The biology of malarial parasite in the mosquito - A review

Memorias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz

Volumn 91, Issue 5, 1996, Pages 519-541

  Simonetti, Amauri Braga ^a  

^a FEDERAL UNIVERSITY OF RIO GRANDE DO SUL   (Brazil)

Author keywords

Cell biology; Malaria; Mosquito; Sporogonic cycle

Indexed keywords

ANIMAL; CYTOLOGY; DISEASE CARRIER; FEMALE; MALARIA; MALE; MOSQUITO; PARASITOLOGY; PLASMODIUM; REVIEW;

ANIMALS; CULICIDAE; FEMALE; INSECT VECTORS; MALARIA; MALE; PLASMODIUM;

EID: 0030225125     PISSN: 00740276     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1590/S0074-02761996000500001     Document Type: Review

References (287)

1. Aikawa M 1971. Plasmodium: The fine structure of malarial parasites. Exper Parasitol 30: 284-320.
2. Aikawa M Atkinson CT, Beaudoin LM, Sedegah M, Charoenvit Y, Beaudoin R 1990. Localization of CS and Non-CS Antigens in the Sporogonic Stages of Plasmodium yoelii. Bull WHO 68: 165-171.
3. Alano P 1991. Plasmodium sexual stage antigens. Parasitol Today 7: 199-203.
4. Alano P, Carter R 1990. Sexual differentiation in malaria parasites. Ann Rev Microbiol 44: 429-449.
5. Bafort JM 1971. The biology of rodent malaria with particular reference to Plasmodium vinkei vinkei Rhodain 1952. Ann Soc belge de Med Trop 51: 1-204.
6. Ball G H, Chao J 1957. Development in vitro of isolated oocysts of Plasmodium relictum. J Parasitol 43. 409-412.
7. Ball GH, Chao J 1960. In vitro development of the mosquito phase of Plasmodium relictum. Exp Parasitol 9: 47-55.
8. Ball GH, Chao J 1961. Infectivity to canaries of sporozoites of Plasmodium relictum developing in vitro. J Parasitol 47: 787-790.
9. Ball GH, Chao J 1976. Use of amino acids by Plasmodium relictum oocysts in vitro. Exp Parasitol 39: 115-118.
10. Barber MA 1936. Degeneration of the sporozoites of the malaria parasite in anopheline mosquitoes in nature and its relation to the transmission of malaria. Am J Hyg 24: 45-56.
11. Beaudoin RL, Strome CPA, Tubergen TA 1974. Plasmodium berghei berghei: ectopic development of the ANKA strain in Anopheles stephensi. Exp Parasitol 36: 189-201.
12. Beier JC 1993. Malaria sporozoites: survival, transmission and disease control. Parasitol Today 9: 210-215.
13. Beier JC, Davis JR, Vaughan JA, Noden BH, Beier MS 1991a. Quantitation of Plasmodium falciparum sporozoites transmitted in vitro by experimentally infected Anopheles gambiae and Anopheles stephensi. Am J Trop Med Hyg 44. 564-570.
14. Beier JC, Onyango FK, Ramadhan M, Koros JK, Asiago C.M, Wirtz RA, Koech DK, Roberts CR 1991b. Quantitation of malaria sporozoites in the salivary glands of wild afrotropical Anopheles. Med Vet Entomol 5: 63-70.
15. Beier JC, Oster CN, Koros JK, Onyango FK, Githeko AK, Rowton E, Koech DK, Roberts CR 1989. Effect of human circumsporozoite antibodies in Plasmodium -infected Anopheles (Diptera: Culicidae). J Med Entomol 26: 547-553.
16. Beier JC, Perkins PV, Koros JK, Onyango FK, Gargan TP, Wirtz RA, Koech DK, Roberts, CR 1990. Malaria sporozoite detection by dissection and ELISA to assess infectivity of afrotropical Anopheles (Diptera: Culicidae). J Med Entomol 27: 377-384.
17. Beier JC, Vaughan JA, Madani A, Noden, BH 1992a. Plasmodium falciparum: release of circumsporozoite protein by sporozoites in the mosquito vector. Exp Parasitol 75: 248-256.
18. Beier MS, Davis JR, Pumpuni CB, Noden BH, Beier JC 1992b. Ingestion of Plasmodium falciparum sporozoites during transmission by anopheline mosquitoes. Am J Trop Med Hyg 47: 195-200.
19. Berner R, Rudin W, Hecker H 1983. Peritrophic membranes and protease activity in the midgut of the malaria mosquito, Anopheles stephensi (Liston) (Insecta: Diptera) under normal and experimental conditions. J Ultrastruct Res 83: 195-204.
20. Billingsley PF 1990. The midgut ultrastructure of haematophagous insects. Ann Rev Entomol 35: 219-248.
21. Billingsley PF, Hecker H 1991 Blood digestion in the mosquito, Anopheles stephensi Liston (Diptera: Culicidae): activity and distribution of trpsin, aminopeptidase, and alpha-glucosidase in the midgut. J Med Entomol 28: 865-871.
22. Billingsley PF, Rudin W 1992. The role of the mosquito peritrophic membrane in bloodmeal digestion and infectivity of Plasmodium species. J Parasitol 78: 430-440.
23. Billingsley PF, Winger L, Simonetti AB, Sinden REE 1990. Monoclonal antibdies produced against mosquito midgut tissue. VII International Congress of Parasitology (COPA), Paris.
24. Boulanger N, Matile H, Betschart B 1988. Formation of the circumsporozoite protein of Plasmodium falciparum in Anopheles stephensi. Acta Trop 45: 55-65.
25. Boyd MF, Kitchen SF 1937. On the infectiousness of patients infected with Plasmodium vivax and Plasmodium falciparum. Am J Trop Med Hyg 17 253-262.
26. Brey PT 1991. The Taming of the Anopheles - Current trends in malaria vector research. Res Immunol 142: 712-722.
27. Briegel H, Lea AO 1975. Relationship between protein and proteolytic activity in the midgut of mosquitoes. J Ins Physiol 21. 1597-1604.
28. Bruce MC, Alano P, Duthie S, Carter R 1990. Commitment of the malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum to sexual and asexual development. Parasitology 100. 191-200.
29. Canning EU, Sinden RE 1973. The organisation of the ookinete and observations on nuclear division in oocysts of Plasmodium berghei Parasitology 67: 29-40.
30. Carter R, Bushell G, Saul A, Graves PM, Kidson C 1985. Two apparently nonrepeated epitopes on gametes of Plasmodium falciparum are targets of transmission-blocking antibodies. Infect Immun 50: 102-106.
31. Carter R, Chen DH 1976. Malaria transmission blocked by immunisation with gamets of the malaria parasite. Nature 263: 57-60.
32. Carter R, Graves PM 1988. Gametocytes. In: Malaria. Principles and practice of malariology, edited by Wernsdorfer, W.H. and McGregor, Sir I. Edinburgh: Chuchill Livingstone, p. 253-306.
33. Carter R, Graves PM, Creasey A, Byrne K, Read D, Alano P, Fenton B 1989a. Plasmodium falciparum: an abundant stage-specific protein expressed during early gametocyte development. Exp Parasitol 69: 140-149.
34. Carter R, Graves PM, Keister DB, Quakyi IA 1990. Properties of epitopes of Pfs 48/45, a target of transmission blocking monoclonal antibodies, on gametes of different isolates of Plasmodium falciparum. Paras Immunol 12: 587-603.
