Assisted Suicide: The Challenge to the Nursing Profession

Journal of Law, Medicine and Ethics

Volumn 24, Issue 3, 1996, Pages 237-242

  Kjervik, Diane K ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF NORTH CAROLINA   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

AMERICAN NURSES ASSOCIATION; ARTICLE; ASSISTED SUICIDE; BIOETHICS AND PROFESSIONAL ETHICS; COMPASSION IN DYING V. STATE OF WASHINGTON; DEATH AND EUTHANASIA; HUMAN; LEGAL APPROACH; LEGAL ASPECT; MEDICAL ETHICS; MEDICAL SOCIETY; NURSE ATTITUDE; NURSE PRACTITIONER; NURSING CARE; PATIENT ADVOCACY; QUILL V. VACCO; SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY; UNITED STATES;

AMERICAN NURSES ASSOCIATION; BIOETHICS AND PROFESSIONAL ETHICS; COMPASSION IN DYING V. STATE OF WASHINGTON; DEATH AND EUTHANASIA; LEGAL APPROACH; QUILL V. VACCO;

AMERICAN NURSES' ASSOCIATION; ETHICS, NURSING; HUMANS; NURSE PRACTITIONERS; NURSE'S ROLE; NURSING CARE; PATIENT ADVOCACY; SOCIAL VALUES; SUICIDE, ASSISTED; UNITED STATES;

EID: 0030227054     PISSN: 10731105     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1748-720X.1996.tb01858.x     Document Type: Article

References (82)

1. Compassion in Dying v. State of Washington, 79 F.3d 790 (9th Cir. 1996) (en banc).
2. Quill v. Vacco, 80 F.3d 716 (2d Cir. 1996).
3. Active euthanasia is defined as the deliberate act of someone other than the patient taking action to put to death the patient who is suffering from painful and prolonged injury or illness.
4. Assisted suicide is defined as the act of making available a means of suicide to a patient, knowing the patient's intent to use the means.
5. American Nurses Association, Position Statement on Assisted Suicide (Washington, D.C.: American Nurses Association, 1994); and American Nurses Association, Position Statement on Active Euthanasia (Washington, D.C.: American Nurses Association, 1994). The ANA position statements have been endorsed by other nursing organizations including the American Association of Critical-Care Nurses. C. Scanlon, "Euthanasia and Nursing Practice - Right Question, Wrong Answer," N. Engl. J. Med., 334 (1996): 1401-02. The Oncology Nursing Society endorses the ANA position statements on assisted suicide and active euthanasia. ONS News, 10, no. 7 (1995): 4. The Hospice Nurses Association also endorses the ANA position on assisted suicide. M. Amenta, V. Shubert, and C. Wagner, "HNA Position Statements," Fanfare, 8, no. 3 (1994): 12.
6. American Nurses Association, Position Statement on Assisted Suicide (Washington, D.C.: American Nurses Association, 1994); and American Nurses Association, Position Statement on Active Euthanasia (Washington, D.C.: American Nurses Association, 1994). The ANA position statements have been endorsed by other nursing organizations including the American Association of Critical-Care Nurses. C. Scanlon, "Euthanasia and Nursing Practice - Right Question, Wrong Answer," N. Engl. J. Med., 334 (1996): 1401-02. The Oncology Nursing Society endorses the ANA position statements on assisted suicide and active euthanasia. ONS News, 10, no. 7 (1995): 4. The Hospice Nurses Association also endorses the ANA position on assisted suicide. M. Amenta, V. Shubert, and C. Wagner, "HNA Position Statements," Fanfare, 8, no. 3 (1994): 12.
7. American Nurses Association, Position Statement on Assisted Suicide (Washington, D.C.: American Nurses Association, 1994); and American Nurses Association, Position Statement on Active Euthanasia (Washington, D.C.: American Nurses Association, 1994). The ANA position statements have been endorsed by other nursing organizations including the American Association of Critical-Care Nurses. C. Scanlon, "Euthanasia and Nursing Practice - Right Question, Wrong Answer," N. Engl. J. Med., 334 (1996): 1401-02. The Oncology Nursing Society endorses the ANA position statements on assisted suicide and active euthanasia. ONS News, 10, no. 7 (1995): 4. The Hospice Nurses Association also endorses the ANA position on assisted suicide. M. Amenta, V. Shubert, and C. Wagner, "HNA Position Statements," Fanfare, 8, no. 3 (1994): 12.
8. American Nurses Association, Position Statement on Assisted Suicide (Washington, D.C.: American Nurses Association, 1994); and American Nurses Association, Position Statement on Active Euthanasia (Washington, D.C.: American Nurses Association, 1994). The ANA position statements have been endorsed by other nursing organizations including the American Association of Critical-Care Nurses. C. Scanlon, "Euthanasia and Nursing Practice - Right Question, Wrong Answer," N. Engl. J. Med., 334 (1996): 1401-02. The Oncology Nursing Society endorses the ANA position statements on assisted suicide and active euthanasia. ONS News, 10, no. 7 (1995): 4. The Hospice Nurses Association also endorses the ANA position on assisted suicide. M. Amenta, V. Shubert, and C. Wagner, "HNA Position Statements," Fanfare, 8, no. 3 (1994): 12.
9. American Nurses Association, Position Statement on Assisted Suicide (Washington, D.C.: American Nurses Association, 1994); and American Nurses Association, Position Statement on Active Euthanasia (Washington, D.C.: American Nurses Association, 1994). The ANA position statements have been endorsed by other nursing organizations including the American Association of Critical-Care Nurses. C. Scanlon, "Euthanasia and Nursing Practice - Right Question, Wrong Answer," N. Engl. J. Med., 334 (1996): 1401-02. The Oncology Nursing Society endorses the ANA position statements on assisted suicide and active euthanasia. ONS News, 10, no. 7 (1995): 4. The Hospice Nurses Association also endorses the ANA position on assisted suicide. M. Amenta, V. Shubert, and C. Wagner, "HNA Position Statements," Fanfare, 8, no. 3 (1994): 12.
10. American Nurses Association, Position Statement on Active Euthanasia, id. at 2.
11. American Nurses Association, Position Statement on Assisted Suicide, supra note 5, at 1.
12. Id. at 4.
13. D.M. Price and P.A. Murphy, "Assisted Suicide: New ANA Policy Reflects Difficulty of Issue," Journal of Nursing Law, 2, no. 2 (1995): 53-62. David Price and Patricia Murphy note that the task force members "returned to their first draft with a mandate to make it more hospitable to nurses who, in general terms or in highly specific circumstances, feel that assisted suicide may be occasionally justifiable or even a logical extension of the duty of fidelity." Id. at 55. It is worth noting that the Oregon Nurses Association, one state constituent of the ANA, issued a very different position statement that emphasizes both patients' and nurses' values, and emphasized that the nurses' role is to "share relevant information about health choices that are legal and to support the patient and family regardless of the decision the patient makes." Also, nurses are to transfer care to other nurses if they personally object to the patient's choice to die; and if such a transfer is impossible, nurses have "the responsibility to provide for ongoing end of life care." See Oregon Nurses Association, " ONA Provides Guidance on RN's Dilemma... Position Statement on the Nurses' Role in the Death with Dignity Act," Oregon Nurse, 60, no. 2 (1995): at 12.
