The disappearance of Susan Daniel and Henderson Cooper: Gender and narratives of political conflict in the reconstruction-era U.S. South

Feminist Studies

Volumn 22, Issue 2, 1996, Pages 363-386

  Edwards, Laura F ^a  

^a NONE

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 0030170738     PISSN: 00463663     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/3178419     Document Type: Review

References (111)

1. The court of inquiry did not name the crime it suspected Henderson Cooper had committed, although it tried him on two counts, assault and battery with intent to commit rape and aiding and abetting the commission of rape. Documentation of the case comes from two main sources, the Freedmen's Bureau and the correspondence of Governor Jonathan Worth. See Robert Avery to James V. Bomford, 27 Mar. 1867; William W. Jones to M. Cogswell, 16 Mar. 1867; both in Letters Received, Second Military District, U.S. Army Continental Commands, RG 393, National Archives (NA). William W. Jones to the Assistant Commissioner, 28 Mar. 1867, Letters Received, North Carolina Assistant Commissioner's Records, Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen, and Abandoned Lands (BRFAL), National Archives Microfilm Publications. Worth to William A. Philpott, 16 Oct. 1866, 231; Worth to the Governor of Virginia, 16 Oct. 1866, 234; James V. Bomford to J.M. Clous (a copy was forwarded to Worth), 22 Apr. 1867, 471-72; Worth to Maj. Gen. Sickles, 21 May 1867, 472-73; William A. Philpott to Worth, 8 Oct. 1867, 608; Worth to Robert Avery, 10 Oct. 1867, 607; all in Worth Letter Book, 1865-1867 (bound volume of correspondence), North Carolina Division of Archives and History (NCDAH), Raleigh. Worth to Andrew Johnson, 31 Dec. 1867, 5-9; E.W. Dennis to Louis V. Cazario (a copy was forwarded to Worth), 26 Mar. 1868, 111-15; both in Worth Letter Book, 1867-1868 (bound volume of correspondence), NCDAH. Worth's letter books contain copies of articles published in North Carolina newspapers. Some of Worth's correspondence has also been published: Robert Gilliam to Worth, 22 Nov. 1866, 2: 844-45; Worth to Thomas Settle, 20 May 1867, 2: 959-60; Worth to William A. Philpott, 18 Dec. 1867, 2: 1089; Worth to W.A. Graham, 10 Jan. 1868, 2: 1128-31; Worth to Lewis Hanes, 17 Jan. 1869, 2: 1265-67; all in J.G. de Roulhac Hamilton, ed., The Correspondence of Jonathan Worth (Raleigh: North Carolina Historical Commission; Edwards & Broughton Printing Co., 1909). In Reconstruction in North Carolina (New York: Columbia University Press, 1914), 229-30, Hamilton also gives a summary of the case. Besides some of the orders and reports of the Freedmen's Bureau, the local court records contain only documentation of the formal proceedings of the case, such as the complaint, indictment, and order of execution: State v. William and Henderson Cooper, 1864-1867, Criminal Actions Concerning Slaves and Free Persons of Color, Granville County, NCDAH.
2. The court of inquiry did not name the crime it suspected Henderson Cooper had committed, although it tried him on two counts, assault and battery with intent to commit rape and aiding and abetting the commission of rape. Documentation of the case comes from two main sources, the Freedmen's Bureau and the correspondence of Governor Jonathan Worth. See Robert Avery to James V. Bomford, 27 Mar. 1867; William W. Jones to M. Cogswell, 16 Mar. 1867; both in Letters Received, Second Military District, U.S. Army Continental Commands, RG 393, National Archives (NA). William W. Jones to the Assistant Commissioner, 28 Mar. 1867, Letters Received, North Carolina Assistant Commissioner's Records, Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen, and Abandoned Lands (BRFAL), National Archives Microfilm Publications. Worth to William A. Philpott, 16 Oct. 1866, 231; Worth to the Governor of Virginia, 16 Oct. 1866, 234; James V. Bomford to J.M. Clous (a copy was forwarded to Worth), 22 Apr. 1867, 471-72; Worth to Maj. Gen. Sickles, 21 May 1867, 472-73; William A. Philpott to Worth, 8 Oct. 1867, 608; Worth to Robert Avery, 10 Oct. 1867, 607; all in Worth Letter Book, 1865-1867 (bound volume of correspondence), North Carolina Division of Archives and History (NCDAH), Raleigh. Worth to Andrew Johnson, 31 Dec. 1867, 5-9; E.W. Dennis to Louis V. Cazario (a copy was forwarded to Worth), 26 Mar. 1868, 111-15; both in Worth Letter Book, 1867-1868 (bound volume of correspondence), NCDAH. Worth's letter books contain copies of articles published in North Carolina newspapers. Some of Worth's correspondence has also been published: Robert Gilliam to Worth, 22 Nov. 1866, 2: 844-45; Worth to Thomas Settle, 20 May 1867, 2: 959-60; Worth to William A. Philpott, 18 Dec. 1867, 2: 1089; Worth to W.A. Graham, 10 Jan. 1868, 2: 1128-31; Worth to Lewis Hanes, 17 Jan. 1869, 2: 1265-67; all in J.G. de Roulhac Hamilton, ed., The Correspondence of Jonathan Worth (Raleigh: North Carolina Historical Commission; Edwards & Broughton Printing Co., 1909). In Reconstruction in North Carolina (New York: Columbia University Press, 1914), 229-30, Hamilton also gives a summary of the case. Besides some of the orders and reports of the Freedmen's Bureau, the local court records contain only documentation of the formal proceedings of the case, such as the complaint, indictment, and order of execution: State v. William and Henderson Cooper, 1864-1867, Criminal Actions Concerning Slaves and Free Persons of Color, Granville County, NCDAH.
3. The court of inquiry did not name the crime it suspected Henderson Cooper had committed, although it tried him on two counts, assault and battery with intent to commit rape and aiding and abetting the commission of rape. Documentation of the case comes from two main sources, the Freedmen's Bureau and the correspondence of Governor Jonathan Worth. See Robert Avery to James V. Bomford, 27 Mar. 1867; William W. Jones to M. Cogswell, 16 Mar. 1867; both in Letters Received, Second Military District, U.S. Army Continental Commands, RG 393, National Archives (NA). William W. Jones to the Assistant Commissioner, 28 Mar. 1867, Letters Received, North Carolina Assistant Commissioner's Records, Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen, and Abandoned Lands (BRFAL), National Archives Microfilm Publications. Worth to William A. Philpott, 16 Oct. 1866, 231; Worth to the Governor of Virginia, 16 Oct. 1866, 234; James V. Bomford to J.M. Clous (a copy was forwarded to Worth), 22 Apr. 1867, 471-72; Worth to Maj. Gen. Sickles, 21 May 1867, 472-73; William A. Philpott to Worth, 8 Oct. 1867, 608; Worth to Robert Avery, 10 Oct. 1867, 607; all in Worth Letter Book, 1865-1867 (bound volume of correspondence), North Carolina Division of Archives and History (NCDAH), Raleigh. Worth to Andrew Johnson, 31 Dec. 1867, 5-9; E.W. Dennis to Louis V. Cazario (a copy was forwarded to Worth), 26 Mar. 1868, 111-15; both in Worth Letter Book, 1867-1868 (bound volume of correspondence), NCDAH. Worth's letter books contain copies of articles published in North Carolina newspapers. Some of Worth's correspondence has also been published: Robert Gilliam to Worth, 22 Nov. 1866, 2: 844-45; Worth to Thomas Settle, 20 May 1867, 2: 959-60; Worth to William A. Philpott, 18 Dec. 1867, 2: 1089; Worth to W.A. Graham, 10 Jan. 1868, 2: 1128-31; Worth to Lewis Hanes, 17 Jan. 1869, 2: 1265-67; all in J.G. de Roulhac Hamilton, ed., The Correspondence of Jonathan Worth (Raleigh: North Carolina Historical Commission; Edwards & Broughton Printing Co., 1909). In Reconstruction in North Carolina (New York: Columbia University Press, 1914), 229-30, Hamilton also gives a summary of the case. Besides some of the orders and reports of the Freedmen's Bureau, the local court records contain only documentation of the formal proceedings of the case, such as the complaint, indictment, and order of execution: State v. William and Henderson Cooper, 1864-1867, Criminal Actions Concerning Slaves and Free Persons of Color, Granville County, NCDAH.
4. The court of inquiry did not name the crime it suspected Henderson Cooper had committed, although it tried him on two counts, assault and battery with intent to commit rape and aiding and abetting the commission of rape. Documentation of the case comes from two main sources, the Freedmen's Bureau and the correspondence of Governor Jonathan Worth. See Robert Avery to James V. Bomford, 27 Mar. 1867; William W. Jones to M. Cogswell, 16 Mar. 1867; both in Letters Received, Second Military District, U.S. Army Continental Commands, RG 393, National Archives (NA). William W. Jones to the Assistant Commissioner, 28 Mar. 1867, Letters Received, North Carolina Assistant Commissioner's Records, Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen, and Abandoned Lands (BRFAL), National Archives Microfilm Publications. Worth to William A. Philpott, 16 Oct. 1866, 231; Worth to the Governor of Virginia, 16 Oct. 1866, 234; James V. Bomford to J.M. Clous (a copy was forwarded to Worth), 22 Apr. 1867, 471-72; Worth to Maj. Gen. Sickles, 21 May 1867, 472-73; William A. Philpott to Worth, 8 Oct. 1867, 608; Worth to Robert Avery, 10 Oct. 1867, 607; all in Worth Letter Book, 1865-1867 (bound volume of correspondence), North Carolina Division of Archives and History (NCDAH), Raleigh. Worth to Andrew Johnson, 31 Dec. 1867, 5-9; E.W. Dennis to Louis V. Cazario (a copy was forwarded to Worth), 26 Mar. 1868, 111-15; both in Worth Letter Book, 1867-1868 (bound volume of correspondence), NCDAH. Worth's letter books contain copies of articles published in North Carolina newspapers. Some of Worth's correspondence has also been published: Robert Gilliam to Worth, 22 Nov. 1866, 2: 844-45; Worth to Thomas Settle, 20 May 1867, 2: 959-60; Worth to William A. Philpott, 18 Dec. 1867, 2: 1089; Worth to W.A. Graham, 10 Jan. 1868, 2: 1128-31; Worth to Lewis Hanes, 17 Jan. 1869, 2: 1265-67; all in J.G. de Roulhac Hamilton, ed., The Correspondence of Jonathan Worth (Raleigh: North Carolina Historical Commission; Edwards & Broughton Printing Co., 1909). In Reconstruction in North Carolina (New York: Columbia University Press, 1914), 229-30, Hamilton also gives a summary of the case. Besides some of the orders and reports of the Freedmen's Bureau, the local court records contain only documentation of the formal proceedings of the case, such as the complaint, indictment, and order of execution: State v. William and Henderson Cooper, 1864-1867, Criminal Actions Concerning Slaves and Free Persons of Color, Granville County, NCDAH.
5. The court of inquiry did not name the crime it suspected Henderson Cooper had committed, although it tried him on two counts, assault and battery with intent to commit rape and aiding and abetting the commission of rape. Documentation of the case comes from two main sources, the Freedmen's Bureau and the correspondence of Governor Jonathan Worth. See Robert Avery to James V. Bomford, 27 Mar. 1867; William W. Jones to M. Cogswell, 16 Mar. 1867; both in Letters Received, Second Military District, U.S. Army Continental Commands, RG 393, National Archives (NA). William W. Jones to the Assistant Commissioner, 28 Mar. 1867, Letters Received, North Carolina Assistant Commissioner's Records, Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen, and Abandoned Lands (BRFAL), National Archives Microfilm Publications. Worth to William A. Philpott, 16 Oct. 1866, 231; Worth to the Governor of Virginia, 16 Oct. 1866, 234; James V. Bomford to J.M. Clous (a copy was forwarded to Worth), 22 Apr. 1867, 471-72; Worth to Maj. Gen. Sickles, 21 May 1867, 472-73; William A. Philpott to Worth, 8 Oct. 1867, 608; Worth to Robert Avery, 10 Oct. 1867, 607; all in Worth Letter Book, 1865-1867 (bound volume of correspondence), North Carolina Division of Archives and History (NCDAH), Raleigh. Worth to Andrew Johnson, 31 Dec. 1867, 5-9; E.W. Dennis to Louis V. Cazario (a copy was forwarded to Worth), 26 Mar. 1868, 111-15; both inWorth Letter Book, 1867-1868 (bound volume of correspondence), NCDAH. Worth's letter books contain copies of articles published in North Carolina newspapers. Some of Worth's correspondence has also been published: Robert Gilliam to Worth, 22 Nov. 1866, 2: 844-45; Worth to Thomas Settle, 20 May 1867, 2: 959-60; Worth to William A. Philpott, 18 Dec. 1867, 2: 1089; Worth to W.A. Graham, 10 Jan. 1868, 2: 1128-31; Worth to Lewis Hanes, 17 Jan. 1869, 2: 1265-67; all in J.G. de Roulhac Hamilton, ed., The Correspondence of Jonathan Worth (Raleigh: North Carolina Historical Commission; Edwards & Broughton Printing Co., 1909). In Reconstruction in North Carolina (New York: Columbia University Press, 1914), 229-30, Hamilton also gives a summary of the case. Besides some of the orders and reports of the Freedmen's Bureau, the local court records contain only documentation of the formal proceedings of the case, such as the complaint, indictment, and order of execution: State v. William and Henderson Cooper, 1864-1867, Criminal Actions Concerning Slaves and Free Persons of Color, Granville County, NCDAH.