35. Carter R, Graves P M, Quakyi I, Good MF 1989b. Restricted or absent immune responses in human populations to Plasmodium falciparum gamete antigens that are targets of malaria transmission-blocking antibodies. J Exp Med 169. 135-147.
36. Carter R, Gwadz RW, Mcauliffe FM 1979. Plasmodium gallinaceum: transmission blocking immunity in chickens. I. Comparative immunogenicity of gametocyte and gamete-containing preparations. Exp Parasitol 47. 185-193.
37. Carter R, Kaushal DC 1984. Characterization of antigens on mosquito midgut stages of Plasmodium gallinaceum. III. changes in zygote surface proteins during transformation to mature ookinete. Mol Biochem Parasitol 13 235-241
38. Carter R, Kumar N, Quakyi I, Good M, Mendis K, Graves P, Miller LH 1988. Immunity to sexual stages of malaria parasites. Progr Allergy 41: 193-214.
39. Carter R, Nijhout MM 1977. Control of gamete formation (exflagellation) in malaria parasites. Science 195 407-409
40. Cattani JA 1989. Malaria vaccines. results of human trials and directions of current research. Exp Med 68: 242-247.
41. Cerami C, Frevert V, Sinnis P, Takacs B, Clavijo P, Santos MJ, Nussenzweig V 1992b. The basolateral domain of the hepatocyte plasma membrane bears receptors for the CSP of Plasmodium falciparum sporozoites. Cell 70 1021-1033.
42. Cerami C, Kwakyeberko F, Nusswenzweig V 1992a. Binding of malarial circumsporozoite protein to sulfatides and cholesterol-3-sulfate and its dependence on disulfide bond formation between cysteines in region-II. Mol Biochem Parasitol 54. 1-12.
43. Chagnon A, Yao N, Carli P, Paris JF, Marlier S, Pierre C, Bassiere H 1992. La proteine C-reactive dans l'accès palustre. Presse Méd 21 217-218.
44. Charoenvit Y, Leef MF, Yuan LF, Sedegah M, Beaudoin RL 1987. Characterization of Plasmodium yoelii monoclonal antibodies directed against stage-specific sporozoite antigens Infect Immun 55 604-608.
45. Chege GMM, Pumpuni CB, Beier JC 1996. Proteolytic enzyme activity and Plasmodium falciparum sporogonic development in three species of Anopheles mosquitoes. J Parasitol 82: 11-16.
46. Chutmongkonkul M, Maier WA, Seitz HM 1992. Plasmodium falciparum: effect of chloroquine, halofantrine and pyrimethamine on the infectivity of gametocytes for An. stephensi mosquitoes. Ann Trop Med Parasitol 86: 103-110.
47. Coleman RE, Vaughan JA, Hayes DO, Hollingdale MR, Do Rosario VE 1988. Effect of mefloquine and artisinin on the sporogonic cycle of Plasmodium berghei ANKA in Anopheles stephensi mosquitoes. Acta Leid 57: 61-74.
48. Collins FH 1994. Prospects for malaria control through genetic manipulation of its vectors. Parasitol Today 10: 370-371.
49. Collins FH, Sakai RK, Vernick KD, Paskewitz S, Seeley DC, Miller LH, Collins WE, Campbell CC, Gwadz RW 1986. Genetic selection of a Plasmodium refractory strain of the malaria vector Anopheles gambiae. Science 234: 607-610.
50. Coluzzi M 1992. Malaria vector analysis and control. Parasitol Today 8: 113-118.
51. Cornelissen AWCA 1988. Sex determination and sex differentiation in malaria parasites. Biol Rev 63: 379-394.
52. Crampton JM 1994. Molecular studies of insect vectors of malaria. Adv Parasitol 34: 1-31.
53. Crampton JM, Galler R, Sinden RE, Crisanti A 1993. La lutte génétique contre les moustiques. La Recherche 259: 1218-1219.
54. Crampton JM, Morris A, Lycett G, Warren A, Eggleston P 1990. Transgenic mosquitoes: a future vector control strategy? Parasitol Today 6: 31-36.
55. Curtis CF 1994. The case for malaria cntrol by genetic manipulation of its vectors. Parasitol Today 10: 371-374.
56. Daher VR, Krettli AU 1980. Infectivity of Plasmodium gallinaceum sporozoites from oocysts. J Protozool 27. 440-442.
57. Davies EE 1974. Ultrastructural studies on the early ookinete stage of Plasmodium berghei nigeriensis and its transformation into an oocyst. Ann Trop Med Parasitol 68. 283-290.
58. Dearsly AL, Sinden RE, Self IA 1990. Sexual development in malarial parasites - Gametocyte production, fertility and infectivity to the mosquito vector. Parasitology 100: 359-368.
59. De Zoysa APK, Herath PRJ, Abhywrana A, Padmalal UKGK, Mendis KN 1988. Modulation of human malaria transmission by anti-gamete transmission blocking immmunity. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 82. 548-553.
60. Do Rosario .E, Vaughan JA, Murphy M, Harrod V, Coleman R 1988. Effect of chloroquine on the sporogonic cycle of Plasmodium falciparum and Plasmodium berghei in anophelme mosquitoes. Acta Leid 57. 53-60.
61. Duffy P, Pimenta P, Kaslow DC 1993. Pgs28 belongs to a family of epidermal growth factor-like antigens that are targets of malaria transmission-blocking antibodies. J Exp Med 177. 505-510.
62. Duncan D, Eades J, Julian SR, Micks D 1960. Electron microscopic observations on malarial oocysts (Plasmodium relictum). J Protozool 7: 18-26.
63. Eyles DE 1952. Studies on Plasmodium gallinaceum II. Factors in the blood of the vertebrate host influencing mosquito infection. Am J Trop Med Hyg 5: 276-290.
64. Feldmann AM, Billingsley PF, Savelkoul A 1990. Blood meal digestion by strains of Anopheles Stephensi Liston (Diptera: Culicidae) of differing susceptibility to Plasmodium falciparum. Parasitology 101: 193-200.
65. Feldmann AM, Ponnudurai T 1989. Selection of Anopheles stephensi for refractoriness and susceptibility to Plasmodium falciparum. Med Vet Entomol 3: 41-52.
66. Foo A, Carter R, Lambros C, Graves P, Quakyi I, Targett GAT, Ponnudurai T, Lewis GE 1991. Conserved and variant epitopes of target antigens of transmission-blocking antibodies among isolates of Plasmodium falciparum from Malaysia. Am J Trop Med Hyg 44: 623-631.
67. Fowler RE, Billingsley PF, Pudney M, Sinden RE 1994. Inhibitoy action of the anti-malarial Atovaquone (566C80) against Plasmodium berghei ANKA in the mosquito Anopheles stephensi. Parasitology 108 383-388.
68. Fowler RE, Sinden RE, Pudney M 1995. Inhibitory activity of the anti-malarial Atovaquone (566C80) against ookinete, oocysts and sporozoites of Plasmodium berghei. J Parasitology 8: 452-458.
69. Freier J E, Friedman S 1987. Effect of Plasmodium gallinaceum infection on the mortality and body weight of Aedes aegypti (Diptera: Culicidae). J Med Entomol 24. 6-10.
70. Freyvogel TA 1966. Shape, movement in situ and locomotion of plasmodial ookinetes. Acta Trop 23. 201-221.
71. Fries HCW, Lamers MBAC, Smits MA, Ponnudurai T, Meuwissen JHET 1989. Characterization of epitopes on the 25 kiloDalton protein of the macrogametes/ zygotes of Plasmodium falciparum. Parasite Immunol 11: 31-45.
