Review of Durability Testing of Building Stone with Annotated Bibliography

Journal of Testing and Evaluation

Volumn 24, Issue 5, 1996, Pages 324-328

  Carr, Donald D ^a   Strickland, James ^b   McDonald, William H ^c   Bortz, Seymour ^d  

^a INDIANA UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b Maryland Stone Service   (United States)

^c McDonald Group   (United States)

^d WISS JANNEY ELSTNER ASSOCIATES INC   (United States)

Author keywords

Bibliography; Building stone; Durability; Physical properties; Physical testing

Indexed keywords

BUILDING MATERIALS; CONSTRUCTION; DURABILITY; MECHANICAL TESTING; MINERALOGY; PHYSICAL PROPERTIES; STANDARDS; WEATHERING;

ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY; BUILDING STONE;

ROCKS;

EID: 0030231560     PISSN: 00903973     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1520/jte11311j     Document Type: Review

References (31)

1. Anonymous, "Tentative Method of Test for Combined Effect of Temperature Cycles and Weak Salt Solutions on Natural Building Stone," American Society for Testing and Materials, C218-48T, 1948, pp. 541-543. A tentative test, apparently not approved for a standard, dealing with the combined effect of temperature cycles and weak salt solutions on crystalline natural building stones. The test appears to be directed to certain crystal-line building stones (marbles).
2. Anonymous, "Pierres blanches naturelles, Centre Scientifique et Technique de la Construction," Note d'Information Technique 80, Brussels, 1970. Provides information on the physical testing of dimension stones in Belgium. Not reviewed.
3. Anonymous, "The Selection of Natural Building Stone," Building Research Establishment (UK), BRE Digest 269, HMSO, London, 1983. The foundation upon which other reports (see E. Leary; Ross and Butlin) grew.
4. Anonymous, "Proposed Accelerated Weathering Test for Stone," Wiss, Janney, Elstner Associates, Chicago, unnumbered, 1991. Test submitted to ASTM C18-07 Committee on Environmental Properties, Behavior, and Cleaning for possible adoption as a standard. Samples of the size used for ASTM C880 are subject to rapid freezing and thawing for 100 cycles while submerged in an acid bath of 4.0 pH. Samples are tested at periodic intervals for fundamental transverse frequency and length change and by mechanical testing according to ASTM C880.
5. Bowles, O., The Stone Industries, Second Edition. McGraw-Hill, New York, 1939, p. 519. One of the better older texts on the crushed stone and dimension stone industries, but only cursory attention is directed to durability of building stone.
6. de Thury, H., et al., "On the Method Proposed by Mr. Brard for the Immediate Detection of Stones Unable to Resist the Action of Frost," Ann. de Che. et de Phys., Vol. 38, 1828, pp. 160-192. Very early report on the evaluation of stone susceptibility to freezing and thawing.
7. Eckel, E. C., Building Stones and Clays: Their Origin, Characters and Examination, John Wiley, New York 1912, p. 264. Tests that are considered applicable to determine the durability of stone are absorption, freezing, sulfate of soda, resistance to acids, and heat, but test results are not related to durable stones. Good for general information only.
8. Erlin, B., "When is a Bow Not a Bow." Stone World Magazine, February. 1989. Describes a test used to detect the effects of thermal hysterisis of fine-grained marble.
9. Hirschwald, J., Handbuch der Bautechnischen Gesteinsprufund, Verlag von Gebruder Borntraeger, Berlin, 1912, pp. 110-118. Describes a "saturation coefficient" as a rapid test for frost susceptibility of building stone. Saturation coefficient is defined as the ratio of the volume of water absorbed by a sample completely immersed in cold water for 24 h to the total volume of pore space in the sample. Hirschwald observed that stones with a saturation coefficient of more than 0.8 tended to be susceptible to frost, but as a general rule the higher the saturation coefficient, the less durable the stone tends to be. Some researchers feel that the test may give a general indication of stone durability, but it is not reliable in specific cases. Note: "Hirschwald coefficient," a term used in Belgium, is the same as "saturation coefficient," as used in Britain.
10. Honeyborne, D. B., "The Building Limestones of France," Building Research Establishment Report, HMSO, London, 1982, p. 116 Good review of durability tests for limestones in France, Belgium, and the United Kingdom. The French use a comprehensive series of tests involving porosity, capillarity coefficient, and frost resistance as determined by an artificial freezing test or by inference from the values of porosity and absorption coefficient (known as the "Hirschwald coefficient" in Belgium and "saturation coefficient" in Britain). The Belgian system is similar to the French, but places emphasis on observation of the behavior of stone in use. One aspect of durability testing of limestones is to use pore diameter by mercury porosimetry. The Belgians have found empirically that if the marginal pores have a diameter greater than 2.5 μm the risk of damage is negligible. The British system is in direct contrast with the methods used in France and Belgium. The British system relies entirely on a salt crystallization test, which is thought to more accurately reflect stone durability in urban atmospheres containing sulfur oxides. The reliability of this test has been criticized in print.
