Fostering a capacity for compromise: Business, government, and the stages of innovation in American computing

IEEE Annals of the History of Computing

Volumn 18, Issue 2, 1996, Pages 30-39

  Usselman, Steven W ^a  

^a GEORGIA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

COMPETITION; COMPUTER SOFTWARE; DATA COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS; ECONOMICS; ELECTRONIC EQUIPMENT; LAWS AND LEGISLATION; LOGIC DESIGN; MARKETING; PUBLIC POLICY; SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICE MANUFACTURE; STANDARDIZATION; TECHNOLOGY;

AMERICAN COMPUTING; BUSINESS; GOVERNMENT; INNOVATION;

COMPUTERS;

EID: 0030174475     PISSN: 10586180     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1109/85.489748     Document Type: Article

References (66)

1. The standard source is Ernest Braun, Revolution in Miniature: The History and Impact of Semiconductor Electronics, New York, 1978. For additional information, see Kenneth Flamm, Creating the Computer: Government, Industry, and High Technology, Washington, D.C., 1988; Richard C. Lewin, "The Semiconductor Industry," Government and Technical Progress: A Cross-Industry Analysis, Richard R. Nelson, ed., New York, 1982, pp. 9-100; and David C. Mowery, "Innovation, Market Structure, and Government Policy in the American Semiconductor Electronics Industry: A Survey," Research Policy, vol. 12, pp. 183-197, 1983. For an insightful introduction to the concept of natural trajectories and to the related idea of technological paradigms, see Giovanni Dosi, "Technological Paradigms and Technological Trajectories," Research Policy, vol. 11, pp. 147-162, 1982. Borrowing from theories of scientific change. Dosi suggests that technology moves forward in waves, with a major breakthrough followed by a succession of modifications that move naturally toward a readily perceptible end. He cites the semiconductor industry as a prime example.
2. The standard source is Ernest Braun, Revolution in Miniature: The History and Impact of Semiconductor Electronics, New York, 1978. For additional information, see Kenneth Flamm, Creating the Computer: Government, Industry, and High Technology, Washington, D.C., 1988; Richard C. Lewin, "The Semiconductor Industry," Government and Technical Progress: A Cross-Industry Analysis, Richard R. Nelson, ed., New York, 1982, pp. 9-100; and David C. Mowery, "Innovation, Market Structure, and Government Policy in the American Semiconductor Electronics Industry: A Survey," Research Policy, vol. 12, pp. 183-197, 1983. For an insightful introduction to the concept of natural trajectories and to the related idea of technological paradigms, see Giovanni Dosi, "Technological Paradigms and Technological Trajectories," Research Policy, vol. 11, pp. 147-162, 1982. Borrowing from theories of scientific change. Dosi suggests that technology moves forward in waves, with a major breakthrough followed by a succession of modifications that move naturally toward a readily perceptible end. He cites the semiconductor industry as a prime example.
3. The standard source is Ernest Braun, Revolution in Miniature: The History and Impact of Semiconductor Electronics, New York, 1978. For additional information, see Kenneth Flamm, Creating the Computer: Government, Industry, and High Technology, Washington, D.C., 1988; Richard C. Lewin, "The Semiconductor Industry," Government and Technical Progress: A Cross-Industry Analysis, Richard R. Nelson, ed., New York, 1982, pp. 9-100; and David C. Mowery, "Innovation, Market Structure, and Government Policy in the American Semiconductor Electronics Industry: A Survey," Research Policy, vol. 12, pp. 183-197, 1983. For an insightful introduction to the concept of natural trajectories and to the related idea of technological paradigms, see Giovanni Dosi, "Technological Paradigms and Technological Trajectories," Research Policy, vol. 11, pp. 147-162, 1982. Borrowing from theories of scientific change. Dosi suggests that technology moves forward in waves, with a major breakthrough followed by a succession of modifications that move naturally toward a readily perceptible end. He cites the semiconductor industry as a prime example.