6. The court of inquiry did not name the crime it suspected Henderson Cooper had committed, although it tried him on two counts, assault and battery with intent to commit rape and aiding and abetting the commission of rape. Documentation of the case comes from two main sources, the Freedmen's Bureau and the correspondence of Governor Jonathan Worth. See Robert Avery to James V. Bomford, 27 Mar. 1867; William W. Jones to M. Cogswell, 16 Mar. 1867; both in Letters Received, Second Military District, U.S. Army Continental Commands, RG 393, National Archives (NA). William W. Jones to the Assistant Commissioner, 28 Mar. 1867, Letters Received, North Carolina Assistant Commissioner's Records, Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen, and Abandoned Lands (BRFAL), National Archives Microfilm Publications. Worth to William A. Philpott, 16 Oct. 1866, 231; Worth to the Governor of Virginia, 16 Oct. 1866, 234; James V. Bomford to J.M. Clous (a copy was forwarded to Worth), 22 Apr. 1867, 471-72; Worth to Maj. Gen. Sickles, 21 May 1867, 472-73; William A. Philpott to Worth, 8 Oct. 1867, 608; Worth to Robert Avery, 10 Oct. 1867, 607; all in Worth Letter Book, 1865-1867 (bound volume of correspondence), North Carolina Division of Archives and History (NCDAH), Raleigh. Worth to Andrew Johnson, 31 Dec. 1867, 5-9; E.W. Dennis to Louis V. Cazario (a copy was forwarded to Worth), 26 Mar. 1868, 111-15; both in Worth Letter Book, 1867-1868 (bound volume of correspondence), NCDAH. Worth's letter books contain copies of articles published in North Carolina newspapers. Some of Worth's correspondence has also been published: Robert Gilliam to Worth, 22 Nov. 1866, 2: 844-45; Worth to Thomas Settle, 20 May 1867, 2: 959-60; Worth to William A. Philpott, 18 Dec. 1867, 2: 1089; Worth to W.A. Graham, 10 Jan. 1868, 2: 1128-31; Worth to Lewis Hanes, 17 Jan. 1869, 2: 1265-67; all in J.G. de Roulhac Hamilton, ed., The Correspondence of Jonathan Worth (Raleigh: North Carolina Historical Commission; Edwards & Broughton Printing Co., 1909). In Reconstruction in North Carolina (New York: Columbia University Press, 1914), 229-30, Hamilton also gives a summary of the case. Besides some of the orders and reports of the Freedmen's Bureau, the local court records contain only documentation of the formal proceedings of the case, such as the complaint, indictment, and order of execution: State v. William and Henderson Cooper, 1864-1867, Criminal Actions Concerning Slaves and Free Persons of Color, Granville County, NCDAH.
7. The court of inquiry did not name the crime it suspected Henderson Cooper had committed, although it tried him on two counts, assault and battery with intent to commit rape and aiding and abetting the commission of rape. Documentation of the case comes from two main sources, the Freedmen's Bureau and the correspondence of Governor Jonathan Worth. See Robert Avery to James V. Bomford, 27 Mar. 1867; William W. Jones to M. Cogswell, 16 Mar. 1867; both in Letters Received, Second Military District, U.S. Army Continental Commands, RG 393, National Archives (NA). William W. Jones to the Assistant Commissioner, 28 Mar. 1867, Letters Received, North Carolina Assistant Commissioner's Records, Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen, and Abandoned Lands (BRFAL), National Archives Microfilm Publications. Worth to William A. Philpott, 16 Oct. 1866, 231; Worth to the Governor of Virginia, 16 Oct. 1866, 234; James V. Bomford to J.M. Clous (a copy was forwarded to Worth), 22 Apr. 1867, 471-72; Worth to Maj. Gen. Sickles, 21 May 1867, 472-73; William A. Philpott to Worth, 8 Oct. 1867, 608; Worth to Robert Avery, 10 Oct. 1867, 607; all in Worth Letter Book, 1865-1867 (bound volume of correspondence), North Carolina Division of Archives and History (NCDAH), Raleigh. Worth to Andrew Johnson, 31 Dec. 1867, 5-9; E.W. Dennis to Louis V. Cazario (a copy was forwarded to Worth), 26 Mar. 1868, 111-15; both in Worth Letter Book, 1867-1868 (bound volume of correspondence), NCDAH. Worth's letter books contain copies of articles published in North Carolina newspapers. Some of Worth's correspondence has also been published: Robert Gilliam to Worth, 22 Nov. 1866, 2: 844-45; Worth to Thomas Settle, 20 May 1867, 2: 959-60; Worth to William A. Philpott, 18 Dec. 1867, 2: 1089; Worth to W.A. Graham, 10 Jan. 1868, 2: 1128-31; Worth to Lewis Hanes, 17 Jan. 1869, 2: 1265-67; all in J.G. de Roulhac Hamilton, ed., The Correspondence of Jonathan Worth (Raleigh: North Carolina Historical Commission; Edwards & Broughton Printing Co., 1909). In Reconstruction in North Carolina (New York: Columbia University Press, 1914), 229-30, Hamilton also gives a summary of the case. Besides some of the orders and reports of the Freedmen's Bureau, the local court records contain only documentation of the formal proceedings of the case, such as the complaint, indictment, and order of execution: State v. William and Henderson Cooper, 1864-1867, Criminal Actions Concerning Slaves and Free Persons of Color, Granville County, NCDAH.
8. The court of inquiry did not name the crime it suspected Henderson Cooper had committed, although it tried him on two counts, assault and battery with intent to commit rape and aiding and abetting the commission of rape. Documentation of the case comes from two main sources, the Freedmen's Bureau and the correspondence of Governor Jonathan Worth. See Robert Avery to James V. Bomford, 27 Mar. 1867; William W. Jones to M. Cogswell, 16 Mar. 1867; both in Letters Received, Second Military District, U.S. Army Continental Commands, RG 393, National Archives (NA). William W. Jones to the Assistant Commissioner, 28 Mar. 1867, Letters Received, North Carolina Assistant Commissioner's Records, Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen, and Abandoned Lands (BRFAL), National Archives Microfilm Publications. Worth to William A. Philpott, 16 Oct. 1866, 231; Worth to the Governor of Virginia, 16 Oct. 1866, 234; James V. Bomford to J.M. Clous (a copy was forwarded to Worth), 22 Apr. 1867, 471-72; Worth to Maj. Gen. Sickles, 21 May 1867, 472-73; William A. Philpott to Worth, 8 Oct. 1867, 608; Worth to Robert Avery, 10 Oct. 1867, 607; all in Worth Letter Book, 1865-1867 (bound volume of correspondence), North Carolina Division of Archives and History (NCDAH), Raleigh. Worth to Andrew Johnson, 31 Dec. 1867, 5-9; E.W. Dennis to Louis V. Cazario (a copy was forwarded to Worth), 26 Mar. 1868, 111-15; both in Worth Letter Book, 1867-1868 (bound volume of correspondence), NCDAH. Worth's letter books contain copies of articles published in North Carolina newspapers. Some of Worth's correspondence has also been published: Robert Gilliam to Worth, 22 Nov. 1866, 2: 844-45; Worth to Thomas Settle, 20 May 1867, 2: 959-60; Worth to William A. Philpott, 18 Dec. 1867, 2: 1089; Worth to W.A. Graham, 10 Jan. 1868, 2: 1128-31; Worth to Lewis Hanes, 17 Jan. 1869, 2: 1265-67; all in J.G. de Roulhac Hamilton, ed., The Correspondence of Jonathan Worth (Raleigh: North Carolina Historical Commission; Edwards & Broughton Printing Co., 1909). In Reconstruction in North Carolina (New York: Columbia University Press, 1914), 229-30, Hamilton also gives a summary of the case. Besides some of the orders and reports of the Freedmen's Bureau, the local court records contain only documentation of the formal proceedings of the case, such as the complaint, indictment, and order of execution: State v. William and Henderson Cooper, 1864-1867, Criminal Actions Concerning Slaves and Free Persons of Color, Granville County, NCDAH.
9. The court of inquiry did not name the crime it suspected Henderson Cooper had committed, although it tried him on two counts, assault and battery with intent to commit rape and aiding and abetting the commission of rape. Documentation of the case comes from two main sources, the Freedmen's Bureau and the correspondence of Governor Jonathan Worth. See Robert Avery to James V. Bomford, 27 Mar. 1867; William W. Jones to M. Cogswell, 16 Mar. 1867; both in Letters Received, Second Military District, U.S. Army Continental Commands, RG 393, National Archives (NA). William W. Jones to the Assistant Commissioner, 28 Mar. 1867, Letters Received, North Carolina Assistant Commissioner's Records, Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen, and Abandoned Lands (BRFAL), National Archives Microfilm Publications. Worth to William A. Philpott, 16 Oct. 1866, 231; Worth to the Governor of Virginia, 16 Oct. 1866, 234; James V. Bomford to J.M. Clous (a copy was forwarded to Worth), 22 Apr. 1867, 471-72; Worth to Maj. Gen. Sickles, 21 May 1867, 472-73; William A. Philpott to Worth, 8 Oct. 1867, 608; Worth to Robert Avery, 10 Oct. 1867, 607; all in Worth Letter Book, 1865-1867 (bound volume of correspondence), North Carolina Division of Archives and History (NCDAH), Raleigh. Worth to Andrew Johnson, 31 Dec. 1867, 5-9; E.W. Dennis to Louis V. Cazario (a copy was forwarded to Worth), 26 Mar. 1868, 111-15; both in Worth Letter Book, 1867-1868 (bound volume of correspondence), NCDAH. Worth's letter books contain copies of articles published in North Carolina newspapers. Some of Worth's correspondence has also been published: Robert Gilliam to Worth, 22 Nov. 1866, 2: 844-45; Worth to Thomas Settle, 20 May 1867, 2: 959-60; Worth to William A. Philpott, 18 Dec. 1867, 2: 1089; Worth to W.A. Graham, 10 Jan. 1868, 2: 1128-31; Worth to Lewis Hanes, 17 Jan. 1869, 2: 1265-67; all in J.G. de Roulhac Hamilton, ed., The Correspondence of Jonathan Worth (Raleigh: North Carolina Historical Commission; Edwards & Broughton Printing Co., 1909). In Reconstruction in North Carolina (New York: Columbia University Press, 1914), 229-30, Hamilton also gives a summary of the case. Besides some of the orders and reports of the Freedmen's Bureau, the local court records contain only documentation of the formal proceedings of the case, such as the complaint, indictment, and order of execution: State v. William and Henderson Cooper, 1864-1867, Criminal Actions Concerning Slaves and Free Persons of Color, Granville County, NCDAH.
10. The court of inquiry did not name the crime it suspected Henderson Cooper had committed, although it tried him on two counts, assault and battery with intent to commit rape and aiding and abetting the commission of rape. Documentation of the case comes from two main sources, the Freedmen's Bureau and the correspondence of Governor Jonathan Worth. See Robert Avery to James V. Bomford, 27 Mar. 1867; William W. Jones to M. Cogswell, 16 Mar. 1867; both in Letters Received, Second Military District, U.S. Army Continental Commands, RG 393, National Archives (NA). William W. Jones to the Assistant Commissioner, 28 Mar. 1867, Letters Received, North Carolina Assistant Commissioner's Records, Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen, and Abandoned Lands (BRFAL), National Archives Microfilm Publications. Worth to William A. Philpott, 16 Oct. 1866, 231; Worth to the Governor of Virginia, 16 Oct. 1866, 234; James V. Bomford to J.M. Clous (a copy was forwarded to Worth), 22 Apr. 1867, 471-72; Worth to Maj. Gen. Sickles, 21 May 1867, 472-73; William A. Philpott to Worth, 8 Oct. 1867, 608; Worth to Robert Avery, 10 Oct. 1867, 607; all in Worth Letter Book, 1865-1867 (bound volume of correspondence), North Carolina Division of Archives and History (NCDAH), Raleigh. Worth to Andrew Johnson, 31 Dec. 1867, 5-9; E.W. Dennis to Louis V. Cazario (a copy was forwarded to Worth), 26 Mar. 1868, 111-15; both in Worth Letter Book, 1867-1868 (bound volume of correspondence), NCDAH. Worth's letter books contain copies of articles published in North Carolina newspapers. Some of Worth's correspondence has also been published: Robert Gilliam to Worth, 22 Nov. 1866, 2: 844-45; Worth to Thomas Settle, 20 May 1867, 2: 959-60; Worth to William A. Philpott, 18 Dec. 1867, 2: 1089; Worth to W.A. Graham, 10 Jan. 1868, 2: 1128-31; Worth to Lewis Hanes, 17 Jan. 1869, 2: 1265-67; all in J.G. de Roulhac Hamilton, ed., The Correspondence of Jonathan Worth (Raleigh: North Carolina Historical Commission; Edwards & Broughton Printing Co., 1909). In Reconstruction in North Carolina (New York: Columbia University Press, 1914), 229-30, Hamilton also gives a summary of the case. Besides some of the orders and reports of the Freedmen's Bureau, the local court records contain only documentation of the formal proceedings of the case, such as the complaint, indictment, and order of execution: State v. William and Henderson Cooper, 1864-1867, Criminal Actions Concerning Slaves and Free Persons of Color, Granville County, NCDAH.
11. The court of inquiry did not name the crime it suspected Henderson Cooper had committed, although it tried him on two counts, assault and battery with intent to commit rape and aiding and abetting the commission of rape. Documentation of the case comes from two main sources, the Freedmen's Bureau and the correspondence of Governor Jonathan Worth. See Robert Avery to James V. Bomford, 27 Mar. 1867; William W. Jones to M. Cogswell, 16 Mar. 1867; both in Letters Received, Second Military District, U.S. Army Continental Commands, RG 393, National Archives (NA). William W. Jones to the Assistant Commissioner, 28 Mar. 1867, Letters Received, North Carolina Assistant Commissioner's Records, Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen, and Abandoned Lands (BRFAL), National Archives Microfilm Publications. Worth to William A. Philpott, 16 Oct. 1866, 231; Worth to the Governor of Virginia, 16 Oct. 1866, 234; James V. Bomford to J.M. Clous (a copy was forwarded to Worth), 22 Apr. 1867, 471-72; Worth to Maj. Gen. Sickles, 21 May 1867, 472-73; William A. Philpott to Worth, 8 Oct. 1867, 608; Worth to Robert Avery, 10 Oct. 1867, 607; all in Worth Letter Book, 1865-1867 (bound volume of correspondence), North Carolina Division of Archives and History (NCDAH), Raleigh. Worth to Andrew Johnson, 31 Dec. 1867, 5-9; E.W. Dennis to Louis V. Cazario (a copy was forwarded to Worth), 26 Mar. 1868, 111-15; both in Worth Letter Book, 1867-1868 (bound volume of correspondence), NCDAH. Worth's letter books contain copies of articles published in North Carolina newspapers. Some of Worth's correspondence has also been published: Robert Gilliam to Worth, 22 Nov. 1866, 2: 844-45; Worth to Thomas Settle, 20 May 1867, 2: 959-60; Worth to William A. Philpott, 18 Dec. 1867, 2: 1089; Worth to W.A. Graham, 10 Jan. 1868, 2: 1128-31; Worth to Lewis Hanes, 17 Jan. 1869, 2: 1265-67; all in J.G. de Roulhac Hamilton, ed., The Correspondence of Jonathan Worth (Raleigh: North Carolina Historical Commission; Edwards & Broughton Printing Co., 1909). In Reconstruction in North Carolina (New York: Columbia University Press, 1914), 229-30, Hamilton also gives a summary of the case. Besides some of the orders and reports of the Freedmen's Bureau, the local court records contain only documentation of the formal proceedings of the case, such as the complaint, indictment, and order of execution: State v. William and Henderson Cooper, 1864-1867, Criminal Actions Concerning Slaves and Free Persons of Color, Granville County, NCDAH.