14. D.M. Price and P.A. Murphy, "Assisted Suicide: New ANA Policy Reflects Difficulty of Issue," Journal of Nursing Law, 2, no. 2 (1995): 53-62. David Price and Patricia Murphy note that the task force members "returned to their first draft with a mandate to make it more hospitable to nurses who, in general terms or in highly specific circumstances, feel that assisted suicide may be occasionally justifiable or even a logical extension of the duty of fidelity." Id. at 55. It is worth noting that the Oregon Nurses Association, one state constituent of the ANA, issued a very different position statement that emphasizes both patients' and nurses' values, and emphasized that the nurses' role is to "share relevant information about health choices that are legal and to support the patient and family regardless of the decision the patient makes." Also, nurses are to transfer care to other nurses if they personally object to the patient's choice to die; and if such a transfer is impossible, nurses have "the responsibility to provide for ongoing end of life care." See Oregon Nurses Association, " ONA Provides Guidance on RN's Dilemma... Position Statement on the Nurses' Role in the Death with Dignity Act," Oregon Nurse, 60, no. 2 (1995): at 12.
15. D.L. Volker, "Assisted Suicide and the Terminally Ill: Is There a Right to Self-Determination?," Journal of Nursing Law, 2, no. 4 (1995): 37-48.
16. Compassion in Dying, 79 F.3d at 834.
17. Volker, supra note 10, at 45-46.
18. A. Young, "Professional Integrity and Assisted Suicide: A Nursing View," Bioethics Forum, 10, no. 2 (1994): 11-13.
19. M. Fowler, "The Terror and Darkness of Dying: On Caring, Not Killing," American Nurse, 28, no. 5 (1996): 5.
20. Id.
21. Id.
22. Slippery slope is defined as the act of making it easier over time to allow or even encourage others, especially vulnerable groups or individuals, to "choose" death.
23. S.D. Kowalski, "Assisted Suicide: Is There a Future? Ethical and Nursing Considerations," Critical Care Quarterly, 19 (1996): 45-54; M.S. Dewolf Bosek and D. Jezuit, "The Nurse's Role in Assisted Suicide," Medsurg Nursing, 4 (1995): 373-78; C.R. Kovach, "Euthanasia: Let Nursing's Voice Be Heard," Journal of Gerontological Nursing, 18, no. 4 (1992): 5; N. Coyle, "The Euthanasia and Physician-Assisted Suicide Debate: Issues for Nursing," Oncology Nursing Forum, 19, no. 7 (1992): 41-46; S. Whitfield, "Going Gently into that Good Night," Nursing Times, 83, no. 45 (1987): 30.
24. S.D. Kowalski, "Assisted Suicide: Is There a Future? Ethical and Nursing Considerations," Critical Care Quarterly, 19 (1996): 45-54; M.S. Dewolf Bosek and D. Jezuit, "The Nurse's Role in Assisted Suicide," Medsurg Nursing, 4 (1995): 373-78; C.R. Kovach, "Euthanasia: Let Nursing's Voice Be Heard," Journal of Gerontological Nursing, 18, no. 4 (1992): 5; N. Coyle, "The Euthanasia and Physician-Assisted Suicide Debate: Issues for Nursing," Oncology Nursing Forum, 19, no. 7 (1992): 41-46; S. Whitfield, "Going Gently into that Good Night," Nursing Times, 83, no. 45 (1987): 30.
25. S.D. Kowalski, "Assisted Suicide: Is There a Future? Ethical and Nursing Considerations," Critical Care Quarterly, 19 (1996): 45-54; M.S. Dewolf Bosek and D. Jezuit, "The Nurse's Role in Assisted Suicide," Medsurg Nursing, 4 (1995): 373-78; C.R. Kovach, "Euthanasia: Let Nursing's Voice Be Heard," Journal of Gerontological Nursing, 18, no. 4 (1992): 5; N. Coyle, "The Euthanasia and Physician-Assisted Suicide Debate: Issues for Nursing," Oncology Nursing Forum, 19, no. 7 (1992): 41-46; S. Whitfield, "Going Gently into that Good Night," Nursing Times, 83, no. 45 (1987): 30.
26. S.D. Kowalski, "Assisted Suicide: Is There a Future? Ethical and Nursing Considerations," Critical Care Quarterly, 19 (1996): 45-54; M.S. Dewolf Bosek and D. Jezuit, "The Nurse's Role in Assisted Suicide," Medsurg Nursing, 4 (1995): 373-78; C.R. Kovach, "Euthanasia: Let Nursing's Voice Be Heard," Journal of Gerontological Nursing, 18, no. 4 (1992): 5; N. Coyle, "The Euthanasia and Physician-Assisted Suicide Debate: Issues for Nursing," Oncology Nursing Forum, 19, no. 7 (1992): 41-46; S. Whitfield, "Going Gently into that Good Night," Nursing Times, 83, no. 45 (1987): 30.
27. S.D. Kowalski, "Assisted Suicide: Is There a Future? Ethical and Nursing Considerations," Critical Care Quarterly, 19 (1996): 45-54; M.S. Dewolf Bosek and D. Jezuit, "The Nurse's Role in Assisted Suicide," Medsurg Nursing, 4 (1995): 373-78; C.R. Kovach, "Euthanasia: Let Nursing's Voice Be Heard," Journal of Gerontological Nursing, 18, no. 4 (1992): 5; N. Coyle, "The Euthanasia and Physician-Assisted Suicide Debate: Issues for Nursing," Oncology Nursing Forum, 19, no. 7 (1992): 41-46; S. Whitfield, "Going Gently into that Good Night," Nursing Times, 83, no. 45 (1987): 30.
28. M.A. Aroskar, "Nursing and the Euthanasia Debate," Journal of Nursing Law, 2, no. 2 (1995): 35-37. See also K. DeBroff, Should the Nurse be Allowed to Assist Patient Suicide? (Baltimore: American Association of Nurse Attorneys Foundation, 1992): at 14: "Nurses are not void of emotion or morals; to expand the role of the nurse to include the assistance of pa- tient suicide expects the nurse to function as a robotic provider of care or death, whichever the patient desires."
29. M.A. Aroskar, "Nursing and the Euthanasia Debate," Journal of Nursing Law, 2, no. 2 (1995): 35-37. See also K. DeBroff, Should the Nurse be Allowed to Assist Patient Suicide? (Baltimore: American Association of Nurse Attorneys Foundation, 1992): at 14: "Nurses are not void of emotion or morals; to expand the role of the nurse to include the assistance of pa- tient suicide expects the nurse to function as a robotic provider of care or death, whichever the patient desires."