4. The standard source is Ernest Braun, Revolution in Miniature: The History and Impact of Semiconductor Electronics, New York, 1978. For additional information, see Kenneth Flamm, Creating the Computer: Government, Industry, and High Technology, Washington, D.C., 1988; Richard C. Lewin, "The Semiconductor Industry," Government and Technical Progress: A Cross-Industry Analysis, Richard R. Nelson, ed., New York, 1982, pp. 9-100; and David C. Mowery, "Innovation, Market Structure, and Government Policy in the American Semiconductor Electronics Industry: A Survey," Research Policy, vol. 12, pp. 183-197, 1983. For an insightful introduction to the concept of natural trajectories and to the related idea of technological paradigms, see Giovanni Dosi, "Technological Paradigms and Technological Trajectories," Research Policy, vol. 11, pp. 147-162, 1982. Borrowing from theories of scientific change. Dosi suggests that technology moves forward in waves, with a major breakthrough followed by a succession of modifications that move naturally toward a readily perceptible end. He cites the semiconductor industry as a prime example.
5. The standard source is Ernest Braun, Revolution in Miniature: The History and Impact of Semiconductor Electronics, New York, 1978. For additional information, see Kenneth Flamm, Creating the Computer: Government, Industry, and High Technology, Washington, D.C., 1988; Richard C. Lewin, "The Semiconductor Industry," Government and Technical Progress: A Cross-Industry Analysis, Richard R. Nelson, ed., New York, 1982, pp. 9-100; and David C. Mowery, "Innovation, Market Structure, and Government Policy in the American Semiconductor Electronics Industry: A Survey," Research Policy, vol. 12, pp. 183-197, 1983. For an insightful introduction to the concept of natural trajectories and to the related idea of technological paradigms, see Giovanni Dosi, "Technological Paradigms and Technological Trajectories," Research Policy, vol. 11, pp. 147-162, 1982. Borrowing from theories of scientific change. Dosi suggests that technology moves forward in waves, with a major breakthrough followed by a succession of modifications that move naturally toward a readily perceptible end. He cites the semiconductor industry as a prime example.
6. Gerald W. Brock, The U.S. Computer Industry: A Study of Market Power, Cambridge, Mass., 1975; and Kenneth Flamm, Creating the Computer, Washington, D.C., 1988.
7. Gerald W. Brock, The U.S. Computer Industry: A Study of Market Power, Cambridge, Mass., 1975; and Kenneth Flamm, Creating the Computer, Washington, D.C., 1988.
8. For a well-documented example with close parallels to computing, see Thomas Parke Hughes, "British Electrical Industry Lag: 1882-1888," Technology and Culture vol. 3, pp. 27-44, 1962, and Thomas P. Hughes, Networks of Power: Electrification in Western Society, 1880-1930. Baltimore, 1983, pp. 227-261.
9. For a well-documented example with close parallels to computing, see Thomas Parke Hughes, "British Electrical Industry Lag: 1882-1888," Technology and Culture vol. 3, pp. 27-44, 1962, and Thomas P. Hughes, Networks of Power: Electrification in Western Society, 1880-1930. Baltimore, 1983, pp. 227-261.
10. For an effort to place the history of American computing in the larger context of telecommunications innovation and public policy, see Steven W. Usselman, "Computing and Communications Technology," The Encyclopedia of the United States in the Twentieth Century, Stanley Kutler, ed., 1995.
11. On the evolutionary nature of economic development, see Richard R. Nelson and Sidney G. Winter, An Evolutionary Theory of Economic Change, Cambridge, Mass., 1982. For further elaboration on how the model applies to the computer industry, see Steven W. Usselman, "IBM and Its Imitators: Organizational Capabilities and the Emergence of the International Computer Industry," Business and Economic History, vol. 22, no. 2, 1993, pp. 1-35. On the nature of economic activity in the corporate era, see the work of Alfred D. Chandler, Jr., The Visible Hand, Cambridge, Mass., 1977; Scale and Scope, Cambridge, Mass., 1990; and "Organizational Capabilities and the Economic History of the Industrial Enterprise," J Economic Perspectives, vol. 6, no. 3, pp. 79-100, Summer 1992; and that of William Lazonick, Business Organization and the Myth of the Market Economy, Cambridge, 1991.