72. Gamage-Mendis AC, Rajakaruna J, Carter R, Mendis KN 1992. Transmission blocking immunity to human Plasmodium vivax malaria in an endemic population in Kataragama, Sri-Lanka. Parasite Immunol 14: 385-396.
73. Gamage-Mendis AC, Rajakaruna J, Weerasinghe S, Mendis C, Carter R, Mendis KN 1993. Infectivity of Plasmodium vivax and Plasmodium falciparum to Anopheles tessellatus; relationship between oocyst and sporozoite development. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 87: 3-6.
74. Garnham PCC 1966. Malaria parasites and other haemosporidia. Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford, 1114 pp.
75. Garnham PCC, Bird RG, Baker JR 1962 Electron microscopic studies of motile stages of malarial parasites III. The ookinetes of Haemamoeba and Plasmodium. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 56. 116-120.
76. Garnhm PCC, Bird RG, Baker JR, Desser SS, El-Nahal HMS 1969. Electron microscopic studies on the motile stages of malaria parasites VI. The ookinete of Plasmodium berghei yoelii and its transformation into an early oocyst Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 63: 187-194.
77. Gass RF 1977. Influences of blood digestion on the development of Plasmodium gallinaceum (Brumpt) in the midgut of Aedes aegypti (L.). Acta Trop 34. 127-140.
78. Gass RF, Yeates RA 1979. In vitro damage to cultured ookinetes of Plasmodium gallinaceum by digestive proteinases from susceptible Aedes aegypti. Acta Trop 36: 243-252.
79. Golenda CF, Starkweather WH, Wirtz RA 1990. The distribution of circumsporozoite protein (Cs) in Anopheles stephensi mosquitoes infected with Plasmodium falciparum malaria. J Histochem Cytochem 38: 475-481.
80. Good MF 1991a. Towards the development of the ideal malaria vaccine - A decade of progress in a difficult field. Med J Austr 154: 284-289.
81. Good MF 1991b. The implications for malaria vaccine programs if memory T-cells from non-exposed humans can respond to malaria antigens. Curr Op Immunol 3: 496-502.
82. Good MF 1992. A malaria vaccine strategy based on the induction of cellular immunity. Immunol Today 13: 126-129.
83. Goonewardene R, Carter R, Gamage CP, Delgiudice G, David PH, Howie S, Mendis KN 1990. Human T cell proliferative responses to Plasmodium vivax antigens: evidence of immunosuppression following prolonged exposure to endemic malaria. Europ J Immunol 20: 1387-1391.
84. Gordon DM, Davis DR, Lee M, Lambros C, Harrison BA, Samuel R, Campbell GH, Jeghathesan M, Selvarajan K, Lewis GE 1991. Significance of circumsporozoite-specific antibody in the natural transmission of Plasmodium falciparum, Plasmodium vivax, and Plasmodium malariae in an aboriginal (Orang-Asli) population of central peninsular Malaysia. Am J Trop Med Hyg 45: 49-56.
85. Graf R, Briegel H 1982. Comparison between aminopeptidase and trypsin activity in blood-fed females of Aedes aegypti. Rev Suis Zool 89: 845-850.
86. Graf R, Raikhel AS, Brown MR, Lea AO, Briegel H 1986. Mosquito trypsin. immunocytochemical localization in the midgut of blood-fed Aedes aegypti (L ). Cell Tis Res 245. 19-27.
87. Grau GE, Taylor TE, Molyneux ME, Wirima JJ, Vassali P, Hommel M, Lambert PH 1989. Tumor necrosis factor and disease severity in children with falciparum malaria N Engl J Med 320 1586-1591.
88. Graves PM, Carter R, Burkot TR, Quakyi IA, Kumar N 1988. Antibodies to Plasmodium falciparum gamete surface antigens in Papua New Guinea sera Paras Immunol 10. 209-218.
89. Graves PM, Doubrovsky A, Satabongkot J, Battistutta D 1992. Human antibody responses to epitopes on the Plasmodium falciparum gametocyte antigen PFS48/45 and their relationship to infectivity of gametocyte carriers. Am J Trop Med Hyg 46: 711-719.
90. Grotendorst CA, Carter, R 1987. Complement effects on the infectivity of Plasmodium gallinaceum to Aedes aegypti mosquitoes II. changes in sensitivity to complement-like factors during zygote development. J Parasitol 73 980-984.
91. Grotendorst CA, Carter R, Rosenberg R, Koontz L 1986. Complement effects on the infectivity of Plasmodium gallinaceum to Aedes aegypti mosquitoes I. Resistance of zygotes to the alternative pathway of complement. J Immunol 136: 4270-4274.
92. Grotendorst CA, Kumar N, Carter R, Kaushal DC 1984. A surface protein expressed during transformation of zygotes of Plasmodium gallinaceum is a target of transmission-blocking antibodies. Infec Immun 45. 775-777.
93. Gwadz W 1976. Malaria: successful immunization against the sexual stages of Plasmodium gallinaceum. Science 193 1150-1151.
94. Gwadz RW, Kaslow D, Lee J-Y, Maloy WL, Zasloff M, Miller LH 1989. Effects of magainins and cercropins on the sporogonic development of malaria parasites in mosquitoes. Infec Immun 57: 2628-2633
95. Hamilton AJ, Davies CS, Sinden RE 1988. Expression of the circumsporozoite proteins revealed in situ in the mosquito stages of Plasmodium berghei by the Lowicryl-immunogold technique. Parasitology 96: 273-280.
96. Harte PG, Rogers N, Targett GAT 1985a Vaccination with purified microgamete antigens prevents transmission of rodent malaria Nature 316 258-259.
97. Harte PG, Rogers NC, Targett GAT 1985b Monoclonal anti-gamete antibodies prevent transmission of murine malaria Paras Immunol 7: 607-615.
98. Hawking F, Wilson ME, Gammage K 1971. Evidence for the cyclic development and short-lived maturity in the gametocytes of Plasmodium falciparum. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 65 549-559.
99. Hecker H 1977. Structure and function of midgut epithelial cells in Culicidae mosquitoes (Insecta, Diptcra) Cell Tis Res 184: 321-341.
100. Hollingdale MR, do Rosario V 1989. Malaria transmission-enhancing activity in mosquitoes by mammalaian host anti-sporozoite antibodies Exp Parasitol 68: 365-368.
101. Hommel M 1991. Steps towards a malaria vaccine. Res Immunol 142. 618-631.
102. Houk EJ, Hardy JL, Chiles RE 1986. Mesenteronal epithelial cellsurface charge of the mosquito, Culex tarsalis Coquillett. Binding of colloidal iron hydroxide, native ferritin and cationised ferritin J Submicroscop Cytol 18: 385-396
103. Howells RE, Davies EE 1971. Nuclear division in the oocyst of Plasmodium berghei. Ann Trop Med Hyg 65 451-459.
104. Huber M, Cabib E, Miller LH 1991. Malaria parasite chitinase and penetration of the mosquito peritrophic membrane. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 88: 2807-2810.
105. Ichimori K, Curtis CF, Targett GAT 1990 The effects of chloroquine on the infectivity of chloroquine-sensitive and -resistant populations of Plasmodium yoehi nigeriensis to mosquitoes Parasitology 100: 377-381.
106. Iinselburg J 1983. Gametocyte formation by the progeny of single Plasmodium falciparum schizonts. J Parasitol 69: 584-591.
