellcome Unit Publications, 1992).
15. In fact, one of the first research papers by Gale was on "adaptation": Marjorie Stephenson and Ernest F. Gale, "The Adaptability of Glucozymase and Galactozymase in Bacterium coli," Biochem. J., 31 (1937), 1311-1315.
16. Almost twenty years later, he came back to this problem in the context of linking nucleic acid synthesis and protein synthesis: Ernest Gale and Joan P. Folkes, "The Assimilation of Amino Acids by Bacteria. 21. The Effect of Nucleic Acids on the Development of Certain Enzymic Activities in Disrupted Staphylococcal Cells," Biochem. J., 59 (1955), 675-684.
17. See also Weatherall and Kamminga, Dynamic Science (above, n. 6), pp. 48-50.
18. The first paper in the series was Ernest F. Gale, "The Production of Amines by Bacteria. 1. The Decarboxylation of Amino-Acids by Strains of Bacterium coli," Biochem. J., 34 (1940), 392-413.
19. For a review see Ernest F. Gale, "The Bacterial Amino Acid Decarboxylases," Adv. Enzymol., 6 (1946), 1-32.
20. The first in the long series is Ernest F. Gale, "The Assimilation of Amino-Acids by Bacteria. 1. The Passage of certain Amino-Acids across the cell-Wall and Their Concentration in the Internal Environment of Streptococcus faecalis," J. Gen. Microbiol., 1 (1947), 53-76.
21. Gale recalls: "In the middle of the War I had received from I.C.I, a small sample of the newly produced penicillin (activity 60 units/mg!) but before we could use it for any experimental work, I received, in the middle of one night, a cry for help from the Professor of Clinical Medicine in the hospital that one of his nurses was dying from a staphylococcal infection ... my supply ran out in the early morning - by that time the nurse was conscious and her temperature had fallen almost to normal. . . . This had a profound effect on me and I decided that we should try to find out what was happening. . . . Penicillin and many of the later antibiotics were mainly effective against Gram-positive organisms so we should work with them. The infections most dramatically cleared by penicillin were staphylococcal ones" (Ernest F. Gale, letter to author, January 17, 1994).
22. E.g., Ernest F. Gale and E. Shirley Taylor, "The Assimilation of Amino-Acids by Bacteria. 5. The Action of Penicillin in Preventing the Assimilation of Glutamic Acid by Staphylococcus aureus," J. Gen. Microbiol., 1 (1947), 314-326.
23. For a review, see Ernest F. Gale, "Assimilation of Amino Acids by Gram-Positive Bacteria and Some Actions of Antibiotics Thereon," Adv. Protein Chem., 8 (1953), 285-391.
24. Gale, letter to author, January 17, 1994.
25. Ernest F. Gale, "Glutamic Acid Accumulation and Protein Synthesis in Staphylococcus aureus," Biochem. J., 47 (1950), xxvi.
26. Ernest F. Gale and T. F. Paine, "Effect of Inhibitors and Antibiotics on Glutamic Acid Accumulation and on Protein Synthesis in Staphylococcus aureus," Biochem. J., 47 (1950), xxvi.
27. For a review, see Gale, "Assimilation of Amino Acids" (above, n. 13).
28. Gale, "Nitrogen Metabolism" (above, n. 1), pp. 171-174; here, he concluded: "The present indication is that we must turn our attention to the study of nucleic acid synthesis and metabolism with especial reference to that material laid down in the Gram-positive cell and imparting the positive reaction when treated by the Gram technique" (p. 174).
29. One year later, he remarked: "Present indications are that the assimilation mechanism involves ribonucleic acid synthesis which is the primary point of penicillin attack. It is hoped to deal with this point in a later publication" (Ernest F. Gale, "The Assimilation of Amino-Acids by Bacteria. 7. The Nature of Resistance to Penicillin in Staphylococcus aureus," J. Gen. Microbiol., 3 [1949], 141).
30. See, e.g., François Gros and M. Macheboeuf, "Recherches biochimiques sur le mdoe d'action de la pénicilline sur une bactèrie: Clostridium sporogenes," Ann. Inst. Pasteur, 74 (1948), 368-387;
31. François Gros and M. Macheboeuf, "Recherches biochimiques sur le mode d'action de la pénicilline sur les bactéries," Bull. Acad. Na. Méd., 3rd ser., 132 (1948), 80-82;
32. François Gros, M. Beljanski, and M. Macheboeuf, "Action de la pénicilline sur le métabolisme de l'acide ribonucléique chez Staphylococcus aureus," Bull. Soc. Chim. Biol., 33 (1951), 1969-1717.