12. On the evolutionary nature of economic development, see Richard R. Nelson and Sidney G. Winter, An Evolutionary Theory of Economic Change, Cambridge, Mass., 1982. For further elaboration on how the model applies to the computer industry, see Steven W. Usselman, "IBM and Its Imitators: Organizational Capabilities and the Emergence of the International Computer Industry," Business and Economic History, vol. 22, no. 2, 1993, pp. 1-35. On the nature of economic activity in the corporate era, see the work of Alfred D. Chandler, Jr., The Visible Hand, Cambridge, Mass., 1977; Scale and Scope, Cambridge, Mass., 1990; and "Organizational Capabilities and the Economic History of the Industrial Enterprise," J Economic Perspectives, vol. 6, no. 3, pp. 79-100, Summer 1992; and that of William Lazonick, Business Organization and the Myth of the Market Economy, Cambridge, 1991.
13. On the evolutionary nature of economic development, see Richard R. Nelson and Sidney G. Winter, An Evolutionary Theory of Economic Change, Cambridge, Mass., 1982. For further elaboration on how the model applies to the computer industry, see Steven W. Usselman, "IBM and Its Imitators: Organizational Capabilities and the Emergence of the International Computer Industry," Business and Economic History, vol. 22, no. 2, 1993, pp. 1-35. On the nature of economic activity in the corporate era, see the work of Alfred D. Chandler, Jr., The Visible Hand, Cambridge, Mass., 1977; Scale and Scope, Cambridge, Mass., 1990; and "Organizational Capabilities and the Economic History of the Industrial Enterprise," J Economic Perspectives, vol. 6, no. 3, pp. 79-100, Summer 1992; and that of William Lazonick, Business Organization and the Myth of the Market Economy, Cambridge, 1991.
14. On the evolutionary nature of economic development, see Richard R. Nelson and Sidney G. Winter, An Evolutionary Theory of Economic Change, Cambridge, Mass., 1982. For further elaboration on how the model applies to the computer industry, see Steven W. Usselman, "IBM and Its Imitators: Organizational Capabilities and the Emergence of the International Computer Industry," Business and Economic History, vol. 22, no. 2, 1993, pp. 1-35. On the nature of economic activity in the corporate era, see the work of Alfred D. Chandler, Jr., The Visible Hand, Cambridge, Mass., 1977; Scale and Scope, Cambridge, Mass., 1990; and "Organizational Capabilities and the Economic History of the Industrial Enterprise," J Economic Perspectives, vol. 6, no. 3, pp. 79-100, Summer 1992; and that of William Lazonick, Business Organization and the Myth of the Market Economy, Cambridge, 1991.
15. On the evolutionary nature of economic development, see Richard R. Nelson and Sidney G. Winter, An Evolutionary Theory of Economic Change, Cambridge, Mass., 1982. For further elaboration on how the model applies to the computer industry, see Steven W. Usselman, "IBM and Its Imitators: Organizational Capabilities and the Emergence of the International Computer Industry," Business and Economic History, vol. 22, no. 2, 1993, pp. 1-35. On the nature of economic activity in the corporate era, see the work of Alfred D. Chandler, Jr., The Visible Hand, Cambridge, Mass., 1977; Scale and Scope, Cambridge, Mass., 1990; and "Organizational Capabilities and the Economic History of the Industrial Enterprise," J Economic Perspectives, vol. 6, no. 3, pp. 79-100, Summer 1992; and that of William Lazonick, Business Organization and the Myth of the Market Economy, Cambridge, 1991.
16. On the evolutionary nature of economic development, see Richard R. Nelson and Sidney G. Winter, An Evolutionary Theory of Economic Change, Cambridge, Mass., 1982. For further elaboration on how the model applies to the computer industry, see Steven W. Usselman, "IBM and Its Imitators: Organizational Capabilities and the Emergence of the International Computer Industry," Business and Economic History, vol. 22, no. 2, 1993, pp. 1-35. On the nature of economic activity in the corporate era, see the work of Alfred D. Chandler, Jr., The Visible Hand, Cambridge, Mass., 1977; Scale and Scope, Cambridge, Mass., 1990; and "Organizational Capabilities and the Economic History of the Industrial Enterprise," J Economic Perspectives, vol. 6, no. 3, pp. 79-100, Summer 1992; and that of William Lazonick, Business Organization and the Myth of the Market Economy, Cambridge, 1991.