30. D.A. Asch, "The Role of Critical Care Nurses in Euthanasia and Assisted Suicide," N. Engl. J. Med., 334 (1996): 1374-79. This study has been criticized by the ANA for its confusion of euthanasia, assisted suicide, active euthanasia, and "justified end-of-life interventions, such as increasing morphine dosages to manage pain." See American Nurse, 28, no. 4 (1996): at 9; and Scanlon, supra note 5, at 1401. See also H. Kuhse and P. Singer, "Voluntary Euthanasia and the Nurse: An Australian Survey," International Journal of Nursing Studies, 30 (1993): 311-22. Kuhse and Singer's work has been criticized for its superficiality and the failure of the survey to decipher the level of understanding respondents had of the issues, in B. Pollard and R. Winton, "Why Doctors and Nurses Must Not Kill Patients," Medical Journal of Australia, 158 (1993): 426-29. See also C.A. Stevens and R. Hassan, "Nurses and the Management of Death, Dying and Euthanasia," Medicine & Law, 13 (1994): 541-54.
31. D.A. Asch, "The Role of Critical Care Nurses in Euthanasia and Assisted Suicide," N. Engl. J. Med., 334 (1996): 1374-79. This study has been criticized by the ANA for its confusion of euthanasia, assisted suicide, active euthanasia, and "justified end-of-life interventions, such as increasing morphine dosages to manage pain." See American Nurse, 28, no. 4 (1996): at 9; and Scanlon, supra note 5, at 1401. See also H. Kuhse and P. Singer, "Voluntary Euthanasia and the Nurse: An Australian Survey," International Journal of Nursing Studies, 30 (1993): 311-22. Kuhse and Singer's work has been criticized for its superficiality and the failure of the survey to decipher the level of understanding respondents had of the issues, in B. Pollard and R. Winton, "Why Doctors and Nurses Must Not Kill Patients," Medical Journal of Australia, 158 (1993): 426-29. See also C.A. Stevens and R. Hassan, "Nurses and the Management of Death, Dying and Euthanasia," Medicine & Law, 13 (1994): 541-54.
32. D.A. Asch, "The Role of Critical Care Nurses in Euthanasia and Assisted Suicide," N. Engl. J. Med., 334 (1996): 1374-79. This study has been criticized by the ANA for its confusion of euthanasia, assisted suicide, active euthanasia, and "justified end-of-life interventions, such as increasing morphine dosages to manage pain." See American Nurse, 28, no. 4 (1996): at 9; and Scanlon, supra note 5, at 1401. See also H. Kuhse and P. Singer, "Voluntary Euthanasia and the Nurse: An Australian Survey," International Journal of Nursing Studies, 30 (1993): 311-22. Kuhse and Singer's work has been criticized for its superficiality and the failure of the survey to decipher the level of understanding respondents had of the issues, in B. Pollard and R. Winton, "Why Doctors and Nurses Must Not Kill Patients," Medical Journal of Australia, 158 (1993): 426-29. See also C.A. Stevens and R. Hassan, "Nurses and the Management of Death, Dying and Euthanasia," Medicine & Law, 13 (1994): 541-54.
33. D.A. Asch, "The Role of Critical Care Nurses in Euthanasia and Assisted Suicide," N. Engl. J. Med., 334 (1996): 1374-79. This study has been criticized by the ANA for its confusion of euthanasia, assisted suicide, active euthanasia, and "justified end-of-life interventions, such as increasing morphine dosages to manage pain." See American Nurse, 28, no. 4 (1996): at 9; and Scanlon, supra note 5, at 1401. See also H. Kuhse and P. Singer, "Voluntary Euthanasia and the Nurse: An Australian Survey," International Journal of Nursing Studies, 30 (1993): 311-22. Kuhse and Singer's work has been criticized for its superficiality and the failure of the survey to decipher the level of understanding respondents had of the issues, in B. Pollard and R. Winton, "Why Doctors and Nurses Must Not Kill Patients," Medical Journal of Australia, 158 (1993): 426-29. See also C.A. Stevens and R. Hassan, "Nurses and the Management of Death, Dying and Euthanasia," Medicine & Law, 13 (1994): 541-54.
34. D.A. Asch, "The Role of Critical Care Nurses in Euthanasia and Assisted Suicide," N. Engl. J. Med., 334 (1996): 1374-79. This study has been criticized by the ANA for its confusion of euthanasia, assisted suicide, active euthanasia, and "justified end-of-life interventions, such as increasing morphine dosages to manage pain." See American Nurse, 28, no. 4 (1996): at 9; and Scanlon, supra note 5, at 1401. See also H. Kuhse and P. Singer, "Voluntary Euthanasia and the Nurse: An Australian Survey," International Journal of Nursing Studies, 30 (1993): 311-22. Kuhse and Singer's work has been criticized for its superficiality and the failure of the survey to decipher the level of understanding respondents had of the issues, in B. Pollard and R. Winton, "Why Doctors and Nurses Must Not Kill Patients," Medical Journal of Australia, 158 (1993): 426-29. See also C.A. Stevens and R. Hassan, "Nurses and the Management of Death, Dying and Euthanasia," Medicine & Law, 13 (1994): 541-54.
35. D.A. Asch, "The Role of Critical Care Nurses in Euthanasia and Assisted Suicide," N. Engl. J. Med., 334 (1996): 1374-79. This study has been criticized by the ANA for its confusion of euthanasia, assisted suicide, active euthanasia, and "justified end-of-life interventions, such as increasing morphine dosages to manage pain." See American Nurse, 28, no. 4 (1996): at 9; and Scanlon, supra note 5, at 1401. See also H. Kuhse and P. Singer, "Voluntary Euthanasia and the Nurse: An Australian Survey," International Journal of Nursing Studies, 30 (1993): 311-22. Kuhse and Singer's work has been criticized for its superficiality and the failure of the survey to decipher the level of understanding respondents had of the issues, in B. Pollard and R. Winton, "Why Doctors and Nurses Must Not Kill Patients," Medical Journal of Australia, 158 (1993): 426-29. See also C.A. Stevens and R. Hassan, "Nurses and the Management of Death, Dying and Euthanasia," Medicine & Law, 13 (1994): 541-54.
36. F. McInerney and C. Seibold, "Nurses' Definitions of and Attitudes Towards Euthanasia," Journal of Advanced Nursing, 22 (1995): 171-82 (offering views of nurses in Australia); A. Davis et al., "An International Perspective of Active Euthanasia: Attitudes of Nurses in Seven Countries," International Journal of Nursing Studies, 30 (1993): 301-10 (offering views of nurses in Australia, Canada, People's Republic of China, Finland, Israel, Sweden, and the United States); A. Young et al., "Oncology Nurses' Attitudes Regarding Voluntary, Physician-Assisted Dying for Competent, Terminally Ill Patients," Oncology Nursing Forum, 20 (1993): 445-51 (offering views of nurses in the United States); C.S. Stewart and G.S. Paulus, "Effect of Parental Socialization on Student Nurses' Attitudes Toward Euthanasia," Death Studies, 9 (1985): 395-415 (offering views of nurses in the United States); M.H. Nagi, "Clinical Imperatives versus Ethical Commitments in Euthanasia: The Perspectives of Nurses," Loss, Grief & Care, 4 (1990): 99-128 (offering views of nurses in the United States); and "Euthanasia: What You Think?," Nursing Times, 84, no. 33 (1988): 38-39 (offering views of nurses in England).