107. James AA, Rossignol PA 1991. Mosquito salivary glands - Parasitological and molecular aspects. Parasitol Today 7 267-271.
108. Jeffery GM, Eyles DE 1955. Infectivity to mosquitoes of Plasmodium falciparum as related to gametocyte density and duration of infection. Am J Trop Med Hyg 4: 781-789.
109. Jeffery GM, Young MD, Eyles DE 1956. The treatment of Plasmodium falciparum infection with chloroquine, with a note on infectivity to mosquitoes of primaquine-and pyrimethamine-treated cases. Am J Hyg 64 1-11.
110. Karunaweera ND, Grau GE, Gamage P, Carter R, Mendis KN 1992. Dynamics of fever and serum levels of tumor necrosis factor are closely associated during clinical paroxysms in Plasmodium vivax malaria. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 89: 3200-3203.
111. Kaslow DC, Bathurst IC, Barr PJ 1992. Malaria trasmission-blocking vaccines. Trends Biotechnol 10 388-391.
112. Kaslow DC, Bathurst IC, Lensen T, Ponnudurai T, Barr PJ, Keister DB 1994. Saccharomyces cerevisiae recombinant Pfs25 adsorbed to alum elecits antibodies that block transmission of Plasmodium falciparum. Infec Immun 62: 5576-5580.
113. Kaslow DC, Isaacs SN, Quakyi IA, Gwadz RW, Moss B, Keister DB 1991. Induction of Plasmodium falciparum transmission blocking antibodies by recombinant vaccinia virus. Science 252: 1310-1313.
114. Kaslow DC, Nussenzweig V, Miller L 1994a. Meeting on parasites and the invertebrate vector. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 89: 279-295.
115. Kaslow DC, Quakyi IA, Syin C, Raum MG, Keister DB, Coligan JE, McCutchan TF, Miller LH 1988. A vaccine candidate from the sexual stage of human malaria that contains EGF-likc domains. Nature 333: 74-76.
116. Kaushal DC, Carter R 1984. Caracterization of antigens on the mosquito midgut stages of Plasmodium gallinaceum. II. Comparison of surface antigens of male and female gametes and zygotes. Mol Biochem Parasitol 11. 145-156.
117. Kaushal DC, Carter R, Howard RJ, Macauliffe FM 1983a. Characterization of antigens on mosquito midgut stages of Plasmodium gallinaceum I. Zygote surface antigens. Mol Biochem Parasitol 8 53-69.
118. Kaushal DC, Carter R, Rener J, Grotendorst CA, Miller LH, Howard RJ 1983b. Monoclonal antibodies against surface determinants on gametes of Plasmodium gallinaceum block transmission of malaria prasites to mosquitoes. J Immunol 131: 2557-2562.
119. Kawamoto F, Alejo Blanco R, Fleck SL, Sinden RE 1991. Plasmodium berghei - Ionic regulation and the induction of gametogenesis. Exp Parasitol 72: 33-42
120. Kern P, Hemmer CJ, Van Damme J, Gruss HJ, Dietrich M 1989. Elevated tumor necrosis factor-alfa and interleukin-6 serum levels as markers for complicated Plasmodium falciparum malaria. Am J Med 87: 139-143.
121. Kidwell MG, Ribeiro JMC 1992. Can transposable elements be used to drive disease refractoriness genes into vector populations? Parasitol Today 8: 325-329.
122. King C 1988. Cell motility of sporozoan protozoa. Parasitol Today 4: 315-319.
123. Kitthawee S, Edman JD, Sattabongkot J 1990. Evaluation of survival potential and malaria susceptibility among different size classes of laboratory-reared Anopheles dirus. Am J Trop Med Hyg 43: 328-332.
124. Kumar N, Carter R 1984. Biosynthesis of the target antigens of antibodies blocking transmission of Plasmodium falciparum. Mol Biochem Parasitol 13: 333-342.
125. Kumar N, Carter R 1985. Biosynthesis of two stage-specific membrane proteins during transformation of Plasmodium gallinaceum zygotes into ookinetes. Mol Biochem Parasitol 14: 127-139.
126. Kwiatowski D 1992. Malaria: becoming more specific about non-specific immunity. Curr Op Immunol 4: 425-431.
127. Kwiatowski D, Hill AVS, Sambou I, Twumasi P, Castracane J, Manogue KR, Cerami A, Brewster DR, Greenwood BM 1990. TNF concentrations in fatal cerebral, non-fatal cerebral, and uncomplicated Plasmodium falciparum malaria. Lancet ii: 1201-1204.
128. Lensen AHW, van Gemert GJA, Bolmer MG, Mcis JFGM, Kaslow D, Meuwissen JHE Th, Ponnudurai T 1993. Transmission blocking antibody of the Plasmodium falciparum zygote/ookinete surface protein Pfs25 also influences sporozoite development. Parasite Immunol 14: 471-479.
129. Li X, Sina B, Rossignol PA 1992. Probing behaviour and sporozoite delivery by Anopheles stephensi infected with Plasmodium berghei. Med Vet Entomol 6: 57-61.
130. Lines J.D, Wilkes TJ, Lyimo EO 1991. Human malaria infectiousness measured by age-specific sporozoite rates in An gambiae in Tanzania. Parasitology 102. 167-177.
131. Lombardi S, Esposito F, Zavala F, Lamizana L, Rossi P, Sabatinelli G, Nussenzweig R, Coluzzi M 1987. Detection and anatomical localization of Plasmodium falciparum circumsporozoite protein and sporozoites in the afrotropical malaria vector Anopheles gambiae S.L. Am J Trop Med Hyg 37: 491-494.
132. Lyimo EO, Koella JC 1992. Relatiosnship between body size of adult Anopheles gambiae s.l. and infection with the malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum. Parasitology 104: 233-237.
133. Mack SR, Samuels S, Vanderberg JP 1979. Hemolymph of Anopheles stephensi from uninfected and Plasmodium berghei-infected mosquitoes. 2. Free amino acids. J Parasitol 65: 130-136.
134. Mack SR, Vanderberg JP 1978. Hemolymph of Anopheles stephensi from noninfected and Plasmodium berghei-infected mosquitoes. 1. Collection procedure and physical characteristics. J Parasitol 64: 918-923.
135. Maier WA, Becker-Feldman H, Seitz HM 1987. Pathology of malaria infected mosquitoes. Parasitol Today 3: 216-218.
136. Martin SK, Miller LH, Nijhout MM, Carter R 1978. Plasmodium gallinaceum: induction of male gametocyte exflagellation by phosphdiesterase inhibitors. Exp Parasitol 44: 239-242.
137. Mehlhorn H, Peters W, Haberkorn A 1980. The formation of ookinetes and oocysts in Plasmodium gallinaceum (Haemosporidia) and considerations on phylogenetic relationships between Haemosporidia, Piroplasmida and other Coccidia. Protistologica 16: 135-154.
138. Meis JFGM, Croes H, Mons B, Vanbelkum A, Ponnudurai T 1992a. Localization of circumsporozoite protein in the sporogonic stages of Plasmodium vivax. Parasitol Res 78: 165-167.
139. Meis JFGM, Ponnudurai T 1987. Ultrastructural studies on the interaction of Plasmodium falciparum ookinetes with the midgut epithelium of Anopheles stephensi mosquitoes Parasitol Res 73: 500-506.