12. The court of inquiry did not name the crime it suspected Henderson Cooper had committed, although it tried him on two counts, assault and battery with intent to commit rape and aiding and abetting the commission of rape. Documentation of the case comes from two main sources, the Freedmen's Bureau and the correspondence of Governor Jonathan Worth. See Robert Avery to James V. Bomford, 27 Mar. 1867; William W. Jones to M. Cogswell, 16 Mar. 1867; both in Letters Received, Second Military District, U.S. Army Continental Commands, RG 393, National Archives (NA). William W. Jones to the Assistant Commissioner, 28 Mar. 1867, Letters Received, North Carolina Assistant Commissioner's Records, Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen, and Abandoned Lands (BRFAL), National Archives Microfilm Publications. Worth to William A. Philpott, 16 Oct. 1866, 231; Worth to the Governor of Virginia, 16 Oct. 1866, 234; James V. Bomford to J.M. Clous (a copy was forwarded to Worth), 22 Apr. 1867, 471-72; Worth to Maj. Gen. Sickles, 21 May 1867, 472-73; William A. Philpott to Worth, 8 Oct. 1867, 608; Worth to Robert Avery, 10 Oct. 1867, 607; all in Worth Letter Book, 1865-1867 (bound volume of correspondence), North Carolina Division of Archives and History (NCDAH), Raleigh. Worth to Andrew Johnson, 31 Dec. 1867, 5-9; E.W. Dennis to Louis V. Cazario (a copy was forwarded to Worth), 26 Mar. 1868, 111-15; both in Worth Letter Book, 1867-1868 (bound volume of correspondence), NCDAH. Worth's letter books contain copies of articles published in North Carolina newspapers. Some of Worth's correspondence has also been published: Robert Gilliam to Worth, 22 Nov. 1866, 2: 844-45; Worth to Thomas Settle, 20 May 1867, 2: 959-60; Worth to William A. Philpott, 18 Dec. 1867, 2: 1089; Worth to W.A. Graham, 10 Jan. 1868, 2: 1128-31; Worth to Lewis Hanes, 17 Jan. 1869, 2: 1265-67; all in J.G. de Roulhac Hamilton, ed., The Correspondence of Jonathan Worth (Raleigh: North Carolina Historical Commission; Edwards & Broughton Printing Co., 1909). In Reconstruction in North Carolina (New York: Columbia University Press, 1914), 229-30, Hamilton also gives a summary of the case. Besides some of the orders and reports of the Freedmen's Bureau, the local court records contain only documentation of the formal proceedings of the case, such as the complaint, indictment, and order of execution: State v. William and Henderson Cooper, 1864-1867, Criminal Actions Concerning Slaves and Free Persons of Color, Granville County, NCDAH.
13. The court of inquiry did not name the crime it suspected Henderson Cooper had committed, although it tried him on two counts, assault and battery with intent to commit rape and aiding and abetting the commission of rape. Documentation of the case comes from two main sources, the Freedmen's Bureau and the correspondence of Governor Jonathan Worth. See Robert Avery to James V. Bomford, 27 Mar. 1867; William W. Jones to M. Cogswell, 16 Mar. 1867; both in Letters Received, Second Military District, U.S. Army Continental Commands, RG 393, National Archives (NA). William W. Jones to the Assistant Commissioner, 28 Mar. 1867, Letters Received, North Carolina Assistant Commissioner's Records, Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen, and Abandoned Lands (BRFAL), National Archives Microfilm Publications. Worth to William A. Philpott, 16 Oct. 1866, 231; Worth to the Governor of Virginia, 16 Oct. 1866, 234; James V. Bomford to J.M. Clous (a copy was forwarded to Worth), 22 Apr. 1867, 471-72; Worth to Maj. Gen. Sickles, 21 May 1867, 472-73; William A. Philpott to Worth, 8 Oct. 1867, 608; Worth to Robert Avery, 10 Oct. 1867, 607; all in Worth Letter Book, 1865-1867 (bound volume of correspondence), North Carolina Division of Archives and History (NCDAH), Raleigh. Worth to Andrew Johnson, 31 Dec. 1867, 5-9; E.W. Dennis to Louis V. Cazario (a copy was forwarded to Worth), 26 Mar. 1868, 111-15; both in Worth Letter Book, 1867-1868 (bound volume of correspondence), NCDAH. Worth's letter books contain copies of articles published in North Carolina newspapers. Some of Worth's correspondence has also been published: Robert Gilliam to Worth, 22 Nov. 1866, 2: 844-45; Worth to Thomas Settle, 20 May 1867, 2: 959-60; Worth to William A. Philpott, 18 Dec. 1867, 2: 1089; Worth to W.A. Graham, 10 Jan. 1868, 2: 1128-31; Worth to Lewis Hanes, 17 Jan. 1869, 2: 1265-67; all in J.G. de Roulhac Hamilton, ed., The Correspondence of Jonathan Worth (Raleigh: North Carolina Historical Commission; Edwards & Broughton Printing Co., 1909). In Reconstruction in North Carolina (New York: Columbia University Press, 1914), 229-30, Hamilton also gives a summary of the case. Besides some of the orders and reports of the Freedmen's Bureau, the local court records contain only documentation of the formal proceedings of the case, such as the complaint, indictment, and order of execution: State v. William and Henderson Cooper, 1864-1867, Criminal Actions Concerning Slaves and Free Persons of Color, Granville County, NCDAH.
14. The court of inquiry did not name the crime it suspected Henderson Cooper had committed, although it tried him on two counts, assault and battery with intent to commit rape and aiding and abetting the commission of rape. Documentation of the case comes from two main sources, the Freedmen's Bureau and the correspondence of Governor Jonathan Worth. See Robert Avery to James V. Bomford, 27 Mar. 1867; William W. Jones to M. Cogswell, 16 Mar. 1867; both in Letters Received, Second Military District, U.S. Army Continental Commands, RG 393, National Archives (NA). William W. Jones to the Assistant Commissioner, 28 Mar. 1867, Letters Received, North Carolina Assistant Commissioner's Records, Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen, and Abandoned Lands (BRFAL), National Archives Microfilm Publications. Worth to William A. Philpott, 16 Oct. 1866, 231; Worth to the Governor of Virginia, 16 Oct. 1866, 234; James V. Bomford to J.M. Clous (a copy was forwarded to Worth), 22 Apr. 1867, 471-72; Worth to Maj. Gen. Sickles, 21 May 1867, 472-73; William A. Philpott to Worth, 8 Oct. 1867, 608; Worth to Robert Avery, 10 Oct. 1867, 607; all in Worth Letter Book, 1865-1867 (bound volume of correspondence), North Carolina Division of Archives and History (NCDAH), Raleigh. Worth to Andrew Johnson, 31 Dec. 1867, 5-9; E.W. Dennis to Louis V. Cazario (a copy was forwarded to Worth), 26 Mar. 1868, 111-15; both in Worth Letter Book, 1867-1868 (bound volume of correspondence), NCDAH. Worth's letter books contain copies of articles published in North Carolina newspapers. Some of Worth's correspondence has also been published: Robert Gilliam to Worth, 22 Nov. 1866, 2: 844-45; Worth to Thomas Settle, 20 May 1867, 2: 959-60; Worth to William A. Philpott, 18 Dec. 1867, 2: 1089; Worth to W.A. Graham, 10 Jan. 1868, 2: 1128-31; Worth to Lewis Hanes, 17 Jan. 1869, 2: 1265-67; all in J.G. de Roulhac Hamilton, ed., The Correspondence of Jonathan Worth (Raleigh: North Carolina Historical Commission; Edwards & Broughton Printing Co., 1909). In Reconstruction in North Carolina (New York: Columbia University Press, 1914), 229-30, Hamilton also gives a summary of the case. Besides some of the orders and reports of the Freedmen's Bureau, the local court records contain only documentation of the formal proceedings of the case, such as the complaint, indictment, and order of execution: State v. William and Henderson Cooper, 1864-1867, Criminal Actions Concerning Slaves and Free Persons of Color, Granville County, NCDAH.
15. The court of inquiry did not name the crime it suspected Henderson Cooper had committed, although it tried him on two counts, assault and battery with intent to commit rape and aiding and abetting the commission of rape. Documentation of the case comes from two main sources, the Freedmen's Bureau and the correspondence of Governor Jonathan Worth. See Robert Avery to James V. Bomford, 27 Mar. 1867; William W. Jones to M. Cogswell, 16 Mar. 1867; both in Letters Received, Second Military District, U.S. Army Continental Commands, RG 393, National Archives (NA). William W. Jones to the Assistant Commissioner, 28 Mar. 1867, Letters Received, North Carolina Assistant Commissioner's Records, Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen, and Abandoned Lands (BRFAL), National Archives Microfilm Publications. Worth to William A. Philpott, 16 Oct. 1866, 231; Worth to the Governor of Virginia, 16 Oct. 1866, 234; James V. Bomford to J.M. Clous (a copy was forwarded to Worth), 22 Apr. 1867, 471-72; Worth to Maj. Gen. Sickles, 21 May 1867, 472-73; William A. Philpott to Worth, 8 Oct. 1867, 608; Worth to Robert Avery, 10 Oct. 1867, 607; all in Worth Letter Book, 1865-1867 (bound volume of correspondence), North Carolina Division of Archives and History (NCDAH), Raleigh. Worth to Andrew Johnson, 31 Dec. 1867, 5-9; E.W. Dennis to Louis V. Cazario (a copy was forwarded to Worth), 26 Mar. 1868, 111-15; both in Worth Letter Book, 1867-1868 (bound volume of correspondence), NCDAH. Worth's letter books contain copies of articles published in North Carolina newspapers. Some of Worth's correspondence has also been published: Robert Gilliam to Worth, 22 Nov. 1866, 2: 844-45; Worth to Thomas Settle, 20 May 1867, 2: 959-60; Worth to William A. Philpott, 18 Dec. 1867, 2: 1089; Worth to W.A. Graham, 10 Jan. 1868, 2: 1128-31; Worth to Lewis Hanes, 17 Jan. 1869, 2: 1265-67; all in J.G. de Roulhac Hamilton, ed., The Correspondence of Jonathan Worth (Raleigh: North Carolina Historical Commission; Edwards & Broughton Printing Co., 1909). In Reconstruction in North Carolina (New York: Columbia University Press, 1914), 229-30, Hamilton also gives a summary of the case. Besides some of the orders and reports of the Freedmen's Bureau, the local court records contain only documentation of the formal proceedings of the case, such as the complaint, indictment, and order of execution: State v. William and Henderson Cooper, 1864-1867, Criminal Actions Concerning Slaves and Free Persons of Color, Granville County, NCDAH.
16. The court of inquiry did not name the crime it suspected Henderson Cooper had committed, although it tried him on two counts, assault and battery with intent to commit rape and aiding and abetting the commission of rape. Documentation of the case comes from two main sources, the Freedmen's Bureau and the correspondence of Governor Jonathan Worth. See Robert Avery to James V. Bomford, 27 Mar. 1867; William W. Jones to M. Cogswell, 16 Mar. 1867; both in Letters Received, Second Military District, U.S. Army Continental Commands, RG 393, National Archives (NA). William W. Jones to the Assistant Commissioner, 28 Mar. 1867, Letters Received, North Carolina Assistant Commissioner's Records, Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen, and Abandoned Lands (BRFAL), National Archives Microfilm Publications. Worth to William A. Philpott, 16 Oct. 1866, 231; Worth to the Governor of Virginia, 16 Oct. 1866, 234; James V. Bomford to J.M. Clous (a copy was forwarded to Worth), 22 Apr. 1867, 471-72; Worth to Maj. Gen. Sickles, 21 May 1867, 472-73; William A. Philpott to Worth, 8 Oct. 1867, 608; Worth to Robert Avery, 10 Oct. 1867, 607; all in Worth Letter Book, 1865-1867 (bound volume of correspondence), North Carolina Division of Archives and History (NCDAH), Raleigh. Worth to Andrew Johnson, 31 Dec. 1867, 5-9; E.W. Dennis to Louis V. Cazario (a copy was forwarded to Worth), 26 Mar. 1868, 111-15; both in Worth Letter Book, 1867-1868 (bound volume of correspondence), NCDAH. Worth's letter books contain copies of articles published in North Carolina newspapers. Some of Worth's correspondence has also been published: Robert Gilliam to Worth, 22 Nov. 1866, 2: 844-45; Worth to Thomas Settle, 20 May 1867, 2: 959-60; Worth to William A. Philpott, 18 Dec. 1867, 2: 1089; Worth to W.A. Graham, 10 Jan. 1868, 2: 1128-31; Worth to Lewis Hanes, 17 Jan. 1869, 2: 1265-67; all in J.G. de Roulhac Hamilton, ed., The Correspondence of Jonathan Worth (Raleigh: North Carolina Historical Commission; Edwards & Broughton Printing Co., 1909). In Reconstruction in North Carolina (New York: Columbia University Press, 1914), 229-30, Hamilton also gives a summary of the case. Besides some of the orders and reports of the Freedmen's Bureau, the local court records contain only documentation of the formal proceedings of the case, such as the complaint, indictment, and order of execution: State v. William and Henderson Cooper, 1864-1867, Criminal Actions Concerning Slaves and Free Persons of Color, Granville County, NCDAH.