11. Jefferson, D. P., "The Weathering of Stone," Stone Industries, April, 1993, pp. 24-29. Good review of stone weathering and a discussion, with criticism, of the Ross and Butlin (1989) report. Contains a useful bibliography.
12. Julien, A. A., "The Durability of Building Stones in New York City and Vicinity," U.S. Census, 10th, 1880, pp. 364-393. Of historical interest. Laments the use of inferior stone in buildings constructed in the New York City area and the lack of concern of architects and builders. Quotes the commissioners, appointed by the Department of the Interior, to test the several specimens of marble offered for the extension of the United States Capitol, in a report of December 21, 1851: "Though the art of building has been practiced from the earliest times, and constant demands have been made in every age for the means of determining the best materials, yet the process of ascertaining the strength and durability of stone appears to have received but little definite scientific attention, and the commission, who have never before made this subject a special object of study, have been surprised with unforeseen difficulties at every step of their progress, and have come to the conclusion that the processes usually employed for solving these questions are still in a very unsatisfactory state."
13. Kessler, D. W. and Sligh, W. H., "Physical Properties of the Principal Commercial Limestones Used for Building Construction in the United States," Technologic Paper No. 349, U.S. Bureau of Standards, 1927, pp. 497-590. Consideration is given to physical properties of limestone, namely compressive strength, transverse strength, tensile strength, shearing tests, impact tests, elasticity, absorption, apparent specific gravity, true specific gravity, porosity, permeability, continuous load test, thermal expansion, and discoloration. An extensive series of freeze-thaw tests were made in order to simulate frost action. A meritorious aspect of the test was the attempt to simulate natural conditions, that being to freeze the specimens in a partly saturated condition. Additionally, limestone specimens were subjected to a crystallization test using a 15% solution of NaCl. The sodium chloride test is less severe than the sodium sulfate test.
14. Kessler, D. W., Insley, H., and Sligh, W. H., "Physical, Mineralogical, and Durability Studies on the Building and Monumental Granites of the United States," Research Paper RP1320, Journal of Research of the National Bureau of Standards, Vol. 25, 1940, pp. 161-206. Physical tests were made on 116 samples of granite from major producing areas in the United States. Tests conducted were compressive strength, flexural strength, shearing strength, abrasive hardness, toughness, elasticity, absorption, density, porosity, and water transmission rate. Scaling of granites in urban areas was attributed to conversion of calcite ingredients to calcium sulfate by acids in acid rain. No specific tests recommended to determine durability.
15. Leary, E., "The Building Limestones of the British Isles," Building Research Establishment Report SO36, 1983, p. 91. Discusses tests that have relevance to durability: porosity, saturation coefficient, porosimetry, capillarity, combination of pore parameters, frost test, and crystallization test. (The crystallization test consists of exposing samples to alternate periods of soaking in a solution of a salt, usually sodium sulfate, and drying in a humid oven. During the test, samples lose weight according to their durability; the higher the weight loss, the lower the durability). The study applies test results to the durability of building stones in the British Isles. Very useful report but the test results must be interpreted cautiously.
16. Lewis, M. D., Modern Stone Cladding: Design and Installation of Exterior Dimension Stone Systems (Manual 21), American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, 1994. Outlines the process of selecting, designing, and installing stone cladding systems for exterior walls. Stone's physical nature and cladding retention systems vary widely. The potential applications are widespread.
17. Mamillan, M., "Nouvelles connaissance pour l'utilisation et la protection des pierres de construction," Annales de l'Institut Technique du Bâtiment et des Travaux Publics, Serie Matériaux, No. 48, Supplément No. 335. Paris 1976, pp. 18-48. Provides information on the physical testing of building stones in France. Not reviewed.
