Monitoring and Control Processes in the Strategic Regulation of Memory Accuracy

Psychological Review

Volumn 103, Issue 3, 1996, Pages 490-517

  Koriat, Asher ^a   Goldsmith, Morris ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF HAIFA   (Israel)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ACHIEVEMENT; ADULT; ATTENTION; CLINICAL TRIAL; COMPARATIVE STUDY; CONTROL; CONTROLLED CLINICAL TRIAL; CONTROLLED STUDY; FEMALE; HUMAN; LONG TERM MEMORY; MALE; MOTIVATION; RANDOMIZED CONTROLLED TRIAL; RECALL; REVIEW;

ACHIEVEMENT; ADULT; ATTENTION; FEMALE; HUMANS; INTERNAL-EXTERNAL CONTROL; MALE; MENTAL RECALL; MOTIVATION; RETENTION (PSYCHOLOGY);

EID: 0030191820     PISSN: 0033295X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1037/0033-295X.103.3.490     Document Type: Article

References (159)

1. Bahrick, H. P., Hall, L. K., & Dunlosky, J. (1993). Reconstructive processing of memory content for high versus low test scores and grades. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 7, 1-10.
2. Banaji, M. R., & Crowder, R. G. (1989). The bankruptcy of everyday memory, American Psychologist, 44, 1185-1193.
3. Banks, W. P. (1970). Signal detection theory and human memory. Psychological Bulletin, 74, 81-99.
4. Barnes, A. E., Nelson, T. O., Dunlosky, J., Mazzoni, G., & Narens, L. (1995). An integrative system of metamemory components involved in retrieval. Manuscript submitted for publication.
5. Bartlett, F. C. (1932). Remembering. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
6. Begg, I., Duft, S., Lalonde, P., Melnick, R., & Sanvito, J. (1989). Memory predictions are based on ease of processing. Journal of Memory and Language, 28, 610-632.
7. Bernbach, H. A. (1967). Decision processes in memory. Psychological Review, 74, 462-480.
8. Bjork, R. A. (1994). Memory and metamemory considerations in the training of human beings. In J. Metcalfe & A. P. Shimamura (Eds.), Metacognition: Knowing about knowing (pp. 185-205). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
9. Bousfield, W. A. (1953). The occurrence of clustering in recall of randomly arranged associates. Journal of Generat Psychology, 49, 229-273.
10. Bousfield, W. A., & Rosner, S. R. (1970). Free vs. uninhibited recall. Psychonomic Science, 20, 75-76.
11. Bower, G. H. (1970). Organizational factors in memory. Cognitive Psychology, 1, 18-46.
12. Brewer, W. F. (1996). What is recollective memory? In D. C. Rubin (Ed.), Remembering our past: Studies in autobiographical memory. (pp. 19-66). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
13. Britton, B. K., Meyer, B. J., Hodge, M. H., & Glynn, S. M. (1980). Effects of organization of text on memory: Tests of retrieval and response criterion hypotheses. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory, 6, 620-629.
14. Brown, E. L., Deffenbacher, K. A., & Sturgill, W. (1977). Memory for faces and the circumstances of encounter. Journal of Applied Psychology, 62, 311-318.
15. Brown, J. (Ed.). (1976). Recall and recognition. London: Wiley.
16. Brown, R., & McNeill, D. (1966). The "tip of the tongue" phenomenon. Journal of Verbal Learning & Verbal Behavior, 5, 325-337.
17. Budescu, D., & Bar-Hillel, M. (1993). To guess or not to guess: A decision-theoretic view of formula scoring. Journal of Educational Measurement, 38, 277-291.
18. Ceci, S. J., & Bruck, M. (1993). The suggestibility of the child witness: An historical review and synthesis. Psychological Bulletin, 113, 403-439.
19. Ceci, S. J., Ross, D. F., & Toglia, M. P. (1987). Suggestibility of children's memory: Psycholegal implications. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 116, 38-49.
20. Chandler, C. C. (1994). Studying related pictures can reduce accuracy, but increase confidence, in a modified recognition text. Memory and Cognition, 22, 273-280.
21. Cofer, C. N. (1967). Does conceptual organization influence the amount retained in immediate free recall? In B. Kleinmuntz (Ed.), Concepts and the structure of memory (pp. 181-214). New York: Wiley.
22. Cohen, R. L. (1988). Metamemory for words and enacted instructions: Predicting which items will be recalled. Memory and Cognition, 16, 452-460.