17. The court of inquiry did not name the crime it suspected Henderson Cooper had committed, although it tried him on two counts, assault and battery with intent to commit rape and aiding and abetting the commission of rape. Documentation of the case comes from two main sources, the Freedmen's Bureau and the correspondence of Governor Jonathan Worth. See Robert Avery to James V. Bomford, 27 Mar. 1867; William W. Jones to M. Cogswell, 16 Mar. 1867; both in Letters Received, Second Military District, U.S. Army Continental Commands, RG 393, National Archives (NA). William W. Jones to the Assistant Commissioner, 28 Mar. 1867, Letters Received, North Carolina Assistant Commissioner's Records, Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen, and Abandoned Lands (BRFAL), National Archives Microfilm Publications. Worth to William A. Philpott, 16 Oct. 1866, 231; Worth to the Governor of Virginia, 16 Oct. 1866, 234; James V. Bomford to J.M. Clous (a copy was forwarded to Worth), 22 Apr. 1867, 471-72; Worth to Maj. Gen. Sickles, 21 May 1867, 472-73; William A. Philpott to Worth, 8 Oct. 1867, 608; Worth to Robert Avery, 10 Oct. 1867, 607; all in Worth Letter Book, 1865-1867 (bound volume of correspondence), North Carolina Division of Archives and History (NCDAH), Raleigh. Worth to Andrew Johnson, 31 Dec. 1867, 5-9; E.W. Dennis to Louis V. Cazario (a copy was forwarded to Worth), 26 Mar. 1868, 111-15; both in Worth Letter Book, 1867-1868 (bound volume of correspondence), NCDAH. Worth's letter books contain copies of articles published in North Carolina newspapers. Some of Worth's correspondence has also been published: Robert Gilliam to Worth, 22 Nov. 1866, 2: 844-45; Worth to Thomas Settle, 20 May 1867, 2: 959-60; Worth to William A. Philpott, 18 Dec. 1867, 2: 1089; Worth to W.A. Graham, 10 Jan. 1868, 2: 1128-31; Worth to Lewis Hanes, 17 Jan. 1869, 2: 1265-67; all in J.G. de Roulhac Hamilton, ed., The Correspondence of Jonathan Worth (Raleigh: North Carolina Historical Commission; Edwards & Broughton Printing Co., 1909). In Reconstruction in North Carolina (New York: Columbia University Press, 1914), 229-30, Hamilton also gives a summary of the case. Besides some of the orders and reports of the Freedmen's Bureau, the local court records contain only documentation of the formal proceedings of the case, such as the complaint, indictment, and order of execution: State v. William and Henderson Cooper, 1864-1867, Criminal Actions Concerning Slaves and Free Persons of Color, Granville County, NCDAH.
18. The court of inquiry did not name the crime it suspected Henderson Cooper had committed, although it tried him on two counts, assault and battery with intent to commit rape and aiding and abetting the commission of rape. Documentation of the case comes from two main sources, the Freedmen's Bureau and the correspondence of Governor Jonathan Worth. See Robert Avery to James V. Bomford, 27 Mar. 1867; William W. Jones to M. Cogswell, 16 Mar. 1867; both in Letters Received, Second Military District, U.S. Army Continental Commands, RG 393, National Archives (NA). William W. Jones to the Assistant Commissioner, 28 Mar. 1867, Letters Received, North Carolina Assistant Commissioner's Records, Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen, and Abandoned Lands (BRFAL), National Archives Microfilm Publications. Worth to William A. Philpott, 16 Oct. 1866, 231; Worth to the Governor of Virginia, 16 Oct. 1866, 234; James V. Bomford to J.M. Clous (a copy was forwarded to Worth), 22 Apr. 1867, 471-72; Worth to Maj. Gen. Sickles, 21 May 1867, 472-73; William A. Philpott to Worth, 8 Oct. 1867, 608; Worth to Robert Avery, 10 Oct. 1867, 607; all in Worth Letter Book, 1865-1867 (bound volume of correspondence), North Carolina Division of Archives and History (NCDAH), Raleigh. Worth to Andrew Johnson, 31 Dec. 1867, 5-9; E.W. Dennis to Louis V. Cazario (a copy was forwarded to Worth), 26 Mar. 1868, 111-15; both in Worth Letter Book, 1867-1868 (bound volume of correspondence), NCDAH. Worth's letter books contain copies of articles published in North Carolina newspapers. Some of Worth's correspondence has also been published: Robert Gilliam to Worth, 22 Nov. 1866, 2: 844-45; Worth to Thomas Settle, 20 May 1867, 2: 959-60; Worth to William A. Philpott, 18 Dec. 1867, 2: 1089; Worth to W.A. Graham, 10 Jan. 1868, 2: 1128-31; Worth to Lewis Hanes, 17 Jan. 1869, 2: 1265-67; all in J.G. de Roulhac Hamilton, ed., The Correspondence of Jonathan Worth (Raleigh: North Carolina Historical Commission; Edwards & Broughton Printing Co., 1909). In Reconstruction in North Carolina (New York: Columbia University Press, 1914), 229-30, Hamilton also gives a summary of the case. Besides some of the orders and reports of the Freedmen's Bureau, the local court records contain only documentation of the formal proceedings of the case, such as the complaint, indictment, and order of execution: State v. William and Henderson Cooper, 1864-1867, Criminal Actions Concerning Slaves and Free Persons of Color, Granville County, NCDAH.
19. For discussions about gender and women's agency, see Judith M. Bennett, "Feminism and History," Gender and History 1 (autumn 1989): 251-72; Gisela Bock, "Women's History and Gender History," Gender and History 1 (spring 1989): 7-30; Elsa Barkley Brown, "Womanist Consciousness: Maggie Lena Walker and the Independent Order of Saint Luke," Signs 14 (spring 1989): 610-33, and "Polyrhythms and Improvisations: Lessons for Women's History," History Workshop Journal 31 (1991): 85-90; Jacquelyn Dowd Hall, "Partial Truths," Signs 14 (summer 1989): 902-11; Nancy A. Hewitt, "Reflections from a Departing Editor: Recasting Issues of Marginality," Gender and History 4 (spring 1992): 3-9, and her "Compounding Differences," in " Intersections and Collision Courses: Women, Blacks, and Workers Confront Gender, Race, and Class: A Symposium," Feminist Studies 18 (summer 1992): 313-26; Evelyn Brooks Higginbotham, "African American Women's History and the Metalanguage of Race," Signs 17 (winter 1992): 251-74; Frances E. Mascia-Lees, Patricia Sharpe, and Colleen Ballerina Cohen, "The Postmodernist Turn in Anthropology: Cautions from a Feminist Perspective," Signs 15 (autumn 1989): 7-33; Louise Newman, Joan Williams, Lise Vogel, and Judith Newton, "Theoretical and Methodological Dialogue on the Writing of Women's History," Journal of Women's History 2 (winter 1991): 58-108; and Linda Nicholson and Nancy Fraser, "Social Criticism without Philosophy: An Encounter between Feminism and Postmodernism," in Feminism/Postmodernism, ed. Linda Nicholson (New York: Routledge, 1990).
20. For discussions about gender and women's agency, see Judith M. Bennett, "Feminism and History," Gender and History 1 (autumn 1989): 251-72; Gisela Bock, "Women's History and Gender History," Gender and History 1 (spring 1989): 7-30; Elsa Barkley Brown, "Womanist Consciousness: Maggie Lena Walker and the Independent Order of Saint Luke," Signs 14 (spring 1989): 610-33, and "Polyrhythms and Improvisations: Lessons for Women's History," History Workshop Journal 31 (1991): 85-90; Jacquelyn Dowd Hall, "Partial Truths," Signs 14 (summer 1989): 902-11; Nancy A. Hewitt, "Reflections from a Departing Editor: Recasting Issues of Marginality," Gender and History 4 (spring 1992): 3-9, and her "Compounding Differences," in " Intersections and Collision Courses: Women, Blacks, and Workers Confront Gender, Race, and Class: A Symposium," Feminist Studies 18 (summer 1992): 313-26; Evelyn Brooks Higginbotham, "African American Women's History and the Metalanguage of Race," Signs 17 (winter 1992): 251-74; Frances E. Mascia-Lees, Patricia Sharpe, and Colleen Ballerina Cohen, "The Postmodernist Turn in Anthropology: Cautions from a Feminist Perspective," Signs 15 (autumn 1989): 7-33; Louise Newman, Joan Williams, Lise Vogel, and Judith Newton, "Theoretical and Methodological Dialogue on the Writing of Women's History," Journal of Women's History 2 (winter 1991): 58-108; and Linda Nicholson and Nancy Fraser, "Social Criticism without Philosophy: An Encounter between Feminism and Postmodernism," in Feminism/Postmodernism, ed. Linda Nicholson (New York: Routledge, 1990).
21. For discussions about gender and women's agency, see Judith M. Bennett, "Feminism and History," Gender and History 1 (autumn 1989): 251-72; Gisela Bock, "Women's History and Gender History," Gender and History 1 (spring 1989): 7-30; Elsa Barkley Brown, "Womanist Consciousness: Maggie Lena Walker and the Independent Order of Saint Luke," Signs 14 (spring 1989): 610-33, and "Polyrhythms and Improvisations: Lessons for Women's History," History Workshop Journal 31 (1991): 85-90; Jacquelyn Dowd Hall, "Partial Truths," Signs 14 (summer 1989): 902-11; Nancy A. Hewitt, "Reflections from a Departing Editor: Recasting Issues of Marginality," Gender and History 4 (spring 1992): 3-9, and her "Compounding Differences," in " Intersections and Collision Courses: Women, Blacks, and Workers Confront Gender, Race, and Class: A Symposium," Feminist Studies 18 (summer 1992): 313-26; Evelyn Brooks Higginbotham, "African American Women's History and the Metalanguage of Race," Signs 17 (winter 1992): 251-74; Frances E. Mascia-Lees, Patricia Sharpe, and Colleen Ballerina Cohen, "The Postmodernist Turn in Anthropology: Cautions from a Feminist Perspective," Signs 15 (autumn 1989): 7-33; Louise Newman, Joan Williams, Lise Vogel, and Judith Newton, "Theoretical and Methodological Dialogue on the Writing of Women's History," Journal of Women's History 2 (winter 1991): 58-108; and Linda Nicholson and Nancy Fraser, "Social Criticism without Philosophy: An Encounter between Feminism and Postmodernism," in Feminism/Postmodernism, ed. Linda Nicholson (New York: Routledge, 1990).
22. For discussions about gender and women's agency, see Judith M. Bennett, "Feminism and History," Gender and History 1 (autumn 1989): 251-72; Gisela Bock, "Women's History and Gender History," Gender and History 1 (spring 1989): 7-30; Elsa Barkley Brown, "Womanist Consciousness: Maggie Lena Walker and the Independent Order of Saint Luke," Signs 14 (spring 1989): 610-33, and "Polyrhythms and Improvisations: Lessons for Women's History," History Workshop Journal 31 (1991): 85-90; Jacquelyn Dowd Hall, "Partial Truths," Signs 14 (summer 1989): 902-11; Nancy A. Hewitt, "Reflections from a Departing Editor: Recasting Issues of Marginality," Gender and History 4 (spring 1992): 3-9, and her "Compounding Differences," in " Intersections and Collision Courses: Women, Blacks, and Workers Confront Gender, Race, and Class: A Symposium," Feminist Studies 18 (summer 1992): 313-26; Evelyn Brooks Higginbotham, "African American Women's History and the Metalanguage of Race," Signs 17 (winter 1992): 251-74; Frances E. Mascia-Lees, Patricia Sharpe, and Colleen Ballerina Cohen, "The Postmodernist Turn in Anthropology: Cautions from a Feminist Perspective," Signs 15 (autumn 1989): 7-33; Louise Newman, Joan Williams, Lise Vogel, and Judith Newton, "Theoretical and Methodological Dialogue on the Writing of Women's History," Journal of Women's History 2 (winter 1991): 58-108; and Linda Nicholson and Nancy Fraser, "Social Criticism without Philosophy: An Encounter between Feminism and Postmodernism," in Feminism/Postmodernism, ed. Linda Nicholson (New York: Routledge, 1990).
23. For discussions about gender and women's agency, see Judith M. Bennett, "Feminism and History," Gender and History 1 (autumn 1989): 251-72; Gisela Bock, "Women's History and Gender History," Gender and History 1 (spring 1989): 7-30; Elsa Barkley Brown, "Womanist Consciousness: Maggie Lena Walker and the Independent Order of Saint Luke," Signs 14 (spring 1989): 610-33, and "Polyrhythms and Improvisations: Lessons for Women's History," History Workshop Journal 31 (1991): 85-90; Jacquelyn Dowd Hall, "Partial Truths," Signs 14 (summer 1989): 902-11; Nancy A. Hewitt, "Reflections from a Departing Editor: Recasting Issues of Marginality," Gender and History 4 (spring 1992): 3-9, and her "Compounding Differences," in " Intersections and Collision Courses: Women, Blacks, and Workers Confront Gender, Race, and Class: A Symposium," Feminist Studies 18 (summer 1992): 313-26; Evelyn Brooks Higginbotham, "African American Women's History and the Metalanguage of Race," Signs 17 (winter 1992): 251-74; Frances E. Mascia-Lees, Patricia Sharpe, and Colleen Ballerina Cohen, "The Postmodernist Turn in Anthropology: Cautions from a Feminist Perspective," Signs 15 (autumn 1989): 7-33; Louise Newman, Joan Williams, Lise Vogel, and Judith Newton, "Theoretical and Methodological Dialogue on the Writing of Women's History," Journal of Women's History 2 (winter 1991): 58-108; and Linda Nicholson and Nancy Fraser, "Social Criticism without Philosophy: An Encounter between Feminism and Postmodernism," in Feminism/Postmodernism, ed. Linda Nicholson (New York: Routledge, 1990).