33. For a survey, see Torbjörn Caspersson, "The Relations between Nucleic Acid and Protein Synthesis," in Nucleic Acid, Symp. Soc. Exp. Biol. 1 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1947), pp. 127-151.
34. Berndt Malmgren and Carl-Göran Hedén "Studies of the Nucleotide Metabolism of Bacteria," Acta Pathol. Microbiol. Scand., 24 (1947), 417-436, 437-446, 448-471, 472-495, 496-504.
35. "We never published this" (Gale, letter to author, January 17, 1994).
36. Ernest F. Gale and Joan P. Folkes, "The Assimilation of Amino-Acids by Bacteria. 14. Nucleic Acid and Protein Synthesis in Staphylococcus aureus," Biochem. J., 53 (1953), 483-492.
37. Gale, letter to author, January 17, 1994.
38. Ernest F. Gale and Joan P. Folkes, "The Assimilation of Amino Acids by Bacteria. 18. The Incorporation of Glutamic Acid into the Protein Fraction of Staphylococcus aureus," Biochem. J., 55 (1953), 721-729.
39. Biochem. J., Ibid., p. 728.
40. Ernest F. Gale and Joan P. Folkes, "The Assimilation of Amino-Acids by Bacteria. 19. The Inhibition of Phenylalanine Incorporation in Staphylococcus aureus by Chloramphenicol and p-Chlorophenylalanine," Biochem. J., 55 (1953), 731-735.
41. Gale and Folkes, "Assimilation . . . 18" (above, n. 25), p. 728.
42. Committee on Research, Executive Committee Minutes, Book 2, January 1951-December 1952, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Mass.
43. Gale, letter of January 17, 1994.
44. Ernest F. Gale and Joan P. Folkes, "Amino Acid Incorporation by Fragmented Staphylococcal Cells," Biochem. J., 55 (1953), xi;
45. Ernest F. Gale, "Amino-Acid Incorporation and Protein Synthesis in Staphylococcus aureus," Symposium on Bacterial Metabolism, 6th International Congress of Microbiology (1953), pp. 117-123.
46. Ernest F. Gale and Joan P. Folkes, "Effect of Nucleic Acids on Protein Synthesis and Amino-Acid Incorporation in Disrupted Staphylococcal Cells," Nature, 173 (1954), 1224. Note the authors' emphasis on protein synthesis (as opposed to mere incorporation).
47. Ernest F. Gale, "From Amino Acids to Proteins," in A Symposium on Amino Acid Metabolism, ed. W. D. McElroy and H. B. Glass (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1955), pp. 171-192;
48. Ernest F. Gale and Joan P. Folkes, "The Assimilation of Amino Acids by Bacteria. 20. The Incorporation of Labeled Amino Acids by Disrupted Staphylococcal Cells," Biochem. J., 59 (1955), 661-675.
49. Gale, "From Amino Acids" (above, n. 33), p. 191.
50. Usually, he referred to Peter C. Caldwell and Cyril Hinshelwood, "Some Considerations on Autosynthesis in Bacteria," J. Chem. Soc. (1950), Part IV, 3156-3159;
51. Felix Haurowitz, Chemistry and Biology of Proteins (New York: Academic Press, 1950), chap. 17, pp. 326-358;
52. Alexander L. Dounce, "Duplicating Mechanism for Peptide Chain and Nucleic Acid Synthesis," Enzymologia, 15 (1952), 251-258;
53. Alexander Rich and James D. Watson, "Some Relations between DNA and RNA," Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA, 40 (1954), 759-764.
54. Gale "From Amino Acids" (above, n. 33), p. 191. What was at stake here, would later take the form of soluble RNA, and finally transfer RNA.
55. Gale and Folkes, "Assimilation . . . 20" (above, n. 33), pp. 667-668.
56. Gale, "From Amino Acids" (above, n. 33), p. 183.
57. See, e.g., Elizabeth B. Keller and Paul C. Zamecnik, "The Effect of Guanosine Diphosphate and Triphosphate on the Incorporation of Labeled Amino Acids into Proteins," J. Biol. Chem., 221 (1956), 54.