23. Conway, M. A. (1991). In defense of everyday memory. American Psychologist, 46, 19-27.
24. Conway, M. A. (1993). Method and meaning in memory research. In G. M. Davies & R. H. Logie (Eds.), Memory in everyday life (pp. 499-524). Amsterdam: Elsevier Science Publishers.
25. Costermans, J., Lories, G., & Ansay, C. (1992). Confidence level and feeling of knowing in question answering: The weight of inferential processes. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 18, 142-150.
26. Cronbach, L. J. (1984). Essentials of psychological testing. New York: Harper & Row.
27. Deffenbacher, K. A. (1991). A maturing of research on the behavior of eyewitnesses. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 5, 377-402.
28. Druckman, D., & Bjork, R. A. (Eds.). (1994). Learning, remembering, believing: Enhancing human performance. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
29. Dunlosky, J., & Nelson, T. O. (in press). An empirical evaluation of two potential explanations for the delayed-JOL effect: The monitoring-dual-memories explanation versus the transfer-appropriate-monitoring explanation. Journal of Memory and Language.
30. Erdelyi, M. H. (1970). Recovery of unavailable perceptual input. Cognitive Psychology, 1, 99-113.
31. Erdelyi, M. H., & Becker (1974). Hypermnesia for pictures: Incremental memory for pictures but not words in multiple recall trials. Cognitive Psychology, 6, 159-171.
32. Erdelyi, M. H., Finks, J., & Feigin-Pfau, M. B. (1989). The effect of response bias on recall performance, with some observations on processing bias. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 118, 245-254.
33. Erev, I., Wallsten, T. S., & Budescu, D. V. (1994). Simultaneous over-and underconfidence: The role of error in judgment processes. Psychological Review, 101, 519-527.
34. Fischhoff, B. (1982). Debiasing. In D. Kahneman, P. Slovic, & A. Tversky (Eds.), Judgment under uncertainly: Heuristics and biases (pp. 422-444). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
35. Fischhoff, B., Slovic, P., & Lichtenstein, S. (1977). Knowing with certainty: The appropriateness of extreme confidence. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 3, 552-564.
36. Fisher, R. P. (1996). Implications of output-bound measures for laboratory and field research in memory. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 19, 197.
37. Fisher, R. P., & Geiselman, R. E. (1992). Memory enhancing techniques for investigative interviewing: The cognitive interview. Springfield, IL: Thomas.
38. Fisher, R. P., Geiselman, R. E., & Amador, M. (1989). Field test of the cognitive interview: Enhancing the recollection of actual victims and witnesses of crime. Journal of Applied Psychology, 74, 722-727.
39. Fisher, R. P., Geiselman, R. E., & Raymond, D. S. (1987). Critical analysis of police interview techniques. Journal of Police Science and Administration, 15, 177-185.
40. Flanagan, E. J. (1981). Interviewing and interrogation techniques. In J. J. Grau (Ed.), Criminal and civil investigation handbook (pp. 4:3-4:23). New York: McGraw-Hill.
41. Foss, D. J. (Ed.). (1991). [Science Watch special section on everyday memory]. American Psychologist, 46, 16-48.
42. Gardiner, J. M., & Klee, H. (1976). Memory for remembered events: An assessment of output monitoring in free recall. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 15, 227-233.
43. Gardiner, J. M., Passmore, C., Herriot, P., & Klee, H. (1977). Memory for remembered events: Effects of response mode and response produced feedback. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 16, 45-54.
44. Gigerenzer, G., Hoffrage, U., & Kleinbolting, H. (1991). Probabilistic mental models: A Brunswikian theory of confidence. Psychological Review, 98, 506-528.
45. Gorenstein, G. W., & Ellsworth, P. C. (1980). Effect of choosing an incorrect photograph on a later identification by an eyewitness. Journal of Applied Psychology, 65, 616-622.
46. Green, D. M., & Swets, J. A. (1966). Signal detection theory and psychophysics. New York: Wiley.
47. Gregg, V. H. (1986). Introduction to human memory. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
48. Griffin, D., & Tversky, A. (1992). The weighing of evidence and the determinants of confidence. Cognitive Psychology, 24, 411-435.
49. Gruneberg, M. M., Monks, J., & Sykes, R. N. (1977). Some methodological problems with feeling of knowing studies. Acta Psychologica, 41, 365-371.