37. F. McInerney and C. Seibold, "Nurses' Definitions of and Attitudes Towards Euthanasia," Journal of Advanced Nursing, 22 (1995): 171-82 (offering views of nurses in Australia); A. Davis et al., "An International Perspective of Active Euthanasia: Attitudes of Nurses in Seven Countries," International Journal of Nursing Studies, 30 (1993): 301-10 (offering views of nurses in Australia, Canada, People's Republic of China, Finland, Israel, Sweden, and the United States); A. Young et al., "Oncology Nurses' Attitudes Regarding Voluntary, Physician-Assisted Dying for Competent, Terminally Ill Patients," Oncology Nursing Forum, 20 (1993): 445-51 (offering views of nurses in the United States); C.S. Stewart and G.S. Paulus, "Effect of Parental Socialization on Student Nurses' Attitudes Toward Euthanasia," Death Studies, 9 (1985): 395-415 (offering views of nurses in the United States); M.H. Nagi, "Clinical Imperatives versus Ethical Commitments in Euthanasia: The Perspectives of Nurses," Loss, Grief & Care, 4 (1990): 99-128 (offering views of nurses in the United States); and "Euthanasia: What You Think?," Nursing Times, 84, no. 33 (1988): 38-39 (offering views of nurses in England).
38. F. McInerney and C. Seibold, "Nurses' Definitions of and Attitudes Towards Euthanasia," Journal of Advanced Nursing, 22 (1995): 171-82 (offering views of nurses in Australia); A. Davis et al., "An International Perspective of Active Euthanasia: Attitudes of Nurses in Seven Countries," International Journal of Nursing Studies, 30 (1993): 301-10 (offering views of nurses in Australia, Canada, People's Republic of China, Finland, Israel, Sweden, and the United States); A. Young et al., "Oncology Nurses' Attitudes Regarding Voluntary, Physician-Assisted Dying for Competent, Terminally Ill Patients," Oncology Nursing Forum, 20 (1993): 445-51 (offering views of nurses in the United States); C.S. Stewart and G.S. Paulus, "Effect of Parental Socialization on Student Nurses' Attitudes Toward Euthanasia," Death Studies, 9 (1985): 395-415 (offering views of nurses in the United States); M.H. Nagi, "Clinical Imperatives versus Ethical Commitments in Euthanasia: The Perspectives of Nurses," Loss, Grief & Care, 4 (1990): 99-128 (offering views of nurses in the United States); and "Euthanasia: What You Think?," Nursing Times, 84, no. 33 (1988): 38-39 (offering views of nurses in England).
39. F. McInerney and C. Seibold, "Nurses' Definitions of and Attitudes Towards Euthanasia," Journal of Advanced Nursing, 22 (1995): 171-82 (offering views of nurses in Australia); A. Davis et al., "An International Perspective of Active Euthanasia: Attitudes of Nurses in Seven Countries," International Journal of Nursing Studies, 30 (1993): 301-10 (offering views of nurses in Australia, Canada, People's Republic of China, Finland, Israel, Sweden, and the United States); A. Young et al., "Oncology Nurses' Attitudes Regarding Voluntary, Physician-Assisted Dying for Competent, Terminally Ill Patients," Oncology Nursing Forum, 20 (1993): 445-51 (offering views of nurses in the United States); C.S. Stewart and G.S. Paulus, "Effect of Parental Socialization on Student Nurses' Attitudes Toward Euthanasia," Death Studies, 9 (1985): 395-415 (offering views of nurses in the United States); M.H. Nagi, "Clinical Imperatives versus Ethical Commitments in Euthanasia: The Perspectives of Nurses," Loss, Grief & Care, 4 (1990): 99-128 (offering views of nurses in the United States); and "Euthanasia: What You Think?," Nursing Times, 84, no. 33 (1988): 38-39 (offering views of nurses in England).
40. F. McInerney and C. Seibold, "Nurses' Definitions of and Attitudes Towards Euthanasia," Journal of Advanced Nursing, 22 (1995): 171-82 (offering views of nurses in Australia); A. Davis et al., "An International Perspective of Active Euthanasia: Attitudes of Nurses in Seven Countries," International Journal of Nursing Studies, 30 (1993): 301-10 (offering views of nurses in Australia, Canada, People's Republic of China, Finland, Israel, Sweden, and the United States); A. Young et al., "Oncology Nurses' Attitudes Regarding Voluntary, Physician-Assisted Dying for Competent, Terminally Ill Patients," Oncology Nursing Forum, 20 (1993): 445-51 (offering views of nurses in the United States); C.S. Stewart and G.S. Paulus, "Effect of Parental Socialization on Student Nurses' Attitudes Toward Euthanasia," Death Studies, 9 (1985): 395-415 (offering views of nurses in the United States); M.H. Nagi, "Clinical Imperatives versus Ethical Commitments in Euthanasia: The Perspectives of Nurses," Loss, Grief & Care, 4 (1990): 99-128 (offering views of nurses in the United States); and "Euthanasia: What You Think?," Nursing Times, 84, no. 33 (1988): 38-39 (offering views of nurses in England).
41. F. McInerney and C. Seibold, "Nurses' Definitions of and Attitudes Towards Euthanasia," Journal of Advanced Nursing, 22 (1995): 171-82 (offering views of nurses in Australia); A. Davis et al., "An International Perspective of Active Euthanasia: Attitudes of Nurses in Seven Countries," International Journal of Nursing Studies, 30 (1993): 301-10 (offering views of nurses in Australia, Canada, People's Republic of China, Finland, Israel, Sweden, and the United States); A. Young et al., "Oncology Nurses' Attitudes Regarding Voluntary, Physician-Assisted Dying for Competent, Terminally Ill Patients," Oncology Nursing Forum, 20 (1993): 445-51 (offering views of nurses in the United States); C.S. Stewart and G.S. Paulus, "Effect of Parental Socialization on Student Nurses' Attitudes Toward Euthanasia," Death Studies, 9 (1985): 395-415 (offering views of nurses in the United States); M.H. Nagi, "Clinical Imperatives versus Ethical Commitments in Euthanasia: The Perspectives of Nurses," Loss, Grief & Care, 4 (1990): 99-128 (offering views of nurses in the United States); and "Euthanasia: What You Think?," Nursing Times, 84, no. 33 (1988): 38-39 (offering views of nurses in England).
42. L. Wilkes and K. White, "Euthanasia: A Comparison of the Lived Experience of Chinese and Australian Palliative Care Nurses," Journal of Advanced Nursing, 18 (1993): 95-102.
43. M. Kelner, I. Bourgeault, and J. Wahl, "Regulation and Legislation of the Dying Process: Views of Health Care Professionals," Death Studies, 18 (1994): 167-81.
44. Passive euthanasia is defined as the act of letting nature take its course.
45. C.R. Shuman et al., "Attitudes of Registered Nurses Toward Euthanasia," Death Studies, 16 (1992): 1-15.
46. M. Kelner and I. Bourgeault, "Patient Control over Dying: Responses of Health Care Professionals," Social Science and Medicine, 33 (1993): 757-65. The study sample included twenty physicians and twenty nurses.