24. For discussions about gender and women's agency, see Judith M. Bennett, "Feminism and History," Gender and History 1 (autumn 1989): 251-72; Gisela Bock, "Women's History and Gender History," Gender and History 1 (spring 1989): 7-30; Elsa Barkley Brown, "Womanist Consciousness: Maggie Lena Walker and the Independent Order of Saint Luke," Signs 14 (spring 1989): 610-33, and "Polyrhythms and Improvisations: Lessons for Women's History," History Workshop Journal 31 (1991): 85-90; Jacquelyn Dowd Hall, "Partial Truths," Signs 14 (summer 1989): 902-11; Nancy A. Hewitt, "Reflections from a Departing Editor: Recasting Issues of Marginality," Gender and History 4 (spring 1992): 3-9, and her "Compounding Differences," in " Intersections and Collision Courses: Women, Blacks, and Workers Confront Gender, Race, and Class: A Symposium," Feminist Studies 18 (summer 1992): 313-26; Evelyn Brooks Higginbotham, "African American Women's History and the Metalanguage of Race," Signs 17 (winter 1992): 251-74; Frances E. Mascia-Lees, Patricia Sharpe, and Colleen Ballerina Cohen, "The Postmodernist Turn in Anthropology: Cautions from a Feminist Perspective," Signs 15 (autumn 1989): 7-33; Louise Newman, Joan Williams, Lise Vogel, and Judith Newton, "Theoretical and Methodological Dialogue on the Writing of Women's History," Journal of Women's History 2 (winter 1991): 58-108; and Linda Nicholson and Nancy Fraser, "Social Criticism without Philosophy: An Encounter between Feminism and Postmodernism," in Feminism/Postmodernism, ed. Linda Nicholson (New York: Routledge, 1990).
25. For discussions about gender and women's agency, see Judith M. Bennett, "Feminism and History," Gender and History 1 (autumn 1989): 251-72; Gisela Bock, "Women's History and Gender History," Gender and History 1 (spring 1989): 7-30; Elsa Barkley Brown, "Womanist Consciousness: Maggie Lena Walker and the Independent Order of Saint Luke," Signs 14 (spring 1989): 610-33, and "Polyrhythms and Improvisations: Lessons for Women's History," History Workshop Journal 31 (1991): 85-90; Jacquelyn Dowd Hall, "Partial Truths," Signs 14 (summer 1989): 902-11; Nancy A. Hewitt, "Reflections from a Departing Editor: Recasting Issues of Marginality," Gender and History 4 (spring 1992): 3-9, and her "Compounding Differences," in " Intersections and Collision Courses: Women, Blacks, and Workers Confront Gender, Race, and Class: A Symposium," Feminist Studies 18 (summer 1992): 313-26; Evelyn Brooks Higginbotham, "African American Women's History and the Metalanguage of Race," Signs 17 (winter 1992): 251-74; Frances E. Mascia-Lees, Patricia Sharpe, and Colleen Ballerina Cohen, "The Postmodernist Turn in Anthropology: Cautions from a Feminist Perspective," Signs 15 (autumn 1989): 7-33; Louise Newman, Joan Williams, Lise Vogel, and Judith Newton, "Theoretical and Methodological Dialogue on the Writing of Women's History," Journal of Women's History 2 (winter 1991): 58-108; and Linda Nicholson and Nancy Fraser, "Social Criticism without Philosophy: An Encounter between Feminism and Postmodernism," in Feminism/Postmodernism, ed. Linda Nicholson (New York: Routledge, 1990).
26. For discussions about gender and women's agency, see Judith M. Bennett, "Feminism and History," Gender and History 1 (autumn 1989): 251-72; Gisela Bock, "Women's History and Gender History," Gender and History 1 (spring 1989): 7-30; Elsa Barkley Brown, "Womanist Consciousness: Maggie Lena Walker and the Independent Order of Saint Luke," Signs 14 (spring 1989): 610-33, and "Polyrhythms and Improvisations: Lessons for Women's History," History Workshop Journal 31 (1991): 85-90; Jacquelyn Dowd Hall, "Partial Truths," Signs 14 (summer 1989): 902-11; Nancy A. Hewitt, "Reflections from a Departing Editor: Recasting Issues of Marginality," Gender and History 4 (spring 1992): 3-9, and her "Compounding Differences," in " Intersections and Collision Courses: Women, Blacks, and Workers Confront Gender, Race, and Class: A Symposium," Feminist Studies 18 (summer 1992): 313-26; Evelyn Brooks Higginbotham, "African American Women's History and the Metalanguage of Race," Signs 17 (winter 1992): 251-74; Frances E. Mascia-Lees, Patricia Sharpe, and Colleen Ballerina Cohen, "The Postmodernist Turn in Anthropology: Cautions from a Feminist Perspective," Signs 15 (autumn 1989): 7-33; Louise Newman, Joan Williams, Lise Vogel, and Judith Newton, "Theoretical and Methodological Dialogue on the Writing of Women's History," Journal of Women's History 2 (winter 1991): 58-108; and Linda Nicholson and Nancy Fraser, "Social Criticism without Philosophy: An Encounter between Feminism and Postmodernism," in Feminism/Postmodernism, ed. Linda Nicholson (New York: Routledge, 1990).
27. For discussions about gender and women's agency, see Judith M. Bennett, "Feminism and History," Gender and History 1 (autumn 1989): 251-72; Gisela Bock, "Women's History and Gender History," Gender and History 1 (spring 1989): 7-30; Elsa Barkley Brown, "Womanist Consciousness: Maggie Lena Walker and the Independent Order of Saint Luke," Signs 14 (spring 1989): 610-33, and "Polyrhythms and Improvisations: Lessons for Women's History," History Workshop Journal 31 (1991): 85-90; Jacquelyn Dowd Hall, "Partial Truths," Signs 14 (summer 1989): 902-11; Nancy A. Hewitt, "Reflections from a Departing Editor: Recasting Issues of Marginality," Gender and History 4 (spring 1992): 3-9, and her "Compounding Differences," in " Intersections and Collision Courses: Women, Blacks, and Workers Confront Gender, Race, and Class: A Symposium," Feminist Studies 18 (summer 1992): 313-26; Evelyn Brooks Higginbotham, "African American Women's History and the Metalanguage of Race," Signs 17 (winter 1992): 251-74; Frances E. Mascia-Lees, Patricia Sharpe, and Colleen Ballerina Cohen, "The Postmodernist Turn in Anthropology: Cautions from a Feminist Perspective," Signs 15 (autumn 1989): 7-33; Louise Newman, Joan Williams, Lise Vogel, and Judith Newton, "Theoretical and Methodological Dialogue on the Writing of Women's History," Journal of Women's History 2 (winter 1991): 58-108; and Linda Nicholson and Nancy Fraser, "Social Criticism without Philosophy: An Encounter between Feminism and Postmodernism," in Feminism/Postmodernism, ed. Linda Nicholson (New York: Routledge, 1990).
28. For discussions about gender and women's agency, see Judith M. Bennett, "Feminism and History," Gender and History 1 (autumn 1989): 251-72; Gisela Bock, "Women's History and Gender History," Gender and History 1 (spring 1989): 7-30; Elsa Barkley Brown, "Womanist Consciousness: Maggie Lena Walker and the Independent Order of Saint Luke," Signs 14 (spring 1989): 610-33, and "Polyrhythms and Improvisations: Lessons for Women's History," History Workshop Journal 31 (1991): 85-90; Jacquelyn Dowd Hall, "Partial Truths," Signs 14 (summer 1989): 902-11; Nancy A. Hewitt, "Reflections from a Departing Editor: Recasting Issues of Marginality," Gender and History 4 (spring 1992): 3-9, and her "Compounding Differences," in " Intersections and Collision Courses: Women, Blacks, and Workers Confront Gender, Race, and Class: A Symposium," Feminist Studies 18 (summer 1992): 313-26; Evelyn Brooks Higginbotham, "African American Women's History and the Metalanguage of Race," Signs 17 (winter 1992): 251-74; Frances E. Mascia-Lees, Patricia Sharpe, and Colleen Ballerina Cohen, "The Postmodernist Turn in Anthropology: Cautions from a Feminist Perspective," Signs 15 (autumn 1989): 7-33; Louise Newman, Joan Williams, Lise Vogel, and Judith Newton, "Theoretical and Methodological Dialogue on the Writing of Women's History," Journal of Women's History 2 (winter 1991): 58-108; and Linda Nicholson and Nancy Fraser, "Social Criticism without Philosophy: An Encounter between Feminism and Postmodernism," in Feminism/Postmodernism, ed. Linda Nicholson (New York: Routledge, 1990).
29. For discussions about gender and women's agency, see Judith M. Bennett, "Feminism and History," Gender and History 1 (autumn 1989): 251-72; Gisela Bock, "Women's History and Gender History," Gender and History 1 (spring 1989): 7-30; Elsa Barkley Brown, "Womanist Consciousness: Maggie Lena Walker and the Independent Order of Saint Luke," Signs 14 (spring 1989): 610-33, and "Polyrhythms and Improvisations: Lessons for Women's History," History Workshop Journal 31 (1991): 85-90; Jacquelyn Dowd Hall, "Partial Truths," Signs 14 (summer 1989): 902-11; Nancy A. Hewitt, "Reflections from a Departing Editor: Recasting Issues of Marginality," Gender and History 4 (spring 1992): 3-9, and her "Compounding Differences," in " Intersections and Collision Courses: Women, Blacks, and Workers Confront Gender, Race, and Class: A Symposium," Feminist Studies 18 (summer 1992): 313-26; Evelyn Brooks Higginbotham, "African American Women's History and the Metalanguage of Race," Signs 17 (winter 1992): 251-74; Frances E. Mascia-Lees, Patricia Sharpe, and Colleen Ballerina Cohen, "The Postmodernist Turn in Anthropology: Cautions from a Feminist Perspective," Signs 15 (autumn 1989): 7-33; Louise Newman, Joan Williams, Lise Vogel, and Judith Newton, "Theoretical and Methodological Dialogue on the Writing of Women's History," Journal of Women's History 2 (winter 1991): 58-108; and Linda Nicholson and Nancy Fraser, "Social Criticism without Philosophy: An Encounter between Feminism and Postmodernism," in Feminism/Postmodernism, ed. Linda Nicholson (New York: Routledge, 1990).
30. For discussions about gender and women's agency, see Judith M. Bennett, "Feminism and History," Gender and History 1 (autumn 1989): 251-72; Gisela Bock, "Women's History and Gender History," Gender and History 1 (spring 1989): 7-30; Elsa Barkley Brown, "Womanist Consciousness: Maggie Lena Walker and the Independent Order of Saint Luke," Signs 14 (spring 1989): 610-33, and "Polyrhythms and Improvisations: Lessons for Women's History," History Workshop Journal 31 (1991): 85-90; Jacquelyn Dowd Hall, "Partial Truths," Signs 14 (summer 1989): 902-11; Nancy A. Hewitt, "Reflections from a Departing Editor: Recasting Issues of Marginality," Gender and History 4 (spring 1992): 3-9, and her "Compounding Differences," in " Intersections and Collision Courses: Women, Blacks, and Workers Confront Gender, Race, and Class: A Symposium," Feminist Studies 18 (summer 1992): 313-26; Evelyn Brooks Higginbotham, "African American Women's History and the Metalanguage of Race," Signs 17 (winter 1992): 251-74; Frances E. Mascia-Lees, Patricia Sharpe, and Colleen Ballerina Cohen, "The Postmodernist Turn in Anthropology: Cautions from a Feminist Perspective," Signs 15 (autumn 1989): 7-33; Louise Newman, Joan Williams, Lise Vogel, and Judith Newton, "Theoretical and Methodological Dialogue on the Writing of Women's History," Journal of Women's History 2 (winter 1991): 58-108; and Linda Nicholson and Nancy Fraser, "Social Criticism without Philosophy: An Encounter between Feminism and Postmodernism," in Feminism/Postmodernism, ed. Linda Nicholson (New York: Routledge, 1990).
31. See Avery to Bomford, 27 Mar. 1867; Worth to Philpott, 16 Oct. 1866, 231. Perhaps local authorities simply felt it was their duty to close the case and to bring Henderson Cooper to justice. Yet, judging from the crowded court docket, they clearly had enough to occupy their attention at home without embarking on a long and costly interstate manhunt. There were hundreds of cases before the local courts at this same time; see Criminal Action Papers, 1865-67, Granville County, NCDAH. The attention lavished on this particular case suggests that it was important in ways that the others were not.
32. Worth signed the papers necessary to secure Henderson Cooper's capture in 1866, but he did not become actively involved in the case until 1867. Worth to Philpott, 16 Oct. 1866; Worth to the Governor of Virginia, 16 Oct. 1866. For the correspondence that includes his articles and discussions of them, see Worth to Graham, 10 Jan. 1868, 2: 1128-31; Worth to Hanes, 17 Jan. 1869, 2: 1265-67.
33. Worth signed the papers necessary to secure Henderson Cooper's capture in 1866, but he did not become actively involved in the case until 1867. Worth to Philpott, 16 Oct. 1866; Worth to the Governor of Virginia, 16 Oct. 1866. For the correspondence that includes his articles and discussions of them, see Worth to Graham, 10 Jan. 1868, 2: 1128-31; Worth to Hanes, 17 Jan. 1869, 2: 1265-67.
34. For discussions of the social and political importance of households, see Peter Bardaglio, Reconstructing the Household: Families, Sex, and the Law in the Nineteenth-Century South (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1995); Nancy Bercaw, "The Politics of Household: Domestic Battlegrounds in the Transition from Slavery to Freedom in the Yazoo-Mississippi Delta, 1850-1860" (Ph.D. diss., University of Pennsylvania, 1995); Elizabeth Fox-Genovese, Within the Plantation Household: Women in the Old South (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1988); Stephanie McCurry, Masters of Small Worlds: Yeoman Households, Gender Relations, and the Political Culture of the Antebellum South Carolina Low Country (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995); and LeeAnn Whites, The Civil War as a Crisis in Gender: Augusta, Georgia, 1860-1890 (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1995).