58. It was obtained within 30 min at 16,000 x g: Gale and Folkes, "Assimilation . . . 20" (above, n. 33).
59. Gale, letter to author, January 17, 1994.
60. Gale and Folkes, "Assimilation . . . 21" (above, n. 7).
61. Assimilation . . . 21 Ibid., p. 683.
62. Francis H. C. Crick, "On Protein Synthesis," Symp. Soc. Exp. Biol. London, 12 (1958), 138-163.
63. Thomas D. Brock, The Emergence of Bacterial Genetics (Cold Spring Harbor, N. Y.: Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, 1990), pp. 266-267.
64. Gale, letter to author, January 17, 1994; "I believe," Gale adds, "that he was right in this and that we handicapped ourselves severely by choosing staphs - but this was by far the more important group of organisms from an antibiotic action point of view."
65. Monica Riley, Arthur B. Pardee, François Jacob, and Jacques Monod, "On the Expression of a Structural Gene," J. Mol. Biol., 2 (1960), 216-225.
66. Thoams S. Kuhn, The Trouble with the Historical Philosophy of Science (Cambridge, Mass.: Department of the History of Science, Harvard University, 1992), p. 14.
67. Sol Spiegelman, "On the Nature of the Enzyme-Forming System," in Enzymes: Units of Biological Structure and Function, ed. O. H. Gaebler (New York: Academic Press, 1956), p. 82.
68. Ernest F. Gale and Joan P. Folkes, "Promotion of Incorporation of Amino-Acids by Specific di- and tri-Nucleotides," Nature, 175 (1955), 592-593;
69. Ernest F. Gale, "Incorporation of Amino-Acids by Disrupted Staphylococci: Replacement of Ribonucleic Acid by Its Digestion Products," in Proceedings of the Third International Congress of Biochemistry, Brussels 1955, ed. C. Liébecq (New York: Academic Press, 1956), pp. 345-349.
70. Gale and Folkes, "Promotion of Incorporation" (above, n. 49), p. 593.
71. The reference is to Dounce, "Duplicating Mechanism" (above, n. 34).
72. It is difficult to interpret these observations in the light of the genetic code dictionary of the mid-1960s. It may be noted, however, that A and C are components of the code word for aspartic acid. In a letter to Franklin Portugal from November 11, 1975, Gale, in any case, does not claim to see his work as a neglected precursor to the genetic code: "I have, of course, often wondered in the light of later events what was the relationship between this early work of ours and the later developments, but I am afraid that any real connection could only be coincidental. . . . I have often kicked myself for not having followed up these early findings as it certainly looks nowadays as though this would have been worth doing" (Franklin H. Portugal and Jack S. Cohen, A Century of DNA [Cambridge: MIT Press, 1977], p. 288).
73. Ernest F. Gale, "Nucleic Acids and Amino Acid Incorporation," in CIBA Foundation Symposium on Ionizing Radiations and Cell Metabolism, ed. G. E. W. Wolstenholme and Cecilia M. O'Connor (Boston: Little, Brown, 1956), pp. 174-184.
74. Ernest F. Gale, "Nucleic Acids and the Incorporation of Amino Acids," in The Structure of Nucleic Acids and Their Role in Protein Synthesis, ed. E. M. Cook, Biochemical Society Symposium No. 14 (Cambridge University Press, 1957), pp. 47-59.
75. Francis C. Crick, discussion note, in The Structure of Nucleic Acids and Their Role in Protein Synthesis, ibid., pp. 25-26.
76. Gale, letter to author, January 17, 1994.
77. Soraya de Chadarevian, pers. comm.
78. Gale, "Nucleic Acids and Amino Acid Incorporation" (above, n. 51), p. 183.
79. Gale to Franklin Portugal, November 11, 1975 (above, n. 50), p. 288. See also Ernest F. Gale and Joan P. Folkes, "The Assimilation of Amino Acids by Bacteria. 25. The Preparation and Activities of a Factor Involved in the Incorporation of Amino Acids in Disrupted Staphylococcal Cells," Biochem. J., 69 (1958), 611-619.
80. The procedure included (1) digestion of nucleic acid; (2) extraction with ethanol; (3) ionophoresis at pH 10.5; (4) second extraction with ethanol; (5) chromatography in propan-2-ol-aq. ammonia soin.; and (6) chromatography in ethanol-ether-aq. ammonia soin: Gale and Folkes, "Assimilation . . . 25" (above, n. 57), pp. 614-615.
81. Assimilation . . . 25 Ibid., p. 612. The discussion continued until the factor was "eventually shown to be a glycolipid fraction" (Gale to Franklin Portugal [above, n. 50], p. 288).