47. For articles that present philosophical and practice perspectives on nurses' attitudes, see News Focus, "Will to Live," Nursing Ttmes, 91, no. 12 (1995): 18; A.J. Davis, "Selected Issues in Nursing Ethics: Clinical, Philosophical, Political," Bioethics Forum, 10, no. 1 (1994): 10-14. Anne Davis distinguishes between "patient-as-body" and "patient-as-person" and between pain and suffering as issues vital to the discussion. See also Editorial, "Assisted Suicide," Journal of Pediatric Oncology Nursing, 10, no. 2 (1993): 43-44; and E.S. Ringerman and D. Koniak-Griffin, "A Reexamination of Euthanasia: Issues Raised by Final Exit," Nursing Forum, 27, no. 4 (1992): 5-8, 34. Eileen Ringerman and Deborah Koniak-Griffin point out that religious consensus against active euthanasia is shifting in that the United Church of Christ and the Unitarian Universalist churches have endorsed active euthanasia. For articles that present clearly defined positions for and against assisted suicide, see Sr. M.B. Kelber and R. MacIntyre, "Point/Counterpoint: Nurse-Assisted Suicide," Journal of the Association of Nurses in AIDS Care, 3, no. 1 (1992): 23-24; R.A. Johnson and K. Weiler, "Aid-in-Dying: Issues and Implications for Nursing," Journal of Professional Nursing, 6 (1990): 258-64; H. Caplan, "It's Time We Helped Patients Die," RN, 50, no. 11 (1987): 44-48; and P. Turton, "The Death Debate," Nursing Times, 83, no. 45 (1987): 31. The debate reflects the liberal and conservative ideologies of suicide. See D. Mayo, "The Case of Ms. A and Her Nurse-Therapist," Journal of Clinical Ethics, 4 (1993): 329-32. Oncology nurses consider assisted suicide the highest ethical priority facing contemporary practice. See M. Ersek et al., "Priority Ethical Issues in Oncology Nursing: Current Approaches and Future Directions," Oncology Nursing Forum, 22 (1995): 803-07. See also "Ethics and Human Rights Issues Identified by States," American Nurses Association Center for Ethics and Human Rights Communique, 3, no. 2 (1994): 1, which identified assisted suicide/euthanasia as one of the priority ethical issues of State Nurses Associations of the ANA.
48. For articles that present philosophical and practice perspectives on nurses' attitudes, see News Focus, "Will to Live," Nursing Ttmes, 91, no. 12 (1995): 18; A.J. Davis, "Selected Issues in Nursing Ethics: Clinical, Philosophical, Political," Bioethics Forum, 10, no. 1 (1994): 10-14. Anne Davis distinguishes between "patient-as-body" and "patient-as-person" and between pain and suffering as issues vital to the discussion. See also Editorial, "Assisted Suicide," Journal of Pediatric Oncology Nursing, 10, no. 2 (1993): 43-44; and E.S. Ringerman and D. Koniak-Griffin, "A Reexamination of Euthanasia: Issues Raised by Final Exit," Nursing Forum, 27, no. 4 (1992): 5-8, 34. Eileen Ringerman and Deborah Koniak-Griffin point out that religious consensus against active euthanasia is shifting in that the United Church of Christ and the Unitarian Universalist churches have endorsed active euthanasia. For articles that present clearly defined positions for and against assisted suicide, see Sr. M.B. Kelber and R. MacIntyre, "Point/Counterpoint: Nurse-Assisted Suicide," Journal of the Association of Nurses in AIDS Care, 3, no. 1 (1992): 23-24; R.A. Johnson and K. Weiler, "Aid-in-Dying: Issues and Implications for Nursing," Journal of Professional Nursing, 6 (1990): 258-64; H. Caplan, "It's Time We Helped Patients Die," RN, 50, no. 11 (1987): 44-48; and P. Turton, "The Death Debate," Nursing Times, 83, no. 45 (1987): 31. The debate reflects the liberal and conservative ideologies of suicide. See D. Mayo, "The Case of Ms. A and Her Nurse-Therapist," Journal of Clinical Ethics, 4 (1993): 329-32. Oncology nurses consider assisted suicide the highest ethical priority facing contemporary practice. See M. Ersek et al., "Priority Ethical Issues in Oncology Nursing: Current Approaches and Future Directions," Oncology Nursing Forum, 22 (1995): 803-07. See also "Ethics and Human Rights Issues Identified by States," American Nurses Association Center for Ethics and Human Rights Communique, 3, no. 2 (1994): 1, which identified assisted suicide/euthanasia as one of the priority ethical issues of State Nurses Associations of the ANA.
49. For articles that present philosophical and practice perspectives on nurses' attitudes, see News Focus, "Will to Live," Nursing Ttmes, 91, no. 12 (1995): 18; A.J. Davis, "Selected Issues in Nursing Ethics: Clinical, Philosophical, Political," Bioethics Forum, 10, no. 1 (1994): 10-14. Anne Davis distinguishes between "patient-as-body" and "patient-as-person" and between pain and suffering as issues vital to the discussion. See also Editorial, "Assisted Suicide," Journal of Pediatric Oncology Nursing, 10, no. 2 (1993): 43-44; and E.S. Ringerman and D. Koniak-Griffin, "A Reexamination of Euthanasia: Issues Raised by Final Exit," Nursing Forum, 27, no. 4 (1992): 5-8, 34. Eileen Ringerman and Deborah Koniak-Griffin point out that religious consensus against active euthanasia is shifting in that the United Church of Christ and the Unitarian Universalist churches have endorsed active euthanasia. For articles that present clearly defined positions for and against assisted suicide, see Sr. M.B. Kelber and R. MacIntyre, "Point/Counterpoint: Nurse-Assisted Suicide," Journal of the Association of Nurses in AIDS Care, 3, no. 1 (1992): 23-24; R.A. Johnson and K. Weiler, "Aid-in-Dying: Issues and Implications for Nursing," Journal of Professional Nursing, 6 (1990): 258-64; H. Caplan, "It's Time We Helped Patients Die," RN, 50, no. 11 (1987): 44-48; and P. Turton, "The Death Debate," Nursing Times, 83, no. 45 (1987): 31. The debate reflects the liberal and conservative ideologies of suicide. See D. Mayo, "The Case of Ms. A and Her Nurse-Therapist," Journal of Clinical Ethics, 4 (1993): 329-32. Oncology nurses consider assisted suicide the highest ethical priority facing contemporary practice. See M. Ersek et al., "Priority Ethical Issues in Oncology Nursing: Current Approaches and Future Directions," Oncology Nursing Forum, 22 (1995): 803-07. See also "Ethics and Human Rights Issues Identified by States," American Nurses Association Center for Ethics and Human Rights Communique, 3, no. 2 (1994): 1, which identified assisted suicide/euthanasia as one of the priority ethical issues of State Nurses Associations of the ANA.