35. For discussions of the social and political importance of households, see Peter Bardaglio, Reconstructing the Household: Families, Sex, and the Law in the Nineteenth-Century South (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1995); Nancy Bercaw, "The Politics of Household: Domestic Battlegrounds in the Transition from Slavery to Freedom in the Yazoo-Mississippi Delta, 1850-1860" (Ph.D. diss., University of Pennsylvania, 1995); Elizabeth Fox-Genovese, Within the Plantation Household: Women in the Old South (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1988); Stephanie McCurry, Masters of Small Worlds: Yeoman Households, Gender Relations, and the Political Culture of the Antebellum South Carolina Low Country (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995); and LeeAnn Whites, The Civil War as a Crisis in Gender: Augusta, Georgia, 1860-1890 (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1995).
36. For discussions of the social and political importance of households, see Peter Bardaglio, Reconstructing the Household: Families, Sex, and the Law in the Nineteenth-Century South (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1995); Nancy Bercaw, "The Politics of Household: Domestic Battlegrounds in the Transition from Slavery to Freedom in the Yazoo-Mississippi Delta, 1850-1860" (Ph.D. diss., University of Pennsylvania, 1995); Elizabeth Fox-Genovese, Within the Plantation Household: Women in the Old South (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1988); Stephanie McCurry, Masters of Small Worlds: Yeoman Households, Gender Relations, and the Political Culture of the Antebellum South Carolina Low Country (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995); and LeeAnn Whites, The Civil War as a Crisis in Gender: Augusta, Georgia, 1860-1890 (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1995).
37. For discussions of the social and political importance of households, see Peter Bardaglio, Reconstructing the Household: Families, Sex, and the Law in the Nineteenth-Century South (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1995); Nancy Bercaw, "The Politics of Household: Domestic Battlegrounds in the Transition from Slavery to Freedom in the Yazoo-Mississippi Delta, 1850-1860" (Ph.D. diss., University of Pennsylvania, 1995); Elizabeth Fox-Genovese, Within the Plantation Household: Women in the Old South (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1988); Stephanie McCurry, Masters of Small Worlds: Yeoman Households, Gender Relations, and the Political Culture of the Antebellum South Carolina Low Country (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995); and LeeAnn Whites, The Civil War as a Crisis in Gender: Augusta, Georgia, 1860-1890 (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1995).
38. For discussions of the social and political importance of households, see Peter Bardaglio, Reconstructing the Household: Families, Sex, and the Law in the Nineteenth-Century South (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1995); Nancy Bercaw, "The Politics of Household: Domestic Battlegrounds in the Transition from Slavery to Freedom in the Yazoo-Mississippi Delta, 1850-1860" (Ph.D. diss., University of Pennsylvania, 1995); Elizabeth Fox-Genovese, Within the Plantation Household: Women in the Old South (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1988); Stephanie McCurry, Masters of Small Worlds: Yeoman Households, Gender Relations, and the Political Culture of the Antebellum South Carolina Low Country (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995); and LeeAnn Whites, The Civil War as a Crisis in Gender: Augusta, Georgia, 1860-1890 (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1995).
39. For a discussion of propertyless white men and dependence, see Laura F. Edwards, Gendered Strife and Confusion: The Political Culture of Reconstruction (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, forthcoming). Also see Robert J. Steinfeld, The Invention of Free Labor: The Employment Relation in English and American Law and Culture, 1350-1870 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1991).
40. For a discussion of propertyless white men and dependence, see Laura F. Edwards, Gendered Strife and Confusion: The Political Culture of Reconstruction (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, forthcoming). Also see Robert J. Steinfeld, The Invention of Free Labor: The Employment Relation in English and American Law and Culture, 1350-1870 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1991).
41. For the work outlining the difficulties experienced by free women, white and Black, in assuming the position of household head, see Victoria Bynum, Unruly Women: The Politics of Social and Sexual Control in the Old South (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1992); Drew Faust, "'Trying to Do a Man's Business': Slavery, Violence, and Gender in the American Civil War," Gender and History 4 (summer 1992): 197-214; Suzanne Lebsock, The Free Women of Petersburg: Status and Culture in a Southern Town, 1784-1860 (New York: Norton, 1984). For free Blacks, also see Ira Berlin, Slaves without Masters: The Free Negro in the Antebellum South (New York: Pantheon, 1974); John Hope Franklin, The Free Negro in North Carolina, 1790-1860 (1943; rpt., New York: Russell & Russell, 1969). Southern courts continued to define parental rights primarily as paternal rights, but they began to view the claims of mothers to their children more favorably toward the end of the antebellum period, a change that brought them more in line with northern patterns. Even then, custody was given at the discretion of the court. See Bardaglio, Reconstructing the Household, 100-1, 164.
42. For the work outlining the difficulties experienced by free women, white and Black, in assuming the position of household head, see Victoria Bynum, Unruly Women: The Politics of Social and Sexual Control in the Old South (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1992); Drew Faust, "'Trying to Do a Man's Business': Slavery, Violence, and Gender in the American Civil War," Gender and History 4 (summer 1992): 197-214; Suzanne Lebsock, The Free Women of Petersburg: Status and Culture in a Southern Town, 1784-1860 (New York: Norton, 1984). For free Blacks, also see Ira Berlin, Slaves without Masters: The Free Negro in the Antebellum South (New York: Pantheon, 1974); John Hope Franklin, The Free Negro in North Carolina, 1790-1860 (1943; rpt., New York: Russell & Russell, 1969). Southern courts continued to define parental rights primarily as paternal rights, but they began to view the claims of mothers to their children more favorably toward the end of the antebellum period, a change that brought them more in line with northern patterns. Even then, custody was given at the discretion of the court. See Bardaglio, Reconstructing the Household, 100-1, 164.
43. For the work outlining the difficulties experienced by free women, white and Black, in assuming the position of household head, see Victoria Bynum, Unruly Women: The Politics of Social and Sexual Control in the Old South (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1992); Drew Faust, "'Trying to Do a Man's Business': Slavery, Violence, and Gender in the American Civil War," Gender and History 4 (summer 1992): 197-214; Suzanne Lebsock, The Free Women of Petersburg: Status and Culture in a Southern Town, 1784-1860 (New York: Norton, 1984). For free Blacks, also see Ira Berlin, Slaves without Masters: The Free Negro in the Antebellum South (New York: Pantheon, 1974); John Hope Franklin, The Free Negro in North Carolina, 1790-1860 (1943; rpt., New York: Russell & Russell, 1969). Southern courts continued to define parental rights primarily as paternal rights, but they began to view the claims of mothers to their children more favorably toward the end of the antebellum period, a change that brought them more in line with northern patterns. Even then, custody was given at the discretion of the court. See Bardaglio, Reconstructing the Household, 100-1, 164.
44. For the work outlining the difficulties experienced by free women, white and Black, in assuming the position of household head, see Victoria Bynum, Unruly Women: The Politics of Social and Sexual Control in the Old South (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1992); Drew Faust, "'Trying to Do a Man's Business': Slavery, Violence, and Gender in the American Civil War," Gender and History 4 (summer 1992): 197-214; Suzanne Lebsock, The Free Women of Petersburg: Status and Culture in a Southern Town, 1784-1860 (New York: Norton, 1984). For free Blacks, also see Ira Berlin, Slaves without Masters: The Free Negro in the Antebellum South (New York: Pantheon, 1974); John Hope Franklin, The Free Negro in North Carolina, 1790-1860 (1943; rpt., New York: Russell & Russell, 1969). Southern courts continued to define parental rights primarily as paternal rights, but they began to view the claims of mothers to their children more favorably toward the end of the antebellum period, a change that brought them more in line with northern patterns. Even then, custody was given at the discretion of the court. See Bardaglio, Reconstructing the Household, 100-1, 164.
45. For the work outlining the difficulties experienced by free women, white and Black, in assuming the position of household head, see Victoria Bynum, Unruly Women: The Politics of Social and Sexual Control in the Old South (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1992); Drew Faust, "'Trying to Do a Man's Business': Slavery, Violence, and Gender in the American Civil War," Gender and History 4 (summer 1992): 197-214; Suzanne Lebsock, The Free Women of Petersburg: Status and Culture in a Southern Town, 1784-1860 (New York: Norton, 1984). For free Blacks, also see Ira Berlin, Slaves without Masters: The Free Negro in the Antebellum South (New York: Pantheon, 1974); John Hope Franklin, The Free Negro in North Carolina, 1790-1860 (1943; rpt., New York: Russell & Russell, 1969). Southern courts continued to define parental rights primarily as paternal rights, but they began to view the claims of mothers to their children more favorably toward the end of the antebellum period, a change that brought them more in line with northern patterns. Even then, custody was given at the discretion of the court. See Bardaglio, Reconstructing the Household, 100-1, 164.
46. For the work outlining the difficulties experienced by free women, white and Black, in assuming the position of household head, see Victoria Bynum, Unruly Women: The Politics of Social and Sexual Control in the Old South (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1992); Drew Faust, "'Trying to Do a Man's Business': Slavery, Violence, and Gender in the American Civil War," Gender and History 4 (summer 1992): 197-214; Suzanne Lebsock, The Free Women of Petersburg: Status and Culture in a Southern Town, 1784-1860 (New York: Norton, 1984). For free Blacks, also see Ira Berlin, Slaves without Masters: The Free Negro in the Antebellum South (New York: Pantheon, 1974); John Hope Franklin, The Free Negro in North Carolina, 1790-1860 (1943; rpt., New York: Russell & Russell, 1969). Southern courts continued to define parental rights primarily as paternal rights, but they began to view the claims of mothers to their children more favorably toward the end of the antebellum period, a change that brought them more in line with northern patterns. Even then, custody was given at the discretion of the court. See Bardaglio, Reconstructing the Household, 100-1, 164.
47. Peter Bardaglio, "Rape and the Law in the Old South: 'Calculated to Excite Indignation in Every Heart,'" Journal of Southern History 60 (November 1994): 749-72; Jacquelyn Dowd Hall," 'The Mind That Burns in Each Body': Women, Rape, and Racial Violence," in Powers of Desire: The Politics of Sexuality, ed. Ann Snitow, Christine Stansell, and Sharon Thompson (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1983) ; Martha Hodes, "The Sexualization of Reconstruction Politics: White Women and Black Men in the South after the Civil War," Journal of the History of Sexuality 3 (January 1993): 402-17.
48. Peter Bardaglio, "Rape and the Law in the Old South: 'Calculated to Excite Indignation in Every Heart,'" Journal of Southern History 60 (November 1994): 749-72; Jacquelyn Dowd Hall," 'The Mind That Burns in Each Body': Women, Rape, and Racial Violence," in Powers of Desire: The Politics of Sexuality, ed. Ann Snitow, Christine Stansell, and Sharon Thompson (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1983) ; Martha Hodes, "The Sexualization of Reconstruction Politics: White Women and Black Men in the South after the Civil War," Journal of the History of Sexuality 3 (January 1993): 402-17.
49. Peter Bardaglio, "Rape and the Law in the Old South: 'Calculated to Excite Indignation in Every Heart,'" Journal of Southern History 60 (November 1994): 749-72; Jacquelyn Dowd Hall," 'The Mind That Burns in Each Body': Women, Rape, and Racial Violence," in Powers of Desire: The Politics of Sexuality, ed. Ann Snitow, Christine Stansell, and Sharon Thompson (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1983) ; Martha Hodes, "The Sexualization of Reconstruction Politics: White Women and Black Men in the South after the Civil War," Journal of the History of Sexuality 3 (January 1993): 402-17.
50. Bardaglio, "Rape and the Law in the Old South"; Bynum, 36-39, 109-10; Catherine Clinton, "Bloody Terrain: Freedwomen, Sexuality, and Violence during Reconstruction," Georgia Historical Quarterly 76 (summer 1992): 310-32; Angela Davis, "Reflections on the Black Woman's Role in the Community of Slaves," Black Scholar 3 (December 1981): 3-15; Higginbotham; Darlene Clark Hine, "Rape and the Inner Lives of Black Women in the Middle West," Signs 14 (summer 1989): 912-20; Melton McLaurin, Celia, a Slave (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1991); Hannah Rosen, "Struggles over 'Freedom': Sexual Violence during the Memphis Riot of 1866" (Paper presented at the Berkshire Conference of Women Historians, Poughkeepsie, New York, June 1993); Deborah Gray White, Ar'n't I a Woman? Female Slaves in the Plantation South (New York: Norton, 1985); and Jennifer Wriggins, "Rape, Racism, and the Law," Harvard Women's Law Journal 6 (spring 1983): 103-41.
51. Bardaglio, "Rape and the Law in the Old South"; Bynum, 36-39, 109-10; Catherine Clinton, "Bloody Terrain: Freedwomen, Sexuality, and Violence during Reconstruction," Georgia Historical Quarterly 76 (summer 1992): 310-32; Angela Davis, "Reflections on the Black Woman's Role in the Community of Slaves," Black Scholar 3 (December 1981): 3-15; Higginbotham; Darlene Clark Hine, "Rape and the Inner Lives of Black Women in the Middle West," Signs 14 (summer 1989): 912-20; Melton McLaurin, Celia, a Slave (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1991); Hannah Rosen, "Struggles over 'Freedom': Sexual Violence during the Memphis Riot of 1866" (Paper presented at the Berkshire Conference of Women Historians, Poughkeepsie, New York, June 1993); Deborah Gray White, Ar'n't I a Woman? Female Slaves in the Plantation South (New York: Norton, 1985); and Jennifer Wriggins, "Rape, Racism, and the Law," Harvard Women's Law Journal 6 (spring 1983): 103-41.