140. Meis JFGM, Pool G, Vangemert GJ, Lensen AHW, Ponnudurai T, Meuwissen JHET 1989. Plasmodium falciparum ookinetes migrate intercellularly through Anopheles stephensi midgut epithelium. Parasitol Res 76: 13-19.
141. Meis JFGM, Verhave JP 1988. Exoerythrocytic development of malarial parasites. Adv Parasitol 27: 1-66.
142. Meis JFGM, Wismans PGP, Jap PHK, Lensen AHW, Ponnudurai T 1992b. A scanning electron microscopic study of the sporogonic development of Plasmodium falciparum in Anopheles stephensi. Acta Trop 50: 227-236.
143. Mendis KN, Carter R 1991. Transmission blocking immunity may provide clues that antimalarial immunity is largely T-independent. Res Immunol 142: 687-690.
144. Mendis KN, David PH, Carter R 1990b. Human immune responses against sexual stages of malaria parasites: considerations for malaria vaccines. Intern J Parasitol 20: 497-502.
145. Mendis, KN, Ezoysa APK, Abhayawardena TA, Carter R, Herath PRJ, Mendis G 1990a. Characteristics of malaria transmission in Kataragama, Sri-Lanka - A focus for immuno-epidemiological studies. Am J Trop Med Hyg 42: 298-308.
146. Mendis KN, Munesinghe YD, DeSilva YNY, Keragalla I, Carter R 1987. Malaria transmission-blocking immunity induced by natural infections of Plasmodium vivax in humans. Infec Immun 55: 369-372.
147. Mendis KN, Naotunne TD, Karunaweera ND, Delgiudice G, Grau GE, Carter R 1990c. Anti-parasite effects of cytokines in malaria. Immunol Lett 25: 217-220.
148. Mitchell GH 1989. An update on candidate malaria vaccines. Parasitology 98: S29-S47.
149. Mons B 1985. Induction of sexual differentiation in malaria. Parasitol Today 1: 87-89.
150. Mons B 1986. Intraerythrocytic differentiation of Plasmodium berghei. Acta Leid 54: 1-83.
151. Mons B, Janse CJ, Boorsma EG 1985. Synchronized erythrocytic schizogony and gametocytogenesis of Plasmodium berghei in vivo and in vitro. Parasitology 91: 423-430.
152. Muirhead-Thomson RC 1957. The malarial infectivity of an African village population to mosquitoes (Anopheles-gambiae). A random xenodiagnostic survey. Am J Trop Med Hyg 6: 971-979.
153. Nagasawa H, Aikawa M, Procell PM, Campbell GH, Collins WE, Campbell CC 1988. Plasmodium malariae: distribution of circumsporozoite protein in the oocyst and salivary gland sporozoite. Exp Parasitol 66: 27-34.
154. Nagasawa H, Procell PM, Atkinson CT, Campbell GH, Collins WE, Aikawa M 1987. Localization of circumsporozoite protein of Plasmodium ovale in midgut oocysts. Infec Immun 55. 2928-2932.
155. Naik P, Voller A 1984 Serum C-reactive protein levels and falciparum malaria. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 78. 812-813.
156. Naotunne TD, Karunaweera ND, Delgiudice G, Kularatne MU, Grau GE, Carter R, Mendis KN 1991. Cytokines kill malaria parasites during infection crisis - Extracellular complementary factors are essential. J Exp Med 173: 523-529.
157. Naotunne TD, Rathnayake KDL, Jayasinghe A, Carter R, Mendis KN 1990. Plasmodium cynomolgi - Serum-mediated blocking and enhancement of infectivity to mosquitoes during infections in the natural host, Macaca sinica. Exp Parasitol 71; 305-313.
158. Nijhout MM 1979. Plasmodium gallinaceum: exflagellation stimulated by a mosquito factor. Exp Parasitol 48. 75-80.
159. Nijhout MM, Carter R 1978. Gamete development in malarial parasites: bicarbonate-dependent stimulation by pH in vitro. Parasitology 76. 39-53.
160. Nussenzweig RS 1990 Recombinant proteins and synthetic peptides as malaria vaccine candidates. Can J Microbiol 36: 817-820.
161. Nussenzweig V, Nussenzweig RS 1989. Rationale for the development of an engineered sporozoite malaria vaccine. Adv Immunol 45: 283-334.
162. Ono T, Onhnishe Y, Nagamune K, Kano M 1993. Gametocytogenesis induction by Berenil in cultured Plsmodium falciparum. Exp Parasitol 77 74-78.
163. Pancake SJ, Holt GD, Mellouk S, Hoffman SL 1992. Malaria sporozoites and circumsporozoite proteins bind specifically to sulfated glycoconjugates. J Cell Biol 117. 1351-1357.
164. Paskewitz SM, Brown MR, Collins FH, Lea AO 1989. Ultrastructural localization of phenoloxidase in the midgut of refractory Anopheles gambiae and association of the enzyme with encapsulated Plasmodium cynomolgi. J Parasitol 75: 594-600.
165. Paton MG, Barker GC, Matsuoka H, Ramesar J, Janse CJ, Waters AP, Sinden RE 1993. Structure and expression of a post-transcriptionally regulated malaria gene enconding a surface protein from the sexual stages of Plasmodium berghei. Mol Biochem Parasitol 59: 263-276.
166. Peiris JSM, Premawansa S, Ranawaka MBR, Udagama PV, Munasonghe YD, Nanayakkara MV, Gamage CP, Carter R, David PH, Mendis KN 1988. Monoclonal and polyclonal antibodies both block and enhance transmission of human Plasmodium vivax malaria. Am J Trop Med Hyg 39: 26-32.
167. Perrone JB, DeMaio J, Spielman A 1986. Regions of mosquito salivary glands distinguished by surface lectin-binding characteristics. Insect Biochem 16: 313-318.
168. Perrone JB, Spielman A 1988. Time and site of assembly of the peritrophic membrane of the mosquito Aedes aegypti. Cell Tiss Res 252: 473-478.
169. Phillips RS 1992. Vaccination against malaria. Immunobiology 184: 240-262.
170. Ponnudurai T, Billingsley PF, Rudin W 1988. Differential infectivity of Plasmodium for mosquitoes. Parasitol Today 4: 319-321.
171. Ponnudurai T, Lensen AHW, Van Gemert, GJA, Bensink MPE, Bolmer M, Meuwissen JHET 1989. Infectivity of cultured Plasmodium falciparum gametocytes to mosquitoes. Parasitology 98: 165-173.
172. Ponnudurai T, Lensen AHW, Van Gemert GJA, Bolmer MG, Meuwissen JHET 1991. Feeding behaviour and sporozoite ejection by infected Anopheles stephensi. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 85: 175-180.
173. Posthuma G, Meis FGM, Verhave JP, Hollingdale MR, Ponnudurai T, Meuwissen JHET 1988. Localization of circumsporozoite protein of the malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum during sporogony in Anopheles stephensi midguts using immunoelectronmicroscopy of ultrathin cryosections. Eur J Cell Biol 46: 18-24.
174. Posthuma G, Meis JFGM, Verhave JP, Gigengak S, Hollingdale MR, Ponnudurai T, Genze HJ 1989. Immunogold determination of Plasmodium falciparum circumsporozoite protein in Anopheles stephensi salivary gland cells. Eur J Cell Biol 49: 66-72.
175. Premawansa S, Gamage-Mendis A, Perera L, Begarnie S, Mendis K, Carter R 1994. Plasmodium falciparum malaria trasmission-blocking immunity under conditions of low endemicity as in Sri Lanka. Parasite Immunol 16. 35-42.