50. For articles that present philosophical and practice perspectives on nurses' attitudes, see News Focus, "Will to Live," Nursing Ttmes, 91, no. 12 (1995): 18; A.J. Davis, "Selected Issues in Nursing Ethics: Clinical, Philosophical, Political," Bioethics Forum, 10, no. 1 (1994): 10-14. Anne Davis distinguishes between "patient-as-body" and "patient-as-person" and between pain and suffering as issues vital to the discussion. See also Editorial, "Assisted Suicide," Journal of Pediatric Oncology Nursing, 10, no. 2 (1993): 43-44; and E.S. Ringerman and D. Koniak-Griffin, "A Reexamination of Euthanasia: Issues Raised by Final Exit," Nursing Forum, 27, no. 4 (1992): 5-8, 34. Eileen Ringerman and Deborah Koniak-Griffin point out that religious consensus against active euthanasia is shifting in that the United Church of Christ and the Unitarian Universalist churches have endorsed active euthanasia. For articles that present clearly defined positions for and against assisted suicide, see Sr. M.B. Kelber and R. MacIntyre, "Point/Counterpoint: Nurse-Assisted Suicide," Journal of the Association of Nurses in AIDS Care, 3, no. 1 (1992): 23-24; R.A. Johnson and K. Weiler, "Aid-in-Dying: Issues and Implications for Nursing," Journal of Professional Nursing, 6 (1990): 258-64; H. Caplan, "It's Time We Helped Patients Die," RN, 50, no. 11 (1987): 44-48; and P. Turton, "The Death Debate," Nursing Times, 83, no. 45 (1987): 31. The debate reflects the liberal and conservative ideologies of suicide. See D. Mayo, "The Case of Ms. A and Her Nurse-Therapist," Journal of Clinical Ethics, 4 (1993): 329-32. Oncology nurses consider assisted suicide the highest ethical priority facing contemporary practice. See M. Ersek et al., "Priority Ethical Issues in Oncology Nursing: Current Approaches and Future Directions," Oncology Nursing Forum, 22 (1995): 803-07. See also "Ethics and Human Rights Issues Identified by States," American Nurses Association Center for Ethics and Human Rights Communique, 3, no. 2 (1994): 1, which identified assisted suicide/euthanasia as one of the priority ethical issues of State Nurses Associations of the ANA.
51. For articles that present philosophical and practice perspectives on nurses' attitudes, see News Focus, "Will to Live," Nursing Ttmes, 91, no. 12 (1995): 18; A.J. Davis, "Selected Issues in Nursing Ethics: Clinical, Philosophical, Political," Bioethics Forum, 10, no. 1 (1994): 10-14. Anne Davis distinguishes between "patient-as-body" and "patient-as-person" and between pain and suffering as issues vital to the discussion. See also Editorial, "Assisted Suicide," Journal of Pediatric Oncology Nursing, 10, no. 2 (1993): 43-44; and E.S. Ringerman and D. Koniak-Griffin, "A Reexamination of Euthanasia: Issues Raised by Final Exit," Nursing Forum, 27, no. 4 (1992): 5-8, 34. Eileen Ringerman and Deborah Koniak-Griffin point out that religious consensus against active euthanasia is shifting in that the United Church of Christ and the Unitarian Universalist churches have endorsed active euthanasia. For articles that present clearly defined positions for and against assisted suicide, see Sr. M.B. Kelber and R. MacIntyre, "Point/Counterpoint: Nurse-Assisted Suicide," Journal of the Association of Nurses in AIDS Care, 3, no. 1 (1992): 23-24; R.A. Johnson and K. Weiler, "Aid-in-Dying: Issues and Implications for Nursing," Journal of Professional Nursing, 6 (1990): 258-64; H. Caplan, "It's Time We Helped Patients Die," RN, 50, no. 11 (1987): 44-48; and P. Turton, "The Death Debate," Nursing Times, 83, no. 45 (1987): 31. The debate reflects the liberal and conservative ideologies of suicide. See D. Mayo, "The Case of Ms. A and Her Nurse-Therapist," Journal of Clinical Ethics, 4 (1993): 329-32. Oncology nurses consider assisted suicide the highest ethical priority facing contemporary practice. See M. Ersek et al., "Priority Ethical Issues in Oncology Nursing: Current Approaches and Future Directions," Oncology Nursing Forum, 22 (1995): 803-07. See also "Ethics and Human Rights Issues Identified by States," American Nurses Association Center for Ethics and Human Rights Communique, 3, no. 2 (1994): 1, which identified assisted suicide/euthanasia as one of the priority ethical issues of State Nurses Associations of the ANA.
52. For articles that present philosophical and practice perspectives on nurses' attitudes, see News Focus, "Will to Live," Nursing Ttmes, 91, no. 12 (1995): 18; A.J. Davis, "Selected Issues in Nursing Ethics: Clinical, Philosophical, Political," Bioethics Forum, 10, no. 1 (1994): 10-14. Anne Davis distinguishes between "patient-as-body" and "patient-as-person" and between pain and suffering as issues vital to the discussion. See also Editorial, "Assisted Suicide," Journal of Pediatric Oncology Nursing, 10, no. 2 (1993): 43-44; and E.S. Ringerman and D. Koniak-Griffin, "A Reexamination of Euthanasia: Issues Raised by Final Exit," Nursing Forum, 27, no. 4 (1992): 5-8, 34. Eileen Ringerman and Deborah Koniak-Griffin point out that religious consensus against active euthanasia is shifting in that the United Church of Christ and the Unitarian Universalist churches have endorsed active euthanasia. For articles that present clearly defined positions for and against assisted suicide, see Sr. M.B. Kelber and R. MacIntyre, "Point/Counterpoint: Nurse-Assisted Suicide," Journal of the Association of Nurses in AIDS Care, 3, no. 1 (1992): 23-24; R.A. Johnson and K. Weiler, "Aid-in-Dying: Issues and Implications for Nursing," Journal of Professional Nursing, 6 (1990): 258-64; H. Caplan, "It's Time We Helped Patients Die," RN, 50, no. 11 (1987): 44-48; and P. Turton, "The Death Debate," Nursing Times, 83, no. 45 (1987): 31. The debate reflects the liberal and conservative ideologies of suicide. See D. Mayo, "The Case of Ms. A and Her Nurse-Therapist," Journal of Clinical Ethics, 4 (1993): 329-32. Oncology nurses consider assisted suicide the highest ethical priority facing contemporary practice. See M. Ersek et al., "Priority Ethical Issues in Oncology Nursing: Current Approaches and Future Directions," Oncology Nursing Forum, 22 (1995): 803-07. See also "Ethics and Human Rights Issues Identified by States," American Nurses Association Center for Ethics and Human Rights Communique, 3, no. 2 (1994): 1, which identified assisted suicide/euthanasia as one of the priority ethical issues of State Nurses Associations of the ANA.