17. On Turing, see Andrew Hodges, Alan Turing: The Enigma. New York, 1983.
18. Emerson Pugh, Memories that Shaped an Industry, Cambridge, Mass., 1984.
19. James W. Cortada, Before the Computer: IBM, NCR, Burroughs, & Remington Rand & the Industry They Created, Princeton, 1993; Arthur L. Norberg, "High-Technology Calculation in the Early 20th Century: Punched Card Machinery in Business and Government," Technology and Culture, 1990; JoAnne Yates, "Co-evolution of Information-Processing Technology and Use: Interaction Between the Life Insurance and Tabulating Industries," Business History Review, 1993; Geoffrey Austrian, Herman Hollerith: Forgotten Giant of Information Processing, 1982; Robert Sobel, IBM: Colossus in Transition, New York, 1981; and Usselman, "IBM and Its Imitators."
20. James W. Cortada, Before the Computer: IBM, NCR, Burroughs, & Remington Rand & the Industry They Created, Princeton, 1993; Arthur L. Norberg, "High-Technology Calculation in the Early 20th Century: Punched Card Machinery in Business and Government," Technology and Culture, 1990; JoAnne Yates, "Co-evolution of Information-Processing Technology and Use: Interaction Between the Life Insurance and Tabulating Industries," Business History Review, 1993; Geoffrey Austrian, Herman Hollerith: Forgotten Giant of Information Processing, 1982; Robert Sobel, IBM: Colossus in Transition, New York, 1981; and Usselman, "IBM and Its Imitators."
21. James W. Cortada, Before the Computer: IBM, NCR, Burroughs, & Remington Rand & the Industry They Created, Princeton, 1993; Arthur L. Norberg, "High-Technology Calculation in the Early 20th Century: Punched Card Machinery in Business and Government," Technology and Culture, 1990; JoAnne Yates, "Co-evolution of Information-Processing Technology and Use: Interaction Between the Life Insurance and Tabulating Industries," Business History Review, 1993; Geoffrey Austrian, Herman Hollerith: Forgotten Giant of Information Processing, 1982; Robert Sobel, IBM: Colossus in Transition, New York, 1981; and Usselman, "IBM and Its Imitators."
22. James W. Cortada, Before the Computer: IBM, NCR, Burroughs, & Remington Rand & the Industry They Created, Princeton, 1993; Arthur L. Norberg, "High-Technology Calculation in the Early 20th Century: Punched Card Machinery in Business and Government," Technology and Culture, 1990; JoAnne Yates, "Co-evolution of Information-Processing Technology and Use: Interaction Between the Life Insurance and Tabulating Industries," Business History Review, 1993; Geoffrey Austrian, Herman Hollerith: Forgotten Giant of Information Processing, 1982; Robert Sobel, IBM: Colossus in Transition, New York, 1981; and Usselman, "IBM and Its Imitators."
23. James W. Cortada, Before the Computer: IBM, NCR, Burroughs, & Remington Rand & the Industry They Created, Princeton, 1993; Arthur L. Norberg, "High-Technology Calculation in the Early 20th Century: Punched Card Machinery in Business and Government," Technology and Culture, 1990; JoAnne Yates, "Co-evolution of Information-Processing Technology and Use: Interaction Between the Life Insurance and Tabulating Industries," Business History Review, 1993; Geoffrey Austrian, Herman Hollerith: Forgotten Giant of Information Processing, 1982; Robert Sobel, IBM: Colossus in Transition, New York, 1981; and Usselman, "IBM and Its Imitators."
24. James W. Cortada, Before the Computer: IBM, NCR, Burroughs, & Remington Rand & the Industry They Created, Princeton, 1993; Arthur L. Norberg, "High-Technology Calculation in the Early 20th Century: Punched Card Machinery in Business and Government," Technology and Culture, 1990; JoAnne Yates, "Co-evolution of Information-Processing Technology and Use: Interaction Between the Life Insurance and Tabulating Industries," Business History Review, 1993; Geoffrey Austrian, Herman Hollerith: Forgotten Giant of Information Processing, 1982; Robert Sobel, IBM: Colossus in Transition, New York, 1981; and Usselman, "IBM and Its Imitators."