50. Gruneberg, M. M., & Morris, P. E. (1992). Applying memory research. In M. Gruneberg & P. Morris (Eds.), Aspects of memory (2nd ed.; Vol. 1, pp. 1-17). London: Routledge.
51. Healy, A. F., & Jones, C. (1973). Criterion shifts in recall. Psychological Bulletin, 79, 335-340.
52. Herrmann, D. J. (1993). Improving student memory. Seattle, WA: Hogrefe & Huber.
53. Hilgard, E. R., & Loftus, E. F. (1979). Effective interrogation of the eyewitness. The International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 27, 342-357.
54. Janowsky, J. S., Shimamura, A. P., & Squire, L. R. (1989). Memory and metamemory: Comparisons between frontal lobe lesions and amnesic patients. Psychobiology, 17, 3-11.
55. Johnson, N. L., & Kotz, S. (1970). Continuous univariate distributions-2. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
56. Kelley, C. M., & Lindsay, D. S. (1993). Remembering mistaken for knowing: Ease of retrieval as a basis for confidence in answers to general knowledge questions. Journal of Memory and Language, 32, 1-24.
57. Keppel, G., & Mallory, W. (1969). Presentation rate and instructions to guess in free recall. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 79, 269-275.
58. Keren, G. (1988). On the ability of monitoring non-veridical perceptions and uncertain knowledge: Some calibration studies. Acta Psychologica, 67, 95-119.
59. Kintsch, W. (1967). Memory and decision aspects of recognition learning. Psychological Review, 74, 496-504.
60. Klatzky, R. L., & Erdelyi, M. H. (1985). The response criterion problem in tests of hypnosis and memory. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 33, 246-257.
61. Kolers, P. A., & Palef, S. R. (1976). Knowing not. Memory and Cognition, 4, 553-558.
62. Koriat, A. (1993). How do we know that we know? The accessibility model of the feeling of knowing. Psychological Review, 100, 609-639.
63. Koriat, A. (1995a). Dissociating knowing and the feeling of knowing: Further evidence for the accessibility model. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 124, 311-333.
64. Koriat, A. (1995b, May). Illusions of knowing: A window to the link between knowledge and metaknowledge. Paper presented at the Symposium on Social and Cognitive Aspects of Metacognition, Louvainla-Neuve, Belgium.
65. Koriat, A., Ben-Zur, H., & Sheffer, D. (1988). Telling the same story twice: Output monitoring and age. Journal of Memory and Language, 27, 23-39.
66. Koriat, A., & Goldsmith, M. (1994). Memory in naturalistic and laboratory contexts: Distinguishing the accuracy-oriented and quantity-oriented approaches to memory assessment. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 123, 297-316.
67. Koriat, A., & Goldsmith, M. (1996a). The correspondence metaphor of memory: Right, wrong, or useful? Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 79, 211-222.
68. Koriat, A., & Goldsmith, M. (1996b). Memory as something that can be counted versus memory as something that can be counted on. In D. Hermann, C. McEvoy, C. Hertzog, P. Hertel, & M. Johnson (Eds.), Basic and applied memory research: Practical applications, Vol. 2 (pp. 3-18). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
69. Koriat, A., & Goldsmith, M. (1996c). Memory metaphors and the reallife/laboratory controversy: Correspondence versus storehouse conceptions of memory. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 19, 167-188.
70. Koriat, A., Lichtenstein, S., & Fischhoff, B. (1980). Reasons for confidence. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory, 6, 107-118.
71. Koriat, A., & Lieblich, I. (1974). What does a person in the "TOT" state know that a person in a "Don't Know" state does not know? Memory and Cognition, 2, 647-655.
72. Koriat, A., & Lieblich, I. (1977). A study of memory pointers. Acta Psychologica, 41, 151-164.
73. Liberman, V., & Tversky, A. (1993). On the evaluation of probability judgements: Calibration, discrimination, and monotonicity. Psychological Bulletin, 114, 162-173.
74. Lichtenstein, S., & Fischhoff, B. (1980). Training for calibration. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 26, 141-171.
75. Lichtenstein, S., Fischhoff, B., & Phillips, L. D. (1982). Calibration of probabilities: The state of the art to 1980. In D. Kahneman, P. Slovic, & A. Tversky (Eds.), Judgment under uncertainty: Heuristics and biases (pp. 306-334). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
76. Lipton, J. P. (1977). On the psychology of eyewitness testimony. Journal of Applied Psychology, 62, 90-95.
77. Lockhart, R. S., & Murdock, B. B. (1970). Memory and the theory of signal detection. Psychological Bulletin, 74, 100-109.