53. For articles that present philosophical and practice perspectives on nurses' attitudes, see News Focus, "Will to Live," Nursing Ttmes, 91, no. 12 (1995): 18; A.J. Davis, "Selected Issues in Nursing Ethics: Clinical, Philosophical, Political," Bioethics Forum, 10, no. 1 (1994): 10-14. Anne Davis distinguishes between "patient-as-body" and "patient-as-person" and between pain and suffering as issues vital to the discussion. See also Editorial, "Assisted Suicide," Journal of Pediatric Oncology Nursing, 10, no. 2 (1993): 43-44; and E.S. Ringerman and D. Koniak-Griffin, "A Reexamination of Euthanasia: Issues Raised by Final Exit," Nursing Forum, 27, no. 4 (1992): 5-8, 34. Eileen Ringerman and Deborah Koniak-Griffin point out that religious consensus against active euthanasia is shifting in that the United Church of Christ and the Unitarian Universalist churches have endorsed active euthanasia. For articles that present clearly defined positions for and against assisted suicide, see Sr. M.B. Kelber and R. MacIntyre, "Point/Counterpoint: Nurse-Assisted Suicide," Journal of the Association of Nurses in AIDS Care, 3, no. 1 (1992): 23-24; R.A. Johnson and K. Weiler, "Aid-in-Dying: Issues and Implications for Nursing," Journal of Professional Nursing, 6 (1990): 258-64; H. Caplan, "It's Time We Helped Patients Die," RN, 50, no. 11 (1987): 44-48; and P. Turton, "The Death Debate," Nursing Times, 83, no. 45 (1987): 31. The debate reflects the liberal and conservative ideologies of suicide. See D. Mayo, "The Case of Ms. A and Her Nurse-Therapist," Journal of Clinical Ethics, 4 (1993): 329-32. Oncology nurses consider assisted suicide the highest ethical priority facing contemporary practice. See M. Ersek et al., "Priority Ethical Issues in Oncology Nursing: Current Approaches and Future Directions," Oncology Nursing Forum, 22 (1995): 803-07. See also "Ethics and Human Rights Issues Identified by States," American Nurses Association Center for Ethics and Human Rights Communique, 3, no. 2 (1994): 1, which identified assisted suicide/euthanasia as one of the priority ethical issues of State Nurses Associations of the ANA.
54. For articles that present philosophical and practice perspectives on nurses' attitudes, see News Focus, "Will to Live," Nursing Ttmes, 91, no. 12 (1995): 18; A.J. Davis, "Selected Issues in Nursing Ethics: Clinical, Philosophical, Political," Bioethics Forum, 10, no. 1 (1994): 10-14. Anne Davis distinguishes between "patient-as-body" and "patient-as-person" and between pain and suffering as issues vital to the discussion. See also Editorial, "Assisted Suicide," Journal of Pediatric Oncology Nursing, 10, no. 2 (1993): 43-44; and E.S. Ringerman and D. Koniak-Griffin, "A Reexamination of Euthanasia: Issues Raised by Final Exit," Nursing Forum, 27, no. 4 (1992): 5-8, 34. Eileen Ringerman and Deborah Koniak-Griffin point out that religious consensus against active euthanasia is shifting in that the United Church of Christ and the Unitarian Universalist churches have endorsed active euthanasia. For articles that present clearly defined positions for and against assisted suicide, see Sr. M.B. Kelber and R. MacIntyre, "Point/Counterpoint: Nurse-Assisted Suicide," Journal of the Association of Nurses in AIDS Care, 3, no. 1 (1992): 23-24; R.A. Johnson and K. Weiler, "Aid-in-Dying: Issues and Implications for Nursing," Journal of Professional Nursing, 6 (1990): 258-64; H. Caplan, "It's Time We Helped Patients Die," RN, 50, no. 11 (1987): 44-48; and P. Turton, "The Death Debate," Nursing Times, 83, no. 45 (1987): 31. The debate reflects the liberal and conservative ideologies of suicide. See D. Mayo, "The Case of Ms. A and Her Nurse-Therapist," Journal of Clinical Ethics, 4 (1993): 329-32. Oncology nurses consider assisted suicide the highest ethical priority facing contemporary practice. See M. Ersek et al., "Priority Ethical Issues in Oncology Nursing: Current Approaches and Future Directions," Oncology Nursing Forum, 22 (1995): 803-07. See also "Ethics and Human Rights Issues Identified by States," American Nurses Association Center for Ethics and Human Rights Communique, 3, no. 2 (1994): 1, which identified assisted suicide/euthanasia as one of the priority ethical issues of State Nurses Associations of the ANA.
55. For articles that present philosophical and practice perspectives on nurses' attitudes, see News Focus, "Will to Live," Nursing Ttmes, 91, no. 12 (1995): 18; A.J. Davis, "Selected Issues in Nursing Ethics: Clinical, Philosophical, Political," Bioethics Forum, 10, no. 1 (1994): 10-14. Anne Davis distinguishes between "patient-as-body" and "patient-as-person" and between pain and suffering as issues vital to the discussion. See also Editorial, "Assisted Suicide," Journal of Pediatric Oncology Nursing, 10, no. 2 (1993): 43-44; and E.S. Ringerman and D. Koniak-Griffin, "A Reexamination of Euthanasia: Issues Raised by Final Exit," Nursing Forum, 27, no. 4 (1992): 5-8, 34. Eileen Ringerman and Deborah Koniak-Griffin point out that religious consensus against active euthanasia is shifting in that the United Church of Christ and the Unitarian Universalist churches have endorsed active euthanasia. For articles that present clearly defined positions for and against assisted suicide, see Sr. M.B. Kelber and R. MacIntyre, "Point/Counterpoint: Nurse-Assisted Suicide," Journal of the Association of Nurses in AIDS Care, 3, no. 1 (1992): 23-24; R.A. Johnson and K. Weiler, "Aid-in-Dying: Issues and Implications for Nursing," Journal of Professional Nursing, 6 (1990): 258-64; H. Caplan, "It's Time We Helped Patients Die," RN, 50, no. 11 (1987): 44-48; and P. Turton, "The Death Debate," Nursing Times, 83, no. 45 (1987): 31. The debate reflects the liberal and conservative ideologies of suicide. See D. Mayo, "The Case of Ms. A and Her Nurse-Therapist," Journal of Clinical Ethics, 4 (1993): 329-32. Oncology nurses consider assisted suicide the highest ethical priority facing contemporary practice. See M. Ersek et al., "Priority Ethical Issues in Oncology Nursing: Current Approaches and Future Directions," Oncology Nursing Forum, 22 (1995): 803-07. See also "Ethics and Human Rights Issues Identified by States," American Nurses Association Center for Ethics and Human Rights Communique, 3, no. 2 (1994): 1, which identified assisted suicide/euthanasia as one of the priority ethical issues of State Nurses Associations of the ANA.