176. Premawansa S, Peiris JSM, Perera KLRL, Ariyaratne G, Carter R, Mendis KN 1990. Target antigens of transmission blocking immunity of Plasmodium vivax malaria - Characterization and polymorphism in natural parasite isolates. J Immunol 144: 4376-4383.
177. Pringle G 1965. A count of the sporozoites in an oocyst of Plasmodium falciparum. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 59: 289-290.
178. Pringle G 1966. A quantitative study of naturally acquired malaria infections in Anopheles gambiae and Anopheles funestus in a highly malarious area of east Africa. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 60: 626-632.
179. Quakyi IA, Carter R, Rener J, Kumar N, Good MF, Miller LH 1987. The 230-kDa gamete surface protein of Plasmodium falciparum is also a target for transmission-blocking antibodies. J Immunol 139: 4213-4217
180. Ramasamy M S, Ramasamy R 1990. Effect of anti-mosquito antibodies on the infectivity of the rodent malaria parasite Plasmodium berghei to Anopheles farauti. Med Vet Entomol 4: 161-166.
181. Ranawaka G, Alejo Blanco R, Sinden RE 1993. The effect of transmission-blocking antibody ingested in primary and secondary bloodfeeds, upon the development of Plasmodium berghei in the mosquito vector. Parasitology 107: 225-231.
182. Ranawaka GRR, Fleck SL, Alejo Blanco AR, Sinden RE 1994. Characterization of the modes of action of anti-Pbs21 malaria transmission-blocking immunity: ookinete to oocyst differentiation in vivo. Parasitology 109: 403-411.
183. Ranawaka MB, Munesinghe YD, De Silva DMR, Carter R, Mendis KN 1988. Boosting of transmission-blocking immunity during natural Plasmodium vivax infections in humans depends upon frequent reinfection. Infec Immun 56: 1820-1824.
184. Ree GH 1971. C-reactive protein in Gambian africans with special reference to P. falciparum malaria. Trans R. Soc Trop Med Hyg 65: 574-580.
185. Rener J, Graves PM, Carter R, Williams JL, Burkot T 1983. Target antigens of transmission-blocking immunity on gametes of Plasmodium falciparum. J Exp Med 158: 971-976.
186. Ribeiro JMC 1987. Role of saliva in blood-feeding by arthropods. Ann Rev Entomol 32: 463-478.
187. Ribeiro JMC, Modi GB, Tesh RB 1989. Salivary apirase activity of some old world phlebotomine sand flies. Insect Biochem 19: 409-412.
188. Ribeiro MC, Rossignol PA, Spielman A 1984. Role of mosquito saliva in blood vessel location. J Exp Biol 108: 1-9.
189. Ribeiro JMC, Rossignol PA, Spielman A 1985. Salivary gland apyrase activity determines probing time in Anopheline mosquitoes. J Insect Physiol 31: 689-692.
190. Rickman LS, Jones TR, Long GW, Paparello S, Schneider I, Paul CF, Beaudoin RL, Hoffman SL 1990. Plasmodium falciparum-infected Anopheles stephensi inconsistently transmit malaria to humans. Am J Trop Med Hyg 43. 441-445.
191. Riley E, Greenwood B 1990. Measuring cellular immune responses to malaria antigens in endemic populations - Epidemiological, parasitological and physiological factors which influence in vitro assays. Immunol Lett 25. 221-229.
192. Robert V, Verhave JP, Ponnudurai T, Louwe L, Scholtens P, Carnevale P 1988. Study of the distribution of circumsporozoite antigen in Anopheles gambiae infected with Plasmodium falciparum, using the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 82: 389-391.
193. Robson KJH, Hall JRS, Jennings MW, Harris TJR, Marsh K, Newbold CI, Tate VE, Weatherhall DJ 1988. A highly conserved amino-acid sequence in thrombospondin, properdin and in proteins from sporozoites and blood stages of a human malaria parasite. Nature 335: 79-82.
194. Rogers WO, Malik A, Mellouk S, Nakamura K, Rogers MD, Szarfman A, Gordon DM, Nussler AK, Aikawa M, Hoffman SL 1992b. Characterization of Plasmodium falciparum sporozoite surface protein 2. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 89: 9176-9180.
195. Rogers WO, Rogers MD, Hedstrom RC, Hoffman SL 1992a. Characterization of the gene encoding sporozoite surface protein-2, a protective Plasmodium yoelii sporozoite antigen. Mol Biochem Parasitol 53: 45-51.
196. Rosenberg R 1985. Inability of Plasmodium knowlesi sporozoites to invade Anopheles freeborni salivary glands. Am J Trop Med Hyg 34. 687-691.
197. Rosenberg R, Koontz LC 1984. Plasmodium gallinaceum: density dependent limits on infectivity to Aedes aegypti. Exp Parasitol 57: 234-238.
198. Rosenberg R, Koontz LC, Alston K, Friedman FK 1984. Plasmodium gallinaceum: erythrocyte factor essential for zygote infection of Aedes aegypti. Exp Parasitol 57: 158-164.
199. Rosenberg R, Rungsiwongse J 1991. The number of sporozoites produced by individual malaria oocysts. Am J Trop Med Hyg 45. 574-577.
200. Rosenberg R, Wirtz RA, Scneider I, Burge R 1990. An estimation of the number of malaria sporozoites ejected by a feeding mosquito. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 84: 209-212.
201. Rossignol PA, Ribeiro JMC, Jungery M, Turell MJ, Spielman A, Bailey CL 1985. Enhanced mosquito blood-finding success on parasitaemic hosts: evidence for vector-parasite mutualism. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 82: 7725-7727.
202. Rossignol PA, Ribeiro JMC, Spielman A 1984. Increased intradermal probing time in sporozoite-infected mosquitoes. Am J Trop Med Hyg 33: 17-20.
203. Rossignol PA, Ribeiro JMC, Spielman A 1986. Increased biting rate and reduced fertility in sporozoite-infected mosquitoes. Am J Trop Med Hyg 35 277-279
204. Roush RT 1993. Occurrence, genetics and management of insecticide resistance Parasitol Today 9: 174-179.
205. Rowland M, Boersma E 1988. Changes in the spontaneous flight activity of the mosquito Anopheles stephensi by parasitization with the rodent malaria Plasmodium yoelii. Parasitology 97: 221-227.
206. Rudin W, Billingsley PF, Saladin S 1991. The fate of Plasmodium gallinaceum in Anopheles stephensi Liston and possible barriers to transmission. Ann Soc Belg Méd Trop 71: 167-177.
207. Rudin W. Hecker H 1989. Lectin-binding sites in the midgut of the mosquitoes Anopheles stephensi Liston and Aedes aegypti L. (Diptera: Culicidae0. Parasitol Res 75: 268-279.
208. Rutledge LC, Gould DJ, Tantichareon B 1969. Factors affecting the infection of anophelines with human malaria in Thailand. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 63: 613-619.
209. Santoro F, Cochrane AH, Nussenzweig V, Nardin EH, Nussenzweig R, Gwadz RW, Ferreira A 1983. Structural similarities among the protective antigens of spoorzoites from different species oof malaria parasites. J Biol Chem 258 3341-3345.
210. Sattabongkot J, Manaeechai N, Rosenberg R 1991. Plasmodium vivax: gametocyte infectivity of naturally infected Thai adults. Parasitology 102: 27-31.