25. Charles J. Bashe, et. al., IBM's Early Computers. Cambridge, Mass., 1986; and Usselman, "IBM and Its Imitators."
26. Charles J. Bashe, et. al., IBM's Early Computers. Cambridge, Mass., 1986; and Usselman, "IBM and Its Imitators."
27. Richard R. Nelson, ed., Government and Technical Progress: A Cross-Industry Analysis New York, 1982, especially the essays by the editor, "Introduction," pp. 1-9, and "Government Stimulus of Technological Progress: Lessons from American History," pp. 451-482; Barbara Goody Katz and Almarin Phillips, "The Computer Industry" pp. 162-232; Bashe, IBM's Early Computers; Brock, The U.S. Computer Industry; Flamm, Creating the Computer; Lewin, The Semiconductor Industry; and Mowery, Innovation, Market Structure, and Government Policy. On informed first users and other useful concepts for understanding government policy toward science and technology, see David C. Mowery and Nathan Rosenberg, Technology and the Pursuit of Economic Growth, Cambridge, 1989.
28. Richard R. Nelson, ed., Government and Technical Progress: A Cross-Industry Analysis New York, 1982, especially the essays by the editor, "Introduction," pp. 1-9, and "Government Stimulus of Technological Progress: Lessons from American History," pp. 451-482; Barbara Goody Katz and Almarin Phillips, "The Computer Industry" pp. 162-232; Bashe, IBM's Early Computers; Brock, The U.S. Computer Industry; Flamm, Creating the Computer; Lewin, The Semiconductor Industry; and Mowery, Innovation, Market Structure, and Government Policy. On informed first users and other useful concepts for understanding government policy toward science and technology, see David C. Mowery and Nathan Rosenberg, Technology and the Pursuit of Economic Growth, Cambridge, 1989.
29. Richard R. Nelson, ed., Government and Technical Progress: A Cross-Industry Analysis New York, 1982, especially the essays by the editor, "Introduction," pp. 1-9, and "Government Stimulus of Technological Progress: Lessons from American History," pp. 451-482; Barbara Goody Katz and Almarin Phillips, "The Computer Industry" pp. 162-232; Bashe, IBM's Early Computers; Brock, The U.S. Computer Industry; Flamm, Creating the Computer; Lewin, The Semiconductor Industry; and Mowery, Innovation, Market Structure, and Government Policy. On informed first users and other useful concepts for understanding government policy toward science and technology, see David C. Mowery and Nathan Rosenberg, Technology and the Pursuit of Economic Growth, Cambridge, 1989.
30. Richard R. Nelson, ed., Government and Technical Progress: A Cross-Industry Analysis New York, 1982, especially the essays by the editor, "Introduction," pp. 1-9, and "Government Stimulus of Technological Progress: Lessons from American History," pp. 451-482; Barbara Goody Katz and Almarin Phillips, "The Computer Industry" pp. 162-232; Bashe, IBM's Early Computers; Brock, The U.S. Computer Industry; Flamm, Creating the Computer; Lewin, The Semiconductor Industry; and Mowery, Innovation, Market Structure, and Government Policy. On informed first users and other useful concepts for understanding government policy toward science and technology, see David C. Mowery and Nathan Rosenberg, Technology and the Pursuit of Economic Growth, Cambridge, 1989.
31. Richard R. Nelson, ed., Government and Technical Progress: A Cross-Industry Analysis New York, 1982, especially the essays by the editor, "Introduction," pp. 1-9, and "Government Stimulus of Technological Progress: Lessons from American History," pp. 451-482; Barbara Goody Katz and Almarin Phillips, "The Computer Industry" pp. 162-232; Bashe, IBM's Early Computers; Brock, The U.S. Computer Industry; Flamm, Creating the Computer; Lewin, The Semiconductor Industry; and Mowery, Innovation, Market Structure, and Government Policy. On informed first users and other useful concepts for understanding government policy toward science and technology, see David C. Mowery and Nathan Rosenberg, Technology and the Pursuit of Economic Growth, Cambridge, 1989.