56. For articles that present philosophical and practice perspectives on nurses' attitudes, see News Focus, "Will to Live," Nursing Ttmes, 91, no. 12 (1995): 18; A.J. Davis, "Selected Issues in Nursing Ethics: Clinical, Philosophical, Political," Bioethics Forum, 10, no. 1 (1994): 10-14. Anne Davis distinguishes between "patient-as-body" and "patient-as-person" and between pain and suffering as issues vital to the discussion. See also Editorial, "Assisted Suicide," Journal of Pediatric Oncology Nursing, 10, no. 2 (1993): 43-44; and E.S. Ringerman and D. Koniak-Griffin, "A Reexamination of Euthanasia: Issues Raised by Final Exit," Nursing Forum, 27, no. 4 (1992): 5-8, 34. Eileen Ringerman and Deborah Koniak-Griffin point out that religious consensus against active euthanasia is shifting in that the United Church of Christ and the Unitarian Universalist churches have endorsed active euthanasia. For articles that present clearly defined positions for and against assisted suicide, see Sr. M.B. Kelber and R. MacIntyre, "Point/Counterpoint: Nurse-Assisted Suicide," Journal of the Association of Nurses in AIDS Care, 3, no. 1 (1992): 23-24; R.A. Johnson and K. Weiler, "Aid-in-Dying: Issues and Implications for Nursing," Journal of Professional Nursing, 6 (1990): 258-64; H. Caplan, "It's Time We Helped Patients Die," RN, 50, no. 11 (1987): 44-48; and P. Turton, "The Death Debate," Nursing Times, 83, no. 45 (1987): 31. The debate reflects the liberal and conservative ideologies of suicide. See D. Mayo, "The Case of Ms. A and Her Nurse-Therapist," Journal of Clinical Ethics, 4 (1993): 329-32. Oncology nurses consider assisted suicide the highest ethical priority facing contemporary practice. See M. Ersek et al., "Priority Ethical Issues in Oncology Nursing: Current Approaches and Future Directions," Oncology Nursing Forum, 22 (1995): 803-07. See also "Ethics and Human Rights Issues Identified by States," American Nurses Association Center for Ethics and Human Rights Communique, 3, no. 2 (1994): 1, which identified assisted suicide/euthanasia as one of the priority ethical issues of State Nurses Associations of the ANA.
57. For articles that present philosophical and practice perspectives on nurses' attitudes, see News Focus, "Will to Live," Nursing Ttmes, 91, no. 12 (1995): 18; A.J. Davis, "Selected Issues in Nursing Ethics: Clinical, Philosophical, Political," Bioethics Forum, 10, no. 1 (1994): 10-14. Anne Davis distinguishes between "patient-as-body" and "patient-as-person" and between pain and suffering as issues vital to the discussion. See also Editorial, "Assisted Suicide," Journal of Pediatric Oncology Nursing, 10, no. 2 (1993): 43-44; and E.S. Ringerman and D. Koniak-Griffin, "A Reexamination of Euthanasia: Issues Raised by Final Exit," Nursing Forum, 27, no. 4 (1992): 5-8, 34. Eileen Ringerman and Deborah Koniak-Griffin point out that religious consensus against active euthanasia is shifting in that the United Church of Christ and the Unitarian Universalist churches have endorsed active euthanasia. For articles that present clearly defined positions for and against assisted suicide, see Sr. M.B. Kelber and R. MacIntyre, "Point/Counterpoint: Nurse-Assisted Suicide," Journal of the Association of Nurses in AIDS Care, 3, no. 1 (1992): 23-24; R.A. Johnson and K. Weiler, "Aid-in-Dying: Issues and Implications for Nursing," Journal of Professional Nursing, 6 (1990): 258-64; H. Caplan, "It's Time We Helped Patients Die," RN, 50, no. 11 (1987): 44-48; and P. Turton, "The Death Debate," Nursing Times, 83, no. 45 (1987): 31. The debate reflects the liberal and conservative ideologies of suicide. See D. Mayo, "The Case of Ms. A and Her Nurse-Therapist," Journal of Clinical Ethics, 4 (1993): 329-32. Oncology nurses consider assisted suicide the highest ethical priority facing contemporary practice. See M. Ersek et al., "Priority Ethical Issues in Oncology Nursing: Current Approaches and Future Directions," Oncology Nursing Forum, 22 (1995): 803-07. See also "Ethics and Human Rights Issues Identified by States," American Nurses Association Center for Ethics and Human Rights Communique, 3, no. 2 (1994): 1, which identified assisted suicide/euthanasia as one of the priority ethical issues of State Nurses Associations of the ANA.
58. Compassion in Dying, 79 F.3d 790.
59. Id. at 802.
60. Id.
61. Id. at 801.
62. See Volker, supra note 10; Young, supra note 13; and Fowler, supra note 14.
63. See Volker, supra note 10; Young, supra note 13; and Fowler, supra note 14.
64. See Volker, supra note 10; Young, supra note 13; and Fowler, supra note 14.
65. R. Gorlin, ed., Codes of Professional Responsibility (Washington, D.C.: Bureau of National Affairs, 3rd ed., 1994); at 385. The language used in discussion of human dignity is somewhat equivocal. At one point, the ANA Code for Nurses states: "Nurses therefore must take all reasonable means to protect and preserve human life when there is hope of recovery or reasonable hope of benefit from life-prolonging treatment" (id. at 386). At another point: "The nurse does not act deliberately to terminate the life of any person" (id. at 387). Acting deliberately to terminate life is clearly active euthanasia, but assisted suicide could be considered a nondeliberate act on the part of the nurse, and therefore acceptable.
66. "The Death of Nancy Cruzan," PBS Frontline: Documentary Consortium (Corporation for Public Broadcasting, Mar. 24, 1992).
67. See also Davis, supra note 27. Davis discusses interactions between nurses and comatose patients, and uses the Missouri nurses' reaction to the withdrawal of nutrition from Nancy Cruzan as an example of caring relationships. See id. at 10
68. Compassion in Dying, 79 F.3d 790.
69. Id. at 827.
70. Id. at 820.
71. Id. at 839. The court states: "Those who believe strongly that death must come without physician assistance are free to follow that creed, be they doctors or patients. They are not free, however, to force their views, their religious convictions, or their philosophies on all the other members of a democratic society, and to compel those whose values differ with theirs to die painful, protracted, and agonizing deaths."
72. The Code for Nurses provides a conscience clause that states: "If ethically opposed to interventions in a particular case because of the procedures to be used, the nurse is justified in refusing to participate. Such refusal should be made known in advance and in time for other appropriate arrangements to be made for the client's nursing care." See Gorlin, supra note 33, at 387.
73. Quill, 80 F.3d 716; and Gorlin, supra note 33, at 387. The Code for Nurses states: "The nurse adheres to the principle of non-discriminatory, non-prejudicial care in every situation and endeavors to promote its acceptance by others."
74. Quill, 80 F.3d 716; and Gorlin, supra note 33, at 387. The Code for Nurses states: "The nurse adheres to the principle of non-discriminatory, non-prejudicial care in every situation and endeavors to promote its acceptance by others."
75. 80 F.3d at 729.
76. See Gorlin, supra note 33.
77. 80 F.3d at 728.
78. Id. at 721.
79. Johnson and Weiler, supra note 27, at 263.
80. A.M. Haddad, "Physician-Assisted Suicide: The Impact on Nursing and Pharmacy," Of Value, 24, no. 4 (1994): 1, 6.
81. Davis, supra note 27, at 10.
82. J.M. Morse and B. Carter, "The Essence of Enduring and Expressions of Suffering: The Reformulation of Self," Scholarly Inquiry for Nursing Practice: An International Journal, 10, no. 1 (1996): 43-60.