52. Bardaglio, "Rape and the Law in the Old South"; Bynum, 36-39, 109-10; Catherine Clinton, "Bloody Terrain: Freedwomen, Sexuality, and Violence during Reconstruction," Georgia Historical Quarterly 76 (summer 1992): 310-32; Angela Davis, "Reflections on the Black Woman's Role in the Community of Slaves," Black Scholar 3 (December 1981): 3-15; Higginbotham; Darlene Clark Hine, "Rape and the Inner Lives of Black Women in the Middle West," Signs 14 (summer 1989): 912-20; Melton McLaurin, Celia, a Slave (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1991); Hannah Rosen, "Struggles over 'Freedom': Sexual Violence during the Memphis Riot of 1866" (Paper presented at the Berkshire Conference of Women Historians, Poughkeepsie, New York, June 1993); Deborah Gray White, Ar'n't I a Woman? Female Slaves in the Plantation South (New York: Norton, 1985); and Jennifer Wriggins, "Rape, Racism, and the Law," Harvard Women's Law Journal 6 (spring 1983): 103-41.
53. Bardaglio, "Rape and the Law in the Old South"; Bynum, 36-39, 109-10; Catherine Clinton, "Bloody Terrain: Freedwomen, Sexuality, and Violence during Reconstruction," Georgia Historical Quarterly 76 (summer 1992): 310-32; Angela Davis, "Reflections on the Black Woman's Role in the Community of Slaves," Black Scholar 3 (December 1981): 3-15; Higginbotham; Darlene Clark Hine, "Rape and the Inner Lives of Black Women in the Middle West," Signs 14 (summer 1989): 912-20; Melton McLaurin, Celia, a Slave (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1991); Hannah Rosen, "Struggles over 'Freedom': Sexual Violence during the Memphis Riot of 1866" (Paper presented at the Berkshire Conference of Women Historians, Poughkeepsie, New York, June 1993); Deborah Gray White, Ar'n't I a Woman? Female Slaves in the Plantation South (New York: Norton, 1985); and Jennifer Wriggins, "Rape, Racism, and the Law," Harvard Women's Law Journal 6 (spring 1983): 103-41.
54. Bardaglio, "Rape and the Law in the Old South"; Bynum, 36-39, 109-10; Catherine Clinton, "Bloody Terrain: Freedwomen, Sexuality, and Violence during Reconstruction," Georgia Historical Quarterly 76 (summer 1992): 310-32; Angela Davis, "Reflections on the Black Woman's Role in the Community of Slaves," Black Scholar 3 (December 1981): 3-15; Higginbotham; Darlene Clark Hine, "Rape and the Inner Lives of Black Women in the Middle West," Signs 14 (summer 1989): 912-20; Melton McLaurin, Celia, a Slave (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1991); Hannah Rosen, "Struggles over 'Freedom': Sexual Violence during the Memphis Riot of 1866" (Paper presented at the Berkshire Conference of Women Historians, Poughkeepsie, New York, June 1993); Deborah Gray White, Ar'n't I a Woman? Female Slaves in the Plantation South (New York: Norton, 1985); and Jennifer Wriggins, "Rape, Racism, and the Law," Harvard Women's Law Journal 6 (spring 1983): 103-41.
55. Bardaglio, "Rape and the Law in the Old South"; Bynum, 36-39, 109-10; Catherine Clinton, "Bloody Terrain: Freedwomen, Sexuality, and Violence during Reconstruction," Georgia Historical Quarterly 76 (summer 1992): 310-32; Angela Davis, "Reflections on the Black Woman's Role in the Community of Slaves," Black Scholar 3 (December 1981): 3-15; Higginbotham; Darlene Clark Hine, "Rape and the Inner Lives of Black Women in the Middle West," Signs 14 (summer 1989): 912-20; Melton McLaurin, Celia, a Slave (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1991); Hannah Rosen, "Struggles over 'Freedom': Sexual Violence during the Memphis Riot of 1866" (Paper presented at the Berkshire Conference of Women Historians, Poughkeepsie, New York, June 1993); Deborah Gray White, Ar'n't I a Woman? Female Slaves in the Plantation South (New York: Norton, 1985); and Jennifer Wriggins, "Rape, Racism, and the Law," Harvard Women's Law Journal 6 (spring 1983): 103-41.
56. Bardaglio, "Rape and the Law in the Old South"; Bynum, 36-39, 109-10; Catherine Clinton, "Bloody Terrain: Freedwomen, Sexuality, and Violence during Reconstruction," Georgia Historical Quarterly 76 (summer 1992): 310-32; Angela Davis, "Reflections on the Black Woman's Role in the Community of Slaves," Black Scholar 3 (December 1981): 3-15; Higginbotham; Darlene Clark Hine, "Rape and the Inner Lives of Black Women in the Middle West," Signs 14 (summer 1989): 912-20; Melton McLaurin, Celia, a Slave (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1991); Hannah Rosen, "Struggles over 'Freedom': Sexual Violence during the Memphis Riot of 1866" (Paper presented at the Berkshire Conference of Women Historians, Poughkeepsie, New York, June 1993); Deborah Gray White, Ar'n't I a Woman? Female Slaves in the Plantation South (New York: Norton, 1985); and Jennifer Wriggins, "Rape, Racism, and the Law," Harvard Women's Law Journal 6 (spring 1983): 103-41.
57. Bardaglio, "Rape and the Law in the Old South"; Bynum, 36-39, 109-10; Catherine Clinton, "Bloody Terrain: Freedwomen, Sexuality, and Violence during Reconstruction," Georgia Historical Quarterly 76 (summer 1992): 310-32; Angela Davis, "Reflections on the Black Woman's Role in the Community of Slaves," Black Scholar 3 (December 1981): 3-15; Higginbotham; Darlene Clark Hine, "Rape and the Inner Lives of Black Women in the Middle West," Signs 14 (summer 1989): 912-20; Melton McLaurin, Celia, a Slave (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1991); Hannah Rosen, "Struggles over 'Freedom': Sexual Violence during the Memphis Riot of 1866" (Paper presented at the Berkshire Conference of Women Historians, Poughkeepsie, New York, June 1993); Deborah Gray White, Ar'n't I a Woman? Female Slaves in the Plantation South (New York: Norton, 1985); and Jennifer Wriggins, "Rape, Racism, and the Law," Harvard Women's Law Journal 6 (spring 1983): 103-41.
58. Bardaglio, "Rape and the Law in the Old South"; Bynum, 109-10, 117-18; Laura F. Edwards, "Sexual Violence, Gender, Reconstruction, and the Extension of Patriarchy in Granville County, North Carolina," North Carolina Historical Review 68 (July 1991): 237-60. For the ways that the treatment of rape revealed class divisions in the North, see Christine Stansell, City of Women: Sex and Class in New York, 1789-1860 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1987), 23-28.
59. Bardaglio, "Rape and the Law in the Old South"; Bynum, 109-10, 117-18; Laura F. Edwards, "Sexual Violence, Gender, Reconstruction, and the Extension of Patriarchy in Granville County, North Carolina," North Carolina Historical Review 68 (July 1991): 237-60. For the ways that the treatment of rape revealed class divisions in the North, see Christine Stansell, City of Women: Sex and Class in New York, 1789-1860 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1987), 23-28.
60. Bardaglio, "Rape and the Law in the Old South"; Bynum, 109-10, 117-18; Laura F. Edwards, "Sexual Violence, Gender, Reconstruction, and the Extension of Patriarchy in Granville County, North Carolina," North Carolina Historical Review 68 (July 1991): 237-60. For the ways that the treatment of rape revealed class divisions in the North, see Christine Stansell, City of Women: Sex and Class in New York, 1789-1860 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1987), 23-28.
61. Recently some historians have argued that white southerners began to construe Black-male-on-white-female rape as problematic only after the Civil War. See Hodes, "The Sexualization of Reconstruction Politics"; and Diane Miller Sommerville, "The Rape Myth in the Old South Reconsidered," Journal of Southern History 61 (August 1995): 481-518. Other work, however, has shown that white southerners had always tied racial power to sexualized images, including Black-male-on-white-female rape. The classic statement is Winthrop Jordan, White over Black: American Attitudes toward the Negro, 1580-1812 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1968). Indeed, as Bardaglio has argued in "Rape and the Law in the Old South," judicial decisions in antebellum rape cases reveal the complex play of race, class, and gender as well as the connection of rape to larger structures of power. It was this connection that made rape such a potent symbol in the social and political upheavals of the postwar years.
62. Recently some historians have argued that white southerners began to construe Black-male-on-white-female rape as problematic only after the Civil War. See Hodes, "The Sexualization of Reconstruction Politics"; and Diane Miller Sommerville, "The Rape Myth in the Old South Reconsidered," Journal of Southern History 61 (August 1995): 481-518. Other work, however, has shown that white southerners had always tied racial power to sexualized images, including Black-male-on-white-female rape. The classic statement is Winthrop Jordan, White over Black: American Attitudes toward the Negro, 1580-1812 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1968). Indeed, as Bardaglio has argued in "Rape and the Law in the Old South," judicial decisions in antebellum rape cases reveal the complex play of race, class, and gender as well as the connection of rape to larger structures of power. It was this connection that made rape such a potent symbol in the social and political upheavals of the postwar years.
63. Recently some historians have argued that white southerners began to construe Black-male-on-white-female rape as problematic only after the Civil War. See Hodes, "The Sexualization of Reconstruction Politics"; and Diane Miller Sommerville, "The Rape Myth in the Old South Reconsidered," Journal of Southern History 61 (August 1995): 481-518. Other work, however, has shown that white southerners had always tied racial power to sexualized images, including Black-male-on-white-female rape. The classic statement is Winthrop Jordan, White over Black: American Attitudes toward the Negro, 1580-1812 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1968). Indeed, as Bardaglio has argued in "Rape and the Law in the Old South," judicial decisions in antebellum rape cases reveal the complex play of race, class, and gender as well as the connection of rape to larger structures of power. It was this connection that made rape such a potent symbol in the social and political upheavals of the postwar years.
64. Recently some historians have argued that white southerners began to construe Black-male-on-white-female rape as problematic only after the Civil War. See Hodes, "The Sexualization of Reconstruction Politics"; and Diane Miller Sommerville, "The Rape Myth in the Old South Reconsidered," Journal of Southern History 61 (August 1995): 481-518. Other work, however, has shown that white southerners had always tied racial power to sexualized images, including Black-male-on-white-female rape. The classic statement is Winthrop Jordan, White over Black: American Attitudes toward the Negro, 1580-1812 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1968). Indeed, as Bardaglio has argued in "Rape and the Law in the Old South," judicial decisions in antebellum rape cases reveal the complex play of race, class, and gender as well as the connection of rape to larger structures of power. It was this connection that made rape such a potent symbol in the social and political upheavals of the postwar years.
65. Worth to Johnson, 31 Dec. 1867, 8-9.
66. For parallels with the political rhetoric in antebellum South Carolina during the nullification crisis, see McCurry, Masters of Small Worlds, 260-661.
67. Worth feared the political power of poor whites as well as Blacks. Without the guidance of the "better class," the "masses" could easily degenerate into "a great mob ruled by the will of the hour." See, for instance, Worth to W.F. Leak, 5 Jan. 1867, 2: 860. For racialized references to whites, see Hamilton, 2: 1004, 1048, 1215. For an expanded discussion of the views of conservative white elites in North Carolina, see Paul D. Escott, Many Excellent People: Power and Privilege in North Carolina, 1850-1900 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1985), 85-135.
68. Worth feared the political power of poor whites as well as Blacks. Without the guidance of the "better class," the "masses" could easily degenerate into "a great mob ruled by the will of the hour." See, for instance, Worth to W.F. Leak, 5 Jan. 1867, 2: 860. For racialized references to whites, see Hamilton, 2: 1004, 1048, 1215. For an expanded discussion of the views of conservative white elites in North Carolina, see Paul D. Escott, Many Excellent People: Power and Privilege in North Carolina, 1850-1900 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1985), 85-135.
69. Worth's obsession with the Freedmen's Bureau and its interference with the governance of the state pervades his correspondence. For the blame Granville officials placed on the Freedmen's Bureau, see Dennis to Cazario, 26 Mar. 1868, 111-15.
70. Avery to Bomford, 27 Mar. 1867; also see Bomford to Clous, 22 Apr. 1867, 471-72.
71. William W. Jones, the local Freedmen's Bureau agent in Granville County, worked from similar assumptions. An abolitionist and a strong defender of equal civil and political rights for freedpeople, Jones had initially asked the bureau to investigate the case because he suspected that the ruling of the Confederate court that had sentenced Henderson Cooper might not be valid in the eyes of the U.S. government. But when local white residents-the "most respectable citizens"-ap" proached him to request federal troops to keep order at Henderson Cooper's execution, he was inclined to support their request. Apparently, he too saw the actions of the "Freedmen and others" as an inappropriate circumvention of the rule of law. See Jones to Cogswell, 16 Mar. 1867; and Jones to the Assistant Commissioner, 28 Mar.. 1867. For Jones's abolitionism, see William W. Jones to Jordan Chambers, 20 Apr. 1869, Governor's Papers, Holden, NCDAH. For the ways northern racial ideology developed within the context of emancipation in the South, see Barbara J. Fields, "Ideology and Race in American History," and Thomas C. Holt," 'An Empire Over the Mind': Emancipation, Race, and Ideology in the British West Indies and the American South," both in Region, Race, and Reconstruction: Essays in Honor of C. Vann Woodward, ed. J. Morgan Kousser and James M. McPherson (New York: Oxford University Press, 1982).
72. William W. Jones, the local Freedmen's Bureau agent in Granville County, worked from similar assumptions. An abolitionist and a strong defender of equal civil and political rights for freedpeople, Jones had initially asked the bureau to investigate the case because he suspected that the ruling of the Confederate court that had sentenced Henderson Cooper might not be valid in the eyes of the U.S. government. But when local white residents-the "most respectable citizens"-ap" proached him to request federal troops to keep order at Henderson Cooper's execution, he was inclined to support their request. Apparently, he too saw the actions of the "Freedmen and others" as an inappropriate circumvention of the rule of law. See Jones to Cogswell, 16 Mar. 1867; and Jones to the Assistant Commissioner, 28 Mar.. 1867. For Jones's abolitionism, see William W. Jones to Jordan Chambers, 20 Apr. 1869, Governor's Papers, Holden, NCDAH. For the ways northern racial ideology developed within the context of emancipation in the South, see Barbara J. Fields, "Ideology and Race in American History," and Thomas C. Holt," 'An Empire Over the Mind': Emancipation, Race, and Ideology in the British West Indies and the American South," both in Region, Race, and Reconstruction: Essays in Honor of C. Vann Woodward, ed. J. Morgan Kousser and James M. McPherson (New York: Oxford University Press, 1982).