32. Richard R. Nelson, ed., Government and Technical Progress: A Cross-Industry Analysis New York, 1982, especially the essays by the editor, "Introduction," pp. 1-9, and "Government Stimulus of Technological Progress: Lessons from American History," pp. 451-482; Barbara Goody Katz and Almarin Phillips, "The Computer Industry" pp. 162-232; Bashe, IBM's Early Computers; Brock, The U.S. Computer Industry; Flamm, Creating the Computer; Lewin, The Semiconductor Industry; and Mowery, Innovation, Market Structure, and Government Policy. On informed first users and other useful concepts for understanding government policy toward science and technology, see David C. Mowery and Nathan Rosenberg, Technology and the Pursuit of Economic Growth, Cambridge, 1989.
33. Richard R. Nelson, ed., Government and Technical Progress: A Cross-Industry Analysis New York, 1982, especially the essays by the editor, "Introduction," pp. 1-9, and "Government Stimulus of Technological Progress: Lessons from American History," pp. 451-482; Barbara Goody Katz and Almarin Phillips, "The Computer Industry" pp. 162-232; Bashe, IBM's Early Computers; Brock, The U.S. Computer Industry; Flamm, Creating the Computer; Lewin, The Semiconductor Industry; and Mowery, Innovation, Market Structure, and Government Policy. On informed first users and other useful concepts for understanding government policy toward science and technology, see David C. Mowery and Nathan Rosenberg, Technology and the Pursuit of Economic Growth, Cambridge, 1989.
34. Richard R. Nelson, ed., Government and Technical Progress: A Cross-Industry Analysis New York, 1982, especially the essays by the editor, "Introduction," pp. 1-9, and "Government Stimulus of Technological Progress: Lessons from American History," pp. 451-482; Barbara Goody Katz and Almarin Phillips, "The Computer Industry" pp. 162-232; Bashe, IBM's Early Computers; Brock, The U.S. Computer Industry; Flamm, Creating the Computer; Lewin, The Semiconductor Industry; and Mowery, Innovation, Market Structure, and Government Policy. On informed first users and other useful concepts for understanding government policy toward science and technology, see David C. Mowery and Nathan Rosenberg, Technology and the Pursuit of Economic Growth, Cambridge, 1989.
35. Richard R. Nelson, ed., Government and Technical Progress: A Cross-Industry Analysis New York, 1982, especially the essays by the editor, "Introduction," pp. 1-9, and "Government Stimulus of Technological Progress: Lessons from American History," pp. 451-482; Barbara Goody Katz and Almarin Phillips, "The Computer Industry" pp. 162-232; Bashe, IBM's Early Computers; Brock, The U.S. Computer Industry; Flamm, Creating the Computer; Lewin, The Semiconductor Industry; and Mowery, Innovation, Market Structure, and Government Policy. On informed first users and other useful concepts for understanding government policy toward science and technology, see David C. Mowery and Nathan Rosenberg, Technology and the Pursuit of Economic Growth, Cambridge, 1989.
36. Lewin, "The Semiconductor Industry"; Pugh, Memories; and Usselman, "IBM and Its Imitators."
37. Lewin, "The Semiconductor Industry"; Pugh, Memories; and Usselman, "IBM and Its Imitators."
38. Lewin, "The Semiconductor Industry"; Pugh, Memories; and Usselman, "IBM and Its Imitators."
39. Bashe, IBM's Early Computers.
40. Flamm, Creating the Computer, p. 46.
41. For additional information and further analysis, see Arthur L. Norberg, "New Engineering Companies and the Evolution of the United States Computer Industry," Business and Economic History, vol. 22, no. 1, pp. 181-193, 1993.
42. Bashe, IBM's Early Computers, and Usselman, "IBM and Its Imitators,"
43. Bashe, IBM's Early Computers, and Usselman, "IBM and Its Imitators,"
44. Cortada, Before the Computer.
45. Sobel, IBM: Colossus in Transition and IBM vs. Japan: The Struggle for the Future. New York, 1986.
46. See Emerson Pugh, et. al., IBM's 360 and Early 370 Systems, Cambridge, Mass., 1991.
47. Margaret B.W. Graham, RCA and the Videodisc. Cambridge, 1986.
48. Dosi, "Technological Paradigms;" Lewin, "The Semiconductor Industry;" and Mowery, "Innovation, Market Structure, and Government Policy."