211. Schall JJ 1989. The sex ratio of Plasmodium gametocytes. Parasitology 98: 343-350.
212. Schapira A, Beales PF, Halloran ME 1993. Malaria: living with drug resistance. Parasitol Today 9: 168-174.
213. Scherf A, Behr C, Sarthou JL, Pla M, Rogier C, Trape JF, Pereira da Silva L, Dubois P 1993. Immune response in mouse and malaria-exposed humans to peptides derived from Pf11-1, a highly repetitive megadalton protein of Plasmodium falciparum. Eur J Immunol 23: 1574-1581.
214. Scherf A, Petersen C, Carter R, Alano P, Nellson R, Aikawa M, Mattei D, Pereira da Silava, L. 1992. Characterization of a Plasmodium falciparum mutant that has deleted the majority of the gametocyte-specific Pf11-1 locus. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 87(Suppl. III): 91-94.
215. Schneweis S, Maier WA, Seitz HM 1991. Haemolysis of infected erythrocytes - A trigger for formation of Plasmodium falciparum gametocytes. Parasitol Res 77: 458-460.
216. Schulman S, Oppenheim JD, Vanderberg JP 1980. Plasmodium berghei and Plasmodium knowlesi: serum binding to sporozoites. Exp Parasitol 49. 420-429.
217. Seitz HM, Maier WA, Rottok M, Becker-Feldman H 1987. Concomittant infections of Anopheles stephensi with Plasmodium berghei and Serratia marcesens additive detrimental effects. Z Bakteriol Mikrobiol Hyg 266: 155-166.
218. Shahabuddin M, Toyoshima T, Aikawa M, Kaslow DC 1993. Transmission-blocking acitivity of a chitinase inhibitor activation of malarial parasite chitinase by mosquito protease. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 90: 4266-4270.
219. Shute PG 1945. An investigation into the number of sporozoites found in the salivary glands of Anopheles mosquitoes. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 38: 493-498.
220. Shute PG, Marion M 1951. A study of gametocytes in a West Africa strain of Plamodium falciparum. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 44. 421-438.
221. Shute PG, Maryon M 1954. The effect of pyrimethamine (Daraprim) on the gametocytes and oocysts of Plasmodium falciparum and Plasmodium vivax. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 48: 50-63.
222. Sieber KP, Huber M, Kaslow D, Banks SM, Torii M, Aikawa M, Miller LH 1991. The peritrophic membrane as a barrier: its penetration by Plasmodium gallinaceum and the effect of a monoclonal antibody to ookinetes. Exp Parasitol 72 145-156.
223. Simonetti AB, Billingsley PF, Winger L, Sinden RE 1993. Kinetics of expression of two major Plasmodium berghei antigens in the msquito vector Anopheles stephenst. J Euk Microbiol (J Protozool) 40: 569-576.
224. Sinden RE 1975. The sporogonic cycle of Plasmodium yoelii nigeriensis: a scanning electron microscope study. Protistologica 11. 31-39.
225. Sinden RE 1983. The cell biology of sexual development in Plasmodium. Parasitology 86: 7-28.
226. Sinden RE 1984. The biology of Plasmodium in the mosquito. Experientia 40: 1330-1343.
227. Sinden RE 1985. A cell biologist's view of host cell recognition and invasion by malarial parasites. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 79: 598-605.
228. Sinden RE 1978. Cell Biology, p. 85-186. In R Killick-Kendrick & W A Peters (eds) Rodent Malaria, New York: Academic Press.
229. Sinden RE 1989. Recent advances in the parasitology of malaria. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 83 Suppl: 3-9.
230. Sinden RE 1991. Asexual blood stages of malaria modulate gametocyte infectivity to the mosquito vector - possible implications for control strategies. Parasitology 103: 191-196.
231. Sinden RE, Butcher GA, Billker O, Fleck SL 1996. Regulation of infectivity of Plasmodium to the mosquito vector. Adv Parasitology 38: 54 - 117.
232. Sinden RE, Croll NA 1975. Citolology and kinetics of microgametogenesis and fertilization of Plasmodium yoelii nigeriensis. Parasitology 70: 53-65.
233. Sinden RE, Garnham PCC 1973. A comparative study on the ultrastructure of Plasmodium sporozoites within the oocyst and salivary glands, with particular reference to the incidence of the micropore. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 67: 631-637.
234. Sinden RE, Smalley ME 1976. Gametocytes of Plasmodium falciparum: phagocytosis by leucocytes in vivo and in vitro. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 70: 344-345.
235. Sinden RE, Strong K 1978. An ultrastructural study of the sporogonic development of Plasmodium falciparum in Anopheles gambiae. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 27: 477-491.
236. Sinden RE, Winger LA, Hartley RH, Carter HE, Tirawanchai N, Davies CS, Sluiters JG 1987. Ookinete antigens of Plasmodium berghei: a light and electron microscopic immunogold study of the 21kD determinant recognised by transmission blocking antibodies. Proc R Soc Lond B 230: 443-458.
237. Sluiters JF, Visser PE, Van Der Kaay, HJ 1986. The establishment of Plasmodium berghei in mosquitoes of a refractory and a susceptible line of Anopheles atroparvus. Z Parasitenkd 72. 313-322.
238. Smalley ME 1977. Plasmodium falciparum gametocytes: the effect of chloroquine on their development. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 71: 523-529.
239. Smalley ME, Brown J, Basset NM 1981. The rate of production of Plasmodium falciparum gametocytes during natural infections. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 75: 317-319.
240. Snewin VA, Premawansa S, Kapilananda GMG, Ratnayaka L, Udagama PV, Mattei DM, Khouri E, DelGiudice G, Peiris JSM, Mendis KN, David PH 1995. Transmission blocking immunity in Plasmodium vivax malaria: antibodies raised against a peptide block parasite development in the mosquito vector J Exp Med 181: 357-362.
241. Snow RW, Schellenberg JRMA, Peshu N, Forster D, Newton CRJC, Winstanley PA, Mwangi I, Warn PA, Newbold C, Marsh K 1993. Periodicity and space-time clustering of severe childhood malaria on the coast of Kenya. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 87. 386-390.
242. Speer CA, Rosale-Ronquillo MC, Silverman PH 1974. Scanning electron microscope observations of Plasmodium berghei ookinetes in primary mosquito cell cultures. J Invert Pathol 24: 179-183.
243. Sterling CR, Aikawa M, Vanderberg JP 1973. The passage of Plasmodium berghei sporozoites through the salivary glands of Anopheles stephensi: an electron microscope study. J Parasitol 59. 593-605.
244. Stewart MJ, Vanderberg JP 1988. Malaria sporozoites leave behind trails of circumsporozoite protein during gliding. J Protozool 35: 389-393.
245. Stewart MJ, Vanderberg JP 1991. Malaria sporozoites release circumsporozoite protein from their apical end and translocate it along their surface. J Protozool 38: 411-421.
246. Stewart MJ, Vanderberg JP 1992. Electron microscopic analysis of circumsporozoite protein trail formation by gliding malaria sporozoites. J Protozool 39: 663-671.
247. Stohler H 1957. Analyse des infektionsverlaufes von Plasmodium gallinaceum im darme von Aedes aegypti. Acta Trop 14: 302-352.
248. Strome CPA, Beaudoin RL 1974. The surface of the malarial parasite I. Scanning electron microscopy of the oocyst. Exp Parasitol 36: 131-142.
249. Syafruddin A, Arakawa R, Kamimura, Kawamoto F 1991. Penetration of the mosquito midgut wall by the ookinetes of Plasmodium yoelii nigeriensis Parasitol Res 77: 230-236.