82. See, e.g., A. L. Demain, Joanne F. Newkirk, Evely C. Barnes, and D. Hendlin, "Studies on the 'Incorporation Factor' with Bacillus megaterium," Biochem. J., 83 (1962), 424-429;
83. Ernest F. Gale and Joan P. Folkes, "The Assimilation of Amino Acids by Bacteria. 27. The Relationship between Glycerol and 'Incorporation Factor," Biochem. J., ibid., pp. 430-438.
84. Ernest F. Gale, "Incorporation Factors, Amino Acid Incorporation and Nucleic Acid Synthesis," in Recent Progress in Microbiology, ed. G. Tunevall (Springfield, Ill.: Charles C. Thomas, 1959), pp. 104-114.
85. Hoagland, Toward the Habit of Truth (above, n. 3), pp. 99-116.
86. Ernest F. Gale, "Protein Synthesis in Sub-Cellular Systems," Proceedings of the Fourth International Congress of Biochemistry, vol. VI (London: Pergamon Press, 1959), p. 164.
87. Mahlon B. Hoagland, "Discussion of Dr. Gale's paper," in Proceedings of the Fourth International Congress of Biochemistry, ibid., p. 168.
88. Gale, letter to author, January 17, 1994.
89. See, e.g., Ernest F. Gale, Eric Cundliffe, P. E. Reynolds, M. H. Richmond, and M. J. Waring, The Molecular Basis of Antibiotic Action (London: Wiley, 1972).
90. Hans-Jörg Rheinberger, "Experiment and Orientation: Early Systems of in Vitro Protein Synthesis," J. Hist. Biol., 26 (1993), 443-471.
91. For an extended account see Hans-Jörg Rheinberger, idem, Toward a History of Epistemic Things: Synthesizing Proteins in the Test Tube (Stanford: Stanford University Press, in press).
92. Nancy L. R. Bucher, "Dr. Aub, Huntington Hospital, and Cancer Research," Harvard Med. Alum. Bull., Fall/Winter 1987, pp. 46-51;
93. Paul C. Zamecnik, "Joseph Charles Aub, 1890-1973, "Trans. Ass. Amer. Physicians, 37 (1974), 12-14.
94. See also Nathaniel W. Faxon, The Massachusetts General Hospital 1935-1955 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1959), pp. 204-207, 231-240;
95. Benjamin Castelman, David C. Crockett, and S. B. Sutton, eds., The Massachusetts General Hospital 1955-1980 (Boston: Little, Brown, 1985), pp. 343-350.
96. Paul C. Zamecnik, "The Use of Labeled Amino Acids in the Study of the Protein Metabolism of Normal and Malignant Tissues: A Review," Cancer Res., 10 (1950), p. 660.
97. Robert B. Loftfield, "Preparation of C14-Labeled Hydrogen Cyanide, Alanine, and Glycine," Nucleonics, 1 (1947), 54-57.
98. 2," Science, 105 (1947), 123-125.
99. 14 from Carboxyl-Labeled dl-Alanine into the Proteins of Liver Slices," Science, 106 (1947), 544-545.
100. Interview with Robert Loftfield, June 18, 1993.
101. William F. Loomis and Fritz Lipmann, "Reversible Inhibition of the Coupling between Phosphorylation and Oxidation," J. Biol. Chem., 173 (1948), 807-808.
102. Ivan D. Frantz, Jr., Paul C. Zamecnik, John W. Reese, and Mary L. Stephenson, "The Effect of Dinitrophenol on the Incorporation of Alanine Labeled with Radioactive Carbon into the Proteins of Slices of Normal and Malignant Rat-Liver," J. Biol. Chem., 174 (1948), 773-774.
103. For a review, see Albert Claude, "Studies on Cells: Morphology, Chemical Constitution, and Distribution of Biochemical Function," Harvey Lect., 43 (1950), 121-164.
104. Zamecnik, "Use of Labeled Amino Acids" (above, n. 68), p. 663.
105. Philip Siekevitz, "Uptake of Radioactive Alanine in Vitro into the Proteins of Rat-Liver Fractions," J. Biol. Chem., 195 (1952), 549-565.
106. Interview with Nancy L. R. Bucher, July 16, 1993.
107. 14-Labeled acetate by Rat-Liver Homogenates," J. Amer. Chem. Soc., 75 (1953), 498.