49. Dosi, "Technological Paradigms;" Lewin, "The Semiconductor Industry;" and Mowery, "Innovation, Market Structure, and Government Policy."
50. Dosi, "Technological Paradigms;" Lewin, "The Semiconductor Industry;" and Mowery, "Innovation, Market Structure, and Government Policy."
51. Sobel, IBM: Colossus in Transition.
52. For an excellent overview, see Louis Galambos and Joseph Pratt, The Rise of the Corporate Commonwealth: United States Business and Public Policy in the Twentieth Century, New York, 1988.
53. Hughes, Networks of Power; Harold C. Passer, The Electrical Manufacturers, 1875-1900: A Study in Competition, Technical Change, and Growth, Cambridge, Mass., 1953; and Steven W. Usselman, "From Novelty to Utility: George Westinghouse and the Business of Innovation during the Age of Edison," Business History Review, vol. 66, pp. 251-304, 1992.
54. Hughes, Networks of Power; Harold C. Passer, The Electrical Manufacturers, 1875-1900: A Study in Competition, Technical Change, and Growth, Cambridge, Mass., 1953; and Steven W. Usselman, "From Novelty to Utility: George Westinghouse and the Business of Innovation during the Age of Edison," Business History Review, vol. 66, pp. 251-304, 1992.
55. Hughes, Networks of Power; Harold C. Passer, The Electrical Manufacturers, 1875-1900: A Study in Competition, Technical Change, and Growth, Cambridge, Mass., 1953; and Steven W. Usselman, "From Novelty to Utility: George Westinghouse and the Business of Innovation during the Age of Edison," Business History Review, vol. 66, pp. 251-304, 1992.
56. Louis Galambos, "Theodore N. Vail and the Role of Innovation in the Bell System," Business History Review, vol. 66, pp. 95-126, 1992.
57. Eric Barnouw, A Tower in Babel: A History of Broadcasting in the United States to 1933, New York, 1966 and The Golden Web: A History of Broadcasting in the United State, 1933-1953, New York, 1968, remain the starting points for an understanding of the emergence and evolution of networks. See also Walter B. Emery, Broadcasting and Government: Responsibilities and Regulations, East Lansing, 1971.
58. Eric Barnouw, A Tower in Babel: A History of Broadcasting in the United States to 1933, New York, 1966 and The Golden Web: A History of Broadcasting in the United State, 1933-1953, New York, 1968, remain the starting points for an understanding of the emergence and evolution of networks. See also Walter B. Emery, Broadcasting and Government: Responsibilities and Regulations, East Lansing, 1971.
59. Eric Barnouw, A Tower in Babel: A History of Broadcasting in the United States to 1933, New York, 1966 and The Golden Web: A History of Broadcasting in the United State, 1933-1953, New York, 1968, remain the starting points for an understanding of the emergence and evolution of networks. See also Walter B. Emery, Broadcasting and Government: Responsibilities and Regulations, East Lansing, 1971.
60. Usselman, "Creating System/360."
61. Flamm, Creating the Computer.
62. Martin Campbell-Kelly, ICL: A Business and Technical History, New York, 1989.
63. Christopher Freeman, "Research and Development in Electronic Capital Goods," National Institute Economic Review, vol. 34, pp. 40-97, Nov. 1965.
64. Marie Anchordoguy, Computers Inc.: Japan's Challenge to IBM, Cambridge, Mass., 1989; Martin Fransman, The Market and Beyond: Cooperation and Competition in Information Technology Development in the Japanese System, Cambridge, 1990.
65. Marie Anchordoguy, Computers Inc.: Japan's Challenge to IBM, Cambridge, Mass., 1989; Martin Fransman, The Market and Beyond: Cooperation and Competition in Information Technology Development in the Japanese System, Cambridge, 1990.
66. For an excellent history and analysis of the minicomputer and microcomputer industries, see Richard N. Langlois, "External Economies and Economic Progress: The Case of the Microcomputer Industry," Business History Review, vol 66, pp. 1-50, (1992).