250. Syafruddin A, Arakawa R, Kamimura K, Kawamotoo F 1992. Development of Plasmodium berghei ookinetes to young oocysts in vitro. J Protozool 39: 333-338.
251. Targett GAT 1989. Status of malaria vaccine research. J R Soc Med 82. 52-56.
252. Targett GAT 1990. Immunity to sexual stages of human malaria parasites-Immune modulation during natural infections, antigenic determinants, and the induction of transmission-blocking immunity Scand J Infec Dis 76. 79-88.
253. Terzakis JA 1971. Transformation of the Plasmodium cynomolgi oocyst. J Protozool 18: 62-73.
254. Tirawanchai N, Winger LA, Nicholas J, Ssinden RE 1991. Analysis of immunity induced by the affinity-purified 21-Kilodalton zygote-ookinete surface antigen of Plasmodium berghei. Infec Immun 59: 36-44.
255. Titus RG, Ribeiro JMC 1990. The role of vector saliva in transmission of arthropod-borne disease. Parasitol Today 6: 157-160.
256. Torii M, Nakamura K, Sieber KP, Miller LH, Aikawa M 1992a. Penetration of the mosquito (Aedes aegypti) midgut wall by the ookinetes of Plasmodium gallinaceum. J Protozool 39: 449-454
257. Torii M, Yanagi T, Tsuboi T, Kanbara H 1992b. Appearence and localization of Plasmodium yoelii circumsporozoite protein during sporogony in Anopheles stephensi J Protozool Res 2: 134-140.
258. Touray MG, Warburg A, Laughinghouse A, Krettli AU, Miller LH 1992. Developmentally regulated infectivity of malaria sporozoites for mosquito salivary glands and the vertebrate host. J Exp Med 175: 1607-1612.
259. Tsuji M, Corradin G, Zavala F 1992. Monoclonal antibodies recognize a processing dependent epitope present in the mature CS protein of various plasmodial species. Parasite Immunol 14: 457-469.
260. Turner DP, Gregson NA 1982. The cell surface of Plasmodium gallinaceum sporozoites: microelectrophoretic and lectin-binding studies. Parasitology 84: 227-238.
261. Van Houten J 1988. Chemoresponse mechanism toward a molecular level. J Protozool 35. 241-245.
262. Vanderberg JP 1974. Studies on the motility of Plasmodium sporozoites. J Protozool 21: 527-537.
263. Vanderberg JP 1975. Development of infectivity of the Plasmodium berghei sporozoite. J Parasitol 61: 43-50.
264. Vanderberg JP 1977. Plasmodium berghei: quantitation of sporozoites injected by mosquitoes feeding on a rodent host. Exp Parasitol 42: 169-181.
265. Vanderberg JP, Rhodin J, Yoeli M 1967. Electron microscopic and histochemical studies of sporozoite formation in Plasmodium berghei. J Protozool 14: 82-103.
266. Vaughan JA, Do Rosario V, Leland P, Light J, Woolett R, Hollingdale MR, Azad AF 1988. Plasmodium falciparum: ingested anti-sporozoite antibodies affect sporogony in Anopheles stephensi mosquitoes. Exp Parasitol 66: 171-182.
267. Vaughan JA, Noden BH, Beier JC 1992. Population dynamics of Plasmodium falciparum sporogony in laboratory-infected Anopheles gambiae. J Parasitol 78. 716-724.
268. Vaughan JA, Noden BH, Beier JC 1994. Sporogonic development of cultured Plasmodium falciparum in six species of laboratory-reared Anopheles mosquitoes. Am J Trop Med Hyg 51: 233-243.
269. Vermeulen AN, Deursen JV, Brakenhof RH, Lensen THW, Ponnudurai T, Meuwissen JHET 1986. Characterization of Plasmodium falciparum sexual stage antigens and their biosynthesis in synchronized gametocyte cultures Mol Biochem Parasitol 20 155-163.
270. Vermeulen AN, Ponnudurai T, Beckers PJA, Verhave JP, Smits MA, Meuwissen JHET 1985a. Sequential expression of antigens on sexual stages of Plasmodium falciparum accessible to transmission blocking antibodies in the mosquito. J Exp Med 162. 1460-1476.
271. Vermeulen AN, Roeffen WFG, Hendrik JBJ, Ponnudurai T, Beckers PJA, Meuwissen JHET 1985b. Plasmodium falciparum transmission blocking antibodies recognize monovalently expressed epitopes. Develop Biol Standard 62. 91-97
272. Vernick KD, Collins H, Gwadz RW 1989a A general system of resistance to malaria infection in Anopheles gambiae controlled by two main genetic loci. Am J Trop Med Hyg 40 585-592.
273. Vernick KD, Collins FH 1989b Association of a Plasmodium-refractory phenotype with an esterase locus in Anopheles gambiae. AmJ Trop Med Hyg 40: 593-597.
274. Vickerman K, Cox FEG 1972. Introductory studies in Biology. In SW Hurry & J Murray (eds), The Protozoa, Albemarie Street, London.
275. Warburg A, Miller LH 1992. Sporogonic development of a malaria parasite in vitro. Science 255: 448-450.
276. Warburg A, Schneider I 1993. In vitro culture of the mosquito stages of Plasmodium falciparum. Exp Parasitol 76 121-126.
277. Warburg A, Touray M, Krettli AU, Miller LH 1992 Plasmodium gallinaceum: antibodies to circumsporozoite protein prevent sporozoites from invading the salivary glands of Aedes aegypti Exp Parasitol 75. 303-307.
278. Weathersby AB 1952. The role of the stomach wall in the exogenous development of Plasmodium gallinaceum as studied by means of haemocoel injections of susceptible and refractory mosquitoes. J Infec Dis 91. 198-205.
279. Weathersby AB 1954. The ectopic development of malarial oocysts. Exp Parasitol 3: 538-543.
280. Weathersby AB 1960. Experimental infection of Aedes aegypti-with exoerythrocytic stages of Plasmodium gallinaceum. Exp Parasitol 9: 334-337.
281. Wernsdorfer WH 1991. The development and spread of drug-resistant malaria. Parasitol Today 7: 297-303.
282. Wilkinson RN, Colwell EJ, Neoypatimanond S 1973. Effect of sulphamethoxazole-trimethoprim on the viability of Plasmodium falciparum gametocytes. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 67: 148-149.
283. Wilkinson, RN, Neypatimanond, S, Gould DJ 1976. Infectivity of falciparum malaria patients for anopheline mosquitoes befoore and after chloroquine treatment. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 70: 306-307.
284. Winger LA, Tirawanchai N, Nicholas J, Carter HE, Smith JE, Sinden RE 1988. Ookinete antigens of Plasmodium berghei. Appearance on the zygote of a Mr 21 kD determinant identified by transmission blocking monoclonal antibodies. Parasite Immunol 10: 193-207.
285. Wirtz RA, Burkot TR, Graves PM, Andre RG 1987. Field evaluation of enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays for Plasmodium falciparum and Plasmodium vivax sporozoites in mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae) from Papua New Guinea. J Med Entomol 24. 433-437.
286. Yoshida N, Potonjak P, Nussenzweig V, Nussenzweig RS 1981. Biosynthesis of Pb44, the protective antigen of sporozoites of Plasmodium berghei. J Exp Med 154. 1225-1236.
287. Young MD, Burgess RW 1961. The infectivity to mosquitoes of Plasmodium malariae. Am J Hyg 73: 182-192.