18. Merrill, G. P., Stones for Building and Decoration, John Wiley, New York, 1910, p. 551. Describes stone tests to determine durability: permanence of color, resistance to corrosion, resistance to abrasion, absorptive powers, resistance to freezing, ratio of expansion and contraction, fireproof qualities, resistance to crushing, elasticity, resistance to shearing, and specific gravity. Only a general summary is given of those tests that show promise indicating durability. Many cautionary notes are given.
19. Merrill, G. P., "Report on Some Carbonic Acid Tests on the Weathering of Marbles and Limestones," U.S. National Museum Proceedings, Vol. 49, 1916, pp. 347-349. Perhaps one of the earliest attempts to quantify the loss to solution of various stone types immersed in carbonic acid for 70 days. Historic interest only.
20. Niesel, K. and Schimmelwitz, P., "Zur Quantitativen Kennzeichnung des Verwitterungsverhaltens von Naturwerksteinen Anhand Ihrer Gefuegemerkmale," ISBN Research Report 86, Berlin 182, 1982, p. 100. Makes use of the durability index described by Tetmajer (1884). Niesel considers the index a good indicator of the durability, but he feel that it should be used with caution. See Winkler (1986).
21. Noēl, P., "Les carrières françaises de roches de taille," Société de Diffusion des Techniques du Bâtiment et des Travaux Publics, Paris, France, 1970. Describes French building stone quarries and properties of stone. Not reviewed.
22. Powers, T. C., "Basic Considerations Pertaining to Freezingand-Thawing Tests." ASTM Proceedings, Vol. 55, 1955, pp. 1132-1155. Good review of freeze-and-thaw tests as applied to concrete, but discussion of freezing of aggregates applies equally well to dimension stone. Makes the point that total porosity is not as important as the size of pores. Other factors of importance in rock durability are homogeneity, degree of saturation, strength, and rate of freezing. Good bibliography as applied to durability of aggregates.
23. Richardson, B. A., "The Durability of Porous Stone," Stone Industries, Vol. 26, December, 1991, pp. 22-25. Describes a sodium sulfate crystallization test as a means to determine durability assessment. Test results are based on selected English limestones and sandstones.
24. Ross, K. D. and Butlin, R. N., "Durability Tests for Building Stone" Building Research Establishment (England) Report 141, 1989, p. 8. Good review of tests applicable to the durability of stones, specifically limestones, sandstones, and slates. Describes the following tests: crystallization, saturation coefficient, acid immersion, porosity, wet/dry, and water absorption. For limestones BRE recommends the crystallization test, saturation coefficient, and porosity. In addition, sandstones are subject to the sulfuric acid immersion test.
25. Ross, K. D. and Massey. S. "A Response to the Sedman and Stanley Analysis," Stone Industries, October, 1990, pp. 30-33. The authors consider that some fundamental inaccuracies have distorted the conclusions reached by Sedman and Stanley in their analysis of the crystallization test.
26. Schaffer, R. J., "The Weathering of Natural Building Stones," Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, Special Report 18, 1932, p. 149. Good coverage of the factors that control stone weathering in natural conditions. Contains a section on estimating stone durability but no specific recommendations are made.
27. Sedman, J. H. F. and Stanley, L., "Variations in the Physical Properties of Porous Building Limestones," Stone Industries, Vol. 25, No. 6, 1990, pp. 22-24. A critical appraisal of the British crystallization test as recommended by the Building Research Establishment (UK). The study finds that the number of samples recommended for use and statistical principles are inadequate.
28. Sedman, J. H. F. and Stanley, L., "The Crystallization Test as a Measure of Durability," Stone Industries, Vol. 25, No. 6, 1990, pp. 26-28. A critical appraisal of the British crystallization test as described by Ross and Butlin, 1989.
29. Tetmajer, L., "Methoden und Resultate der Pruefung Natuer-licher und Kuenstlicher Bausteine. In Mitteilungen der Anstalt fuer Pruefung von Baumaterialien am Eidg," Polytechnikum in Auerich, No. 1: Zuerich, Switzerland, Commissionsverlag von Meyer and Zeller, 1884, p. 59. Refers to an index of durability for sandstones based on wet-to-dry strength ratio of uniaxial compressive strength. See Winkler (1986).
30. Winkler, E. M., Stone: Properties, Durability in Man's Environment, Second Edition, Springer-Verlag, New York, 1975, p. 230. Excellent modern text on the properties of building stone and problems created by use in urban settings. Effect of freezing and thawing on durability is discussed, but no specific test is recommended for durability.
31. Winkler, E. M., "A Durability Index for Stone," Association of Engineering Geologists Bulletin, Vol. 23, 1986, pp. 344-347. Describes a simple and inexpensive method to determine the durability and state of weathering of stone. The method involves comparing the dry-to-wet strength ratio of modulus of rupture or uniaxial compressive strength. The ratio, termed "The Durability Index," was first described by L. Tetmajer in 1884. The method holds promise for sandstones and some marbles and limestones.