78. Loftus, E. F. (1979). Eyewitness testimony. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University press.
79. Loftus, E. F. (1982). Memory and its distortions. In A. G. Kraut (Ed.), G. Stanley Hall lectures (pp. 119-154). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
80. Loftus, E. F., & Davies, G. M. (1984). Distortions in the memory of children. Journal of Social Issues, 40, 51-67.
81. Loftus, E. F., & Hoffman, H. G. (1989). Misinformation and memory: The creation of new memories. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 118, 100-104.
82. Loftus, E. F., Miller, D. G., & Burns, H. J. (1978). Semantic integration of verbal information into a visual memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory, 4, 19-31.
83. Loftus, G. R., & Wickens, T. D. (1970). Effect of incentive on storage and retrieval processes. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 85, 141-147.
84. May, R. S. (1986). Overconfidence as a result of incomplete and wrong knowledge. In R. W. Scholz (Ed.), Current issues in West German decision research (pp. 13-30). Frankfurt am Main, Germany: Lang.
85. Mazzoni, G., & Cornoldi, C. (1993). Strategies in study time allocation: Why is study time sometimes not effective? Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 122, 47-60.
86. Mazzoni, G., Cornoldi, C., & Marchitelli, G. (1990). Do metamemory ratings affect study time allocation? Memory and Cognition, 18, 196-204.
87. Metcalfe, J. (1993). Novelty monitoring, metacognition, and control in a composite holographic associative recall model: Implications for Korsakoff amnesia. Psychological Review, 100, 3-22.
88. Metcalfe, J., Schwartz, B. L., & Joaquim, S. G. (1993). The cue familiarity heuristic in metacognition. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 19, 851-861.
89. Metcalfe, J., & Shimamura, A. P. (1994). Metacognition: Knowing about knowing. Cambridge: MIT Press.
90. Metcalfe, J., & Wiebe, D. (1987). Intuition in insight and noninsight problem solving. Memory and Cognition, 15, 238-246.
91. Miner, A. C., & Reder, L. M. (1994). A new look at feeling of knowing: Its metacognitive role in regulating question answering. In J. Metcalfe & A. P. Shimamura (Eds.), Metacognition: Knowing about knowing (pp. 47-70). Cambridge: MIT Press.
92. Moscovitch, M. (1995). Confabulation. In D. Schacter, J. Coyle, G. Fishbach, M.-M. Mesulam, & L. Sullivan (Eds.), Memory distortion: How minds, brains, and societies reconstruct the past (pp. 226-251). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
93. Murdock, B. B. (1966). The criterion problem in short term memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 72, 317-324.
94. Murdock, B. B. (1974). Human memory: Theory and data. New York: Wiley.
95. Murdock, B. B. (1982). Recognition memory. In C. R. Puff (Ed.), Handbook of research methods in human memory and cognition. New York: Academic Press.
96. Murphy, A. H. (1973). A new vector partition of the probability score. Journal of Applied Meteorology, 12, 595-600.
97. Neisser, U. (1981). John Dean's memory: A case study. Cognition, 9, 1-22.
98. Neisser, U. (1988). Time present and time past. In M. M. Gruneberg, P. Morris, & R. Sykes (Eds.), Practical aspects of memory: Current research and issues (Vol. 2, pp. 545-560). Chichester, England: Wiley.
99. Neisser, U. (1996). Remembering as doing. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 19, 203-204.
100. Neisser, U., & Fivush, R. (Eds.). (1994). The remembering self: Construction and accuracy in the self-narrative. New York: Cambridge University Press.
101. Nelson, T. O. (1984). A comparison of current measures of the accuracy of feeling-of-knowing predictions. Psychological Bulletin, 95, 109-133.
102. Nelson, T. O. (1986). ROC curves and measures of discrimination accuracy: A reply to Swets. Psychological Bulletin, 100, 128-132.
103. Nelson, T. O. (1993). Judgments of learning and the allocation of study time. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 122, 269-273.
104. Nelson, T. Q., Dunlosky, J., White, D. M., Steinberg, J., Townes, B. D., & Anderson, D. (1990). Cognition and metacognition at extreme altitudes on Mount Everest. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 119, 367-374.
105. Nelson, T. O., & Leonesio, R. J. (1988). Allocation of self-paced study time and the "labor in vain" effect. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory and Cognition, 14, 476-486.