108. Committee on Research, Executive Committee Minutes, Book 3, January 1953-December 1954, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Mass.
109. Elizabeth B. Keller and Paul C. Zamecnik, "Anaerobic Incorporation of C14-Amino Acids into Protein in Cell-Free Liver Preparations," Federation Proc., 13 (1954), 239-240;
110. Elizabeth B. Keller, Paul C. Zamecnik, and Robert B. Loftfield, "The Role of Microsomes in the Incorporation of Amino Acids into Proteins," J. Histochem. Cytochem., 2 (1954), 378-386.
111. An expression used by Hoagland in his autobiography: Hoagland, Toward the Habit of Truth (above, n. 3), p. 58.
112. Mahlon B. Hoagland and G. David Novelli, "Biosynthesis of Coenzyme A from Phosphopantetheine and of Pantetheine from Pantothenate," J. Biol. Chem., 207 (1954), 767-773.
113. Hoagland, Habit of Truth (above, n. 3), p. 71.
114. Mahlon B. Hoagland, "An Enzymic Mechanism for Amino Acid Activation in Animal Tissues," Biochim. Biophys. Acta, 16 (1955), 288-289.
115. Paul C. Zamecnik, Elizabeth B. Keller, John W. Littlefield, Mahlon B. Hoagland, and Robert B. Loftfield, "Mechanism of Incorporation of Labeled Amino Acids into Protein," J. Cell. Compar. Physiol., 47, suppl. 1 (1956), p. 87.
116. For more details concerning this crucial episode see Hans-Jörg Rheinberger, "Experiment, Difference, and Writing. II. The Laboratory Production of Transfer RNA," Stud. Hist. Phil. Sci., 23 (1992), 389-422.
117. To mention only two of the most perspicacious: Jean Brachet, "Nucleic Acids in the Cell and the Embryo," in Nucleic Acid (above, n. 20), pp. 207-224;
118. Caspersson, "Relations between Nucleic Acid and Protein Synthesis" (above, n. 20).
119. Sol Spiegelman, Harlyn O. Halvorson, and Ruth Ben-Ishai, "Free Amino Acids and the Enzyme-Forming Mechanism," in McElroy and Glass, Symposium (above, n. 33), pp. 124-170;
120. Gale, "From Amino Acids" (above, n. 33);
121. Gale and Folkes, "Assimilation . . . 21" (above, n.7).
122. Zamecnik et al., "Mechanism of Incorporation" (above, n. 86).
123. Elizabeth B. Keller, Paul C. Zamecnik, and Robert B. Loftfield, "The Role of Microsomes in the Incorporation of Amino Acids into Proteins," J. Histochem. Cytochem., 2 (1954), 378-386.
124. Marianne Grunberg-Manago and Severo Ochoa, "Enzymatic Synthesis and Breakdown of Polynucleotides; Polynucleotide Phosphorylase," J. Amer. Chem. Soc., 77 (1955), 3165-3166.
125. Paul C. Zamecnik, laboratory notebooks.
126. Horace F. Judson, The Eighth Day of Creation (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1979), p. 314.
127. Paul C. Zamecnik, "Historical Aspects of Protein Synthesis," Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci., 325 (1979), p. 279;
128. Hoagland, Habit of Truth (above, n. 3), pp. 86-87.
129. Zamecnik, laboratory notebooks, experiment of November 10, 1955.
130. Mahlon B. Hoagland, Paul C. Zamecnik, and Mary L. Stephenson, "Intermediate Reactions in Protein Biosynthesis," Biochim. Biophys. Acta, 24 (1957), 215-216.
131. Meanwhile, Robert Holley had completed a set of experiments that pointed to an RNase-sensitive intermediate in the activation of alanine: Robert W. Holley, "An Alanine-Dependent, Ribonuclease-Inhibited Conversion of AMP to ATP, and Its Possible Relationship to Protein Synthesis," J. Amer. Chem. Soc., 79 (1957), 658-662.
132. Kikuo Ogata and Hiroyoshi Nohara, "The Possible Role of the Ribonucleic Acid (RNA) of the pH 5 Enzyme in Amino Acid Activation," Biochem. Biophys. Acta, 25 (1957), 659-660;
133. Victor V. Koningsberger, Chr. Olaf Van der Grinten, and J. Theo G. Overbeek, "Possible Intermediates in the Biosynthesis of Proteins. I. Evidence for the Presence of Nucleotide-Bound Carboxyl-Activated Peptides in Baker's Yeast," Biochem. Biophys. Acta, ibid., 26 (1957), 483-490;
134. Paul Berg and E. James Ofengand, "An Enzymatic Mechanism for Linking Amino Acids to RNA," Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA, 44 (1958), 78-86;
135. Richard S. Schweet, Freeman C. Bovard, Esther Allen, and Edward Glassman, "The Incorporation of Amino Acids into Ribonucleic Acid," Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA, ibid., pp. 173-177;
136. Samuel B. Weiss, George Acs, and Fritz Lipmann, "Amino Acid Incorporation in Pigeon Pancreas Fractions," Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA, ibid., pp. 189-196;
137. Robert W. Holley and P. Prock, "Intermediates in Protein Synthesis: Alanine Activation and an Active Ribonucleic Acid Fraction," Federation Proc., 77 (1958), 244.
138. Kendric C. Smith, Eugene Cordes, and Richard S. Schweet, "Fractionation of Transfer Ribonucleic Acid," Biochim. Biophys. Acta, 33 (1959), 286-287.
139. Francis Crick, "On Degenerate Templates and the Adaptor Hypothesis: A Note for the RNA Tie Club" (unpublished),
140. reference in Robert Olby, The Path to the Double Helix, 2nd ed. (New York: Dover, 1994), p. 431-432. See also Crick, discussion note (above, n. 53);
141. Francis H. C. Crick, John S. Griffith, and Leslie E. Orgel, "Codes without Commas," Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA, 43 (1957), 416-421;
142. Crick, "Protein Synthesis" (above, n. 43).
143. Jean-Paul Gaudillière, "Wie man Modelle für Krebsentstehung konstruiert: Viren und Transfektion am (US) National Cancer Institute," in Objekte, Differenzen und Konjunkturen: Experimentalsysteme im historischen Kontext, ed. Hans-Jörg Rheinberger, Bettina Wahrig-Schmidt, and Michael Hagner (Berlin: Akademie Verlag, 1994), pp. 233-257.
144. Ludwik Fleck, Genesis and Development of a Scientific Fact [1935] (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1979), p. 86.
145. Jack Preiss, Paul Berg, E. James Ofengand, Fred H. Bergmann, and Marianne Dieckmann, "The Chemical Nature of the RNA-Amino Acid Compound Formed by Amino Acid-Activating Enzymes," Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA, 45 (1959), 319-328;
146. François Gros, H. Hiatt, Walter Gilbert, Chuck G. Kurland, R. W. Riesebrough, and James D. Watson, "Unstable Ribonucleic Acid Revealed by Pulse Labeling of E. coli," Nature, 190 (1961), 581-585;
147. Marshall W. Nirenberg and J. Heinrich Matthaei, "The Dependence of Cell-Free Protein Synthesis in E. coli upon Naturally Occurring or Synthetic Polyribonucleotides," Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA, 47 (1961), 1588-1602;
148. Fritz Lipmann, "Messenger Ribonucleic Acid," Prog. Nucleic Ac. Res., 1 (1963), 135-161.
149. Hoagland, Habit of Truth (above, n. 3), p. 48; interview with Mahlon Hoagland, March 15, 1990.
150. Interview with Mary stephenson, March 25, 1991.
151. Interview with Nancy Bucher, July 16, 1993.
152. Interview with Robert Loftfield, June 18, 1993.
153. Gale, letter to author, January 17, 1994.
154. Bruno Latour, Science in Action (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1987), pp. 87-88 and elsewhere.
155. A comparative linguistic analysis of the presentation and discussion of data in the research papers of the two groups would certainly be highly interesting.
156. Robert Loftfield, "The Biosynthesis of Protein," Prog. Biophys. and Biophys. Chem., 8 (1957), 376.
157. Interview with Mary Stephenson, March 25, 1991.
158. See Marvin R. Lamborg and Paul C. Zamecnik, "Amino Acid Incorporation into Protein by Extracts of E. coli," Biochim. Biophys. Acta, 42 (1960), 206-211.
159. 14C-markierter Aminosäuren ins Protein zellfreier Nucleoproteid-Enzym-Systeme aus Escherichia coli B," Hoppe-Seyler's Z. physiol. Chem., 314 (1959), 262-275.
160. For a detailed overview see Brock, Emergence of Bacterial Genetics (above, n. 44).
161. Interview with Paul Zamecnik, March 16, 1990.