106. Nelson, T. O., & Narens, L. (1990). Metamemory: A theoretical framework and new findings. In G. Bower (Ed.), The psychology of learning and motivation (pp. 125-173). New York: Academic Press.
107. Nelson, T. O., & Narens, L. (1994). Why investigate metacognition? In J. Metcalfe & A. P. Shimamura (Eds.), Metacognition: Knowing about knowing (pp. 1-25). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
108. Nigro, G., & Neisser, U. (1983). Point of view in personal memories. Cognitive Psychology, 15, 467-482.
109. Nilsson, L.-G. (1987). Motivated memory: Dissociation between performance data and subjective reports. Psychological Research, 49, 183-188.
110. Norman, D. A. (1973). Memory, knowledge, and the answers of questions. In R. L. Solso (Ed.), Contemporary issues in cognitive psychology: The Loyola Symposium (pp. 135-165). Washington, DC: Winston.
111. Norman, D. A., & Wickelgren, W. A. (1969). Strength theory of decision rules and latency in retrieval from short-term memory. Journal of Mathematical Psychology, 6, 192-208.
112. Ornstein, P. A., Gordon, B. N., & Baker-Ward, L. (1992). Children's memory for salient events: Implications for testimony. In M. L. Howe, C. H. Brainard, & V. F. Reyna (Eds.), Development of long-term retention (pp. 135-158). New York: Springer-Verlag.
113. Oskamp, S. (1962). The relationship of clinical experience and training methods to several criteria of clinical prediction. Psychological Monographs, 76, (28, Whole No. 547).
114. Parks, T. E. (1966). Signal detectability theory of recognition-memory performance. Psychological Review, 73, 44-58.
115. Perfect, T. J., & Stollery, B. (1993). Memory and metamemory performance in older adults: One deficit or two? Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 46A, 119-135.
116. Poole, D. A., & White, L. T. (1991). Effects of question repetition on the eyewitness testimony of children and adults. Developmental Psychology, 27, 975-986.
117. Poole, D. A., & White, L. T. (1993). Two years later: Effects of question repetition and retention interval on the eyewitness testimony of children and adults. Developmental Psychology, 29, 844-853.
118. Pressley, M., Levin, J. R., Ghatala, E. S., & Ahmad, M. (1987). Test monitoring in young grade school children. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 43, 96-111.
119. Puff, C. R. (Ed.). (1982). Handbook of research methods in human memory and cognition. New York: Academic Press.
120. Reder, L. M. (1987). Strategy selection in question answering. Cognitive Psychology, 19, 990-138.
121. Reder, L. M. (1988). Strategic control of retrieval strategies. In G. Bower (Ed.), The psychology of learning and motivation (Vol. 22, pp. 227-259). New York: Academic Press.
122. Reder, L. M., & Ritter, F. E. (1992). What determines initial feeling of knowing? Familiarity with question terms, not with the answer. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition. 15, 435-451.
123. Roediger, H. L., & Payne, D. G. (1985). Recall criterion does not affect recall level or hypermnesia: A puzzle for generate/recognize theories. Memory and Cognition, 13, 1-7.
124. Roediger, H. L., Srinivas, K., & Waddil, P. (1989). How much does guessing influence recall? Comment on Erdelyi, Finks, and Feigin-Pfau. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 118, 253-257.
125. Ross, M. (1989). Relation of implicit theories to the construction of personal histories. Psychological Review, 96, 341-357.
126. Ross, M. (in press). Validating memories. In N. L. Stein, P. A. Ornstein, B. Tversky, & C. Brainerd (Eds.), Memory for everyday and emotional events. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
127. Ross, M., & Buehler, R. (1994). Creative remembering. In U. Neisser & R. Fivush (Eds.), The remembering self: Construction and accuracy in the self-narrative (pp. 205-235). New York: Cambridge University Press.
128. Schacter, D. (1989). Memory. In M. I. Posner (Ed.), Foundations of cognitive science (pp. 687-725). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
129. Schacter, D. (1995). Memory distortion: History and current status. In D. Schacter, J. Coyle, G. Fishbach, M.-M. Mesulam, & L. Sullivan (Eds.), Memory distortion: How minds, brains, and societies reconstruct the past (pp. 1-43). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
130. Schacter, D. L., Coyle, J. T., Fishbach, G. D., Mesulam, M.-M., & Sullivan, L. E. (Eds.). (1995). Memory distortion: How minds, brains, and societies reconstruct the past. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
131. Schraw, G. (1995). Measures of feeling-of-knowing accuracy: A new look at an old problem. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 9, 321-332.
132. Schwartz, B. L. (1994). Sources of information in metamemory: Judgments of learning and feelings of knowing. Psychonomic Bulletin and Review, 1, 357-375.
133. Schwartz, B. L., & Metcalfe, J. (1992). Cue familiarity but not target retrievability enhances feeling-of-knowing judgments. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 18, 1074-1083.
134. Schwartz, B. L., & Metcalfe, J. (1994). Methodological problems and pitfalls in the study of human metacognition. In J. Metcalfe & A. P. Shimamura (Eds.), Melacognition: Knowing about knowing (pp. 93-113). Cambridge: MIT Press.
135. Shepard, R. N. (1967). Recognition memory for words, sentences and pictures. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 6, 156-163.
136. Shimamura, A. P., & Squire, L. R. (1986). Memory and metamemory: A study of the feeling-of-knowing phenomenon in amnesic patients. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 12, 452-460.
137. Stern, W. (1904). Wirklichkeitsversuche. [Realistic experiments]. Beitrage zur Psychologie der Aussage, 2, 1-31.
138. Swets, J. A. (1986). Indices of discrimination or diagnostic accuracy: Their ROCs and implied models. Psychological Bulletin, 99, 100-117.
139. Swets, J. A., Tanner, W. P., Jr., & Birdsall, T. G. (1961). Decision processes in perception. Psychological Review, 68, 301-340.
140. Tulving, E. (1962). Subjective organization in free recall of "unrelated" words. Psychological Review, 69, 344-354.
141. Tulving, E. (1983). Elements of episodic memory. Oxford, England: Clarendon Press.
142. Tulving, E., & Thomson, D. M. (1973). Encoding specificity and retrieval processes in episodic memory. Psychological Review, 80, 352-373.
143. Wagenaar, W. A. (1988). Calibration and the effects of knowledge and reconstruction in retrieval from memory. Cognition, 28, 277-296.
144. Watkins, M. J. (1979). Engrams as cuegrams and forgetting as cue overload: A cueing approach to the structure of memory. In C. R. Puff (Ed.), Memory organization and structure (pp. 347-372). New York: Academic Press.
145. Watkins, M. J. (1990). Mediationism and the obfuscation of memory. American Psychologist, 45, 328-335.
146. Watkins, M. J., & Tulving, E. (1975). Episodic memory: When recognition fails. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 104, 5-29.
147. Weiner, B. (1966a). Effects of motivation on the availability and retrieval of memory traces. Psychological Bulletin, 65, 24-37.
148. Weiner, B. (1966b). Motivation and memory. Psychological Monographs: General and Applied, 80, (18, Whole No. 626).
149. Weingardt, K. R., Leonesio, R. J., & Loftus, E. F. (1994). Viewing eye-witness research from a metacognitive perspective. In J. Metcalfe & A. P. Shimamura (Eds.), Metacognition: Knowing about knowing (pp. 157-184). Cambridge: MIT Press.
150. Wells, G. L., & Lindsay, R. C. L. (1985). Methodological notes on the accuracy-confidence relation in eyewitness identifications. Journal of Applied Psychology, 70, 413-419.
151. Wells, G. L., & Loftus, E. F. (Eds.). (1984). Eyewitness testimony: Psychological perspectives. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
152. Winograd, E. (1994). Comments on the authenticity and utility of memories. In U. Neisser & R. Fivush (Eds.), The remembering self: Construction and accuracy in the self-narrative (pp. 243-251). New York: Cambridge University Press.
153. Winograd, E. (1996). Contexts and functions of retrieval. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 19, 209-210.
154. Winograd, E., & Neisser, U. (Eds.). (1992). Affect and accuracy in recall: Studies of "flashbulb memories." New York: Cambridge University Press.
155. Yaniv, I., & Foster, D. P. (1995). Graininess of judgment under uncertainty: An accuracy-informativeness trade-off. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 124, 424-432.
156. Yaniv, I., & Foster, D. P. (in press). Precision and accuracy in judgmental estimation. Journal of Behavioral Decision Making.
157. Yaniv, I., Yates, J. F, & Smith, J. E. K. (1991). Measures of discrimination skill in probabilistic judgment. Psychological Bulletin, 110, 611-617.
158. Yates, J. F. (1982). External correspondence: Decompositions of the mean probability score. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 30, 132-156.
159. Yates, J. F. (1990). Judgment and decision-making. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.