73. For Worth's view of Susan Daniel, see Worth to Johnson, 31 Dec. 1867, 5-9; Worth to Graham, 10 Jan. 1868, 2: 1128-31. For the bureau's view, see Avery to Bomford, 27 Mar. 1867; Bomford to Clous, 22 Apr. 1867, 471-72. Many women's historians have discussed the racial and class dimensions of this bifurcated view of women. See, for instance, Bynum; Carol F. Karlson, The Devil in the Shape of a Woman: Witchcraft in Colonial New England (New York: Norton, 1987); Stansell; and White, 27-61.
74. For Worth's view of Susan Daniel, see Worth to Johnson, 31 Dec. 1867, 5-9; Worth to Graham, 10 Jan. 1868, 2: 1128-31. For the bureau's view, see Avery to Bomford, 27 Mar. 1867; Bomford to Clous, 22 Apr. 1867, 471-72. Many women's historians have discussed the racial and class dimensions of this bifurcated view of women. See, for instance, Bynum; Carol F. Karlson, The Devil in the Shape of a Woman: Witchcraft in Colonial New England (New York: Norton, 1987); Stansell; and White, 27-61.
75. For Worth's view of Susan Daniel, see Worth to Johnson, 31 Dec. 1867, 5-9; Worth to Graham, 10 Jan. 1868, 2: 1128-31. For the bureau's view, see Avery to Bomford, 27 Mar. 1867; Bomford to Clous, 22 Apr. 1867, 471-72. Many women's historians have discussed the racial and class dimensions of this bifurcated view of women. See, for instance, Bynum; Carol F. Karlson, The Devil in the Shape of a Woman: Witchcraft in Colonial New England (New York: Norton, 1987); Stansell; and White, 27-61.
76. For Worth's view of Susan Daniel, see Worth to Johnson, 31 Dec. 1867, 5-9; Worth to Graham, 10 Jan. 1868, 2: 1128-31. For the bureau's view, see Avery to Bomford, 27 Mar. 1867; Bomford to Clous, 22 Apr. 1867, 471-72. Many women's historians have discussed the racial and class dimensions of this bifurcated view of women. See, for instance, Bynum; Carol F. Karlson, The Devil in the Shape of a Woman: Witchcraft in Colonial New England (New York: Norton, 1987); Stansell; and White, 27-61.
77. See Escott, Many Excellent People, 103-4, 136-70; Hodes, "The Sexualization of Reconstruction Politics"; Otto H. Olsen, A Carpetbagger's Crusade: The Life of Albion Winegar Tourgée (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1965); Allen Trelease, White Terror: The Ku Klux Klan Conspiracy and Southern Reconstruction (New York: Harper & Row, 1971). Also see Albion W. Tourgée, A Fool's Errand (1879; rpt. New York: Harper & Row, 1966). Political conflict in Granville County remained heated throughout the 1870s but was particularly intense in the 1860s. See Silas Curtis and others to William W. Holden, 11 Oct. 1868; Moses M. Hester, Joseph Coly, and Jacob Winston to William W. Holden, 9 Oct. 1868, Governor's Papers, Holden, NCDAH.
78. See Escott, Many Excellent People, 103-4, 136-70; Hodes, "The Sexualization of Reconstruction Politics"; Otto H. Olsen, A Carpetbagger's Crusade: The Life of Albion Winegar Tourgée (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1965); Allen Trelease, White Terror: The Ku Klux Klan Conspiracy and Southern Reconstruction (New York: Harper & Row, 1971). Also see Albion W. Tourgée, A Fool's Errand (1879; rpt. New York: Harper & Row, 1966). Political conflict in Granville County remained heated throughout the 1870s but was particularly intense in the 1860s. See Silas Curtis and others to William W. Holden, 11 Oct. 1868; Moses M. Hester, Joseph Coly, and Jacob Winston to William W. Holden, 9 Oct. 1868, Governor's Papers, Holden, NCDAH.
79. See Escott, Many Excellent People, 103-4, 136-70; Hodes, "The Sexualization of Reconstruction Politics"; Otto H. Olsen, A Carpetbagger's Crusade: The Life of Albion Winegar Tourgée (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1965); Allen Trelease, White Terror: The Ku Klux Klan Conspiracy and Southern Reconstruction (New York: Harper & Row, 1971). Also see Albion W. Tourgée, A Fool's Errand (1879; rpt. New York: Harper & Row, 1966). Political conflict in Granville County remained heated throughout the 1870s but was particularly intense in the 1860s. See Silas Curtis and others to William W. Holden, 11 Oct. 1868; Moses M. Hester, Joseph Coly, and Jacob Winston to William W. Holden, 9 Oct. 1868, Governor's Papers, Holden, NCDAH.
80. See Escott, Many Excellent People, 103-4, 136-70; Hodes, "The Sexualization of Reconstruction Politics"; Otto H. Olsen, A Carpetbagger's Crusade: The Life of Albion Winegar Tourgée (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1965); Allen Trelease, White Terror: The Ku Klux Klan Conspiracy and Southern Reconstruction (New York: Harper & Row, 1971). Also see Albion W. Tourgée, A Fool's Errand (1879; rpt. New York: Harper & Row, 1966). Political conflict in Granville County remained heated throughout the 1870s but was particularly intense in the 1860s. See Silas Curtis and others to William W. Holden, 11 Oct. 1868; Moses M. Hester, Joseph Coly, and Jacob Winston to William W. Holden, 9 Oct. 1868, Governor's Papers, Holden, NCDAH.
81. See Escott, Many Excellent People, 103-4, 136-70; Hodes, "The Sexualization of Reconstruction Politics"; Otto H. Olsen, A Carpetbagger's Crusade: The Life of Albion Winegar Tourgée (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1965); Allen Trelease, White Terror: The Ku Klux Klan Conspiracy and Southern Reconstruction (New York: Harper & Row, 1971). Also see Albion W. Tourgée, A Fool's Errand (1879; rpt. New York: Harper & Row, 1966). Political conflict in Granville County remained heated throughout the 1870s but was particularly intense in the 1860s. See Silas Curtis and others to William W. Holden, 11 Oct. 1868; Moses M. Hester, Joseph Coly, and Jacob Winston to William W. Holden, 9 Oct. 1868, Governor's Papers, Holden, NCDAH.
82. Jones to the Assistant Commissioner, 28 Mar. 1867.
83. It was the local Freedmen's Bureau agent, William W. Jones, who brought the Cooper-Daniel case to the attention of his superiors, when he wrote to the head-quarters of the Second Military District asking whether "this sentence should be executed without approval of the President of the United States" because Cooper had been tried in a Confederate Court (Jones to Cogswell, 16 Mar. 1867). Nonetheless, it would be a mistake to divorce Jones's interest in the case from the turmoil and conflict surrounding it. Although local white residents requested his aid in obtaining the presence of federal troops, it was Jones's own sense of the potential for violence and disorder that prompted him to forward the request to his superiors. Similarly, Jones probably would never have written his first letter inquiring about the legal status of Henderson Cooper's imminent execution if he had not known about the conflicts surrounding the case and the position of those who doubted Henderson Cooper's guilt.
84. Dennis to Cazario, 26 Mar. 1868, 111-15.
85. Ibid.
86. Worth gave lengthy descriptions of the case without naming Susan Daniel. See, for instance, Worth to Sickles, 21 May 1867, 472-73.
87. Bomford to Clous, 22 Apr. 1867, 471-72. For interracial relationships in the South, see Bynum, 88-110, 122-23, 152-53; Martha Hodes, "Sex across the Color Line: White Women and Black Men in the Nineteenth-Century South" (Ph.D. diss., Princeton University, 1991). For the problems of white women during the Civil War, see Bynum, 111-50; Paul D. Escott, "Poverty and Governmental Aid for the Poor in Confederate North Carolina," North Carolina Historical Review 61 (October 1984): 462-80.
88. Bomford to Clous, 22 Apr. 1867, 471-72. For interracial relationships in the South, see Bynum, 88-110, 122-23, 152-53; Martha Hodes, "Sex across the Color Line: White Women and Black Men in the Nineteenth-Century South" (Ph.D. diss., Princeton University, 1991). For the problems of white women during the Civil War, see Bynum, 111-50; Paul D. Escott, "Poverty and Governmental Aid for the Poor in Confederate North Carolina," North Carolina Historical Review 61 (October 1984): 462-80.
89. Bomford to Clous, 22 Apr. 1867, 471-72. For interracial relationships in the South, see Bynum, 88-110, 122-23, 152-53; Martha Hodes, "Sex across the Color Line: White Women and Black Men in the Nineteenth-Century South" (Ph.D. diss., Princeton University, 1991). For the problems of white women during the Civil War, see Bynum, 111-50; Paul D. Escott, "Poverty and Governmental Aid for the Poor in Confederate North Carolina," North Carolina Historical Review 61 (October 1984): 462-80.
90. Women's historians have long noted the vast gulf that can exist between representations of women and real women's lives. Moreover, as recent work has shown, images do more than misrepresent women's lives, they also reaffirm particular perspectives of historical events by hiding conflict and contradiction. See, in particular, Jacquelyn Dowd Hall, "Private Eyes, Public Women: Images of Class and Sex in the Urban South, Atlanta, Georgia, 1913-1915," in Work Engendered: Toward a New History of American Labor, ed. Ava Baron (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1991); Elizabeth Faue, Community of Suffering and Struggle: Women, Men, and the Labor Movement in Minneapolis, 1915-1945 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1991).
91. Women's historians have long noted the vast gulf that can exist between representations of women and real women's lives. Moreover, as recent work has shown, images do more than misrepresent women's lives, they also reaffirm particular perspectives of historical events by hiding conflict and contradiction. See, in particular, Jacquelyn Dowd Hall, "Private Eyes, Public Women: Images of Class and Sex in the Urban South, Atlanta, Georgia, 1913-1915," in Work Engendered: Toward a New History of American Labor, ed. Ava Baron (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1991); Elizabeth Faue, Community of Suffering and Struggle: Women, Men, and the Labor Movement in Minneapolis, 1915-1945 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1991).
92. Elsa Barkley Brown, "To Catch a Vision of Freedom" (Paper presented at the Social History Seminar, Newberry Library, Chicago, October 1991); Bynum, 130-50; Faust, "Trying to Do a Man's Business," and "Altars of Sacrifice: Confederate Women and the Narratives of War," Journal of American History 76 (March 1990): 1200-28; Noralee Frankel, Freedom's Women: African-American Women in Mississippi, 1860-1870 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, forthcoming); Jacqueline Jones, Labor of Love, Labor of Sorrow: Black Women, Work, and the Family from Slavery to the Present (New York: Basic Books, 1985); George Rable, Civil Wars: Women and the Crisis of Southern Nationalism (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1989); Leslie Ann Schwalm, "The Meaning of Freedom: African-American Women and Their Transition from Slavery to Freedom in Low Country South Carolina" (Ph.D. diss., University of Wisconsin, 1991); and Whites.
93. Elsa Barkley Brown, "To Catch a Vision of Freedom" (Paper presented at the Social History Seminar, Newberry Library, Chicago, October 1991); Bynum, 130-50; Faust, "Trying to Do a Man's Business," and "Altars of Sacrifice: Confederate Women and the Narratives of War," Journal of American History 76 (March 1990): 1200-28; Noralee Frankel, Freedom's Women: African-American Women in Mississippi, 1860-1870 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, forthcoming); Jacqueline Jones, Labor of Love, Labor of Sorrow: Black Women, Work, and the Family from Slavery to the Present (New York: Basic Books, 1985); George Rable, Civil Wars: Women and the Crisis of Southern Nationalism (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1989); Leslie Ann Schwalm, "The Meaning of Freedom: African-American Women and Their Transition from Slavery to Freedom in Low Country South Carolina" (Ph.D. diss., University of Wisconsin, 1991); and Whites.
94. Elsa Barkley Brown, "To Catch a Vision of Freedom" (Paper presented at the Social History Seminar, Newberry Library, Chicago, October 1991); Bynum, 130-50; Faust, "Trying to Do a Man's Business," and "Altars of Sacrifice: Confederate Women and the Narratives of War," Journal of American History 76 (March 1990): 1200-28; Noralee Frankel, Freedom's Women: African-American Women in Mississippi, 1860-1870 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, forthcoming); Jacqueline Jones, Labor of Love, Labor of Sorrow: Black Women, Work, and the Family from Slavery to the Present (New York: Basic Books, 1985); George Rable, Civil Wars: Women and the Crisis of Southern Nationalism (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1989); Leslie Ann Schwalm, "The Meaning of Freedom: African-American Women and Their Transition from Slavery to Freedom in Low Country South Carolina" (Ph.D. diss., University of Wisconsin, 1991); and Whites.
95. Elsa Barkley Brown, "To Catch a Vision of Freedom" (Paper presented at the Social History Seminar, Newberry Library, Chicago, October 1991); Bynum, 130-50; Faust, "Trying to Do a Man's Business," and "Altars of Sacrifice: Confederate Women and the Narratives of War," Journal of American History 76 (March 1990): 1200-28; Noralee Frankel, Freedom's Women: African-American Women in Mississippi, 1860-1870 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, forthcoming); Jacqueline Jones, Labor of Love, Labor of Sorrow: Black Women, Work, and the Family from Slavery to the Present (New York: Basic Books, 1985); George Rable, Civil Wars: Women and the Crisis of Southern Nationalism (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1989); Leslie Ann Schwalm, "The Meaning of Freedom: African-American Women and Their Transition from Slavery to Freedom in Low Country South Carolina" (Ph.D. diss., University of Wisconsin, 1991); and Whites.
96. Elsa Barkley Brown, "To Catch a Vision of Freedom" (Paper presented at the Social History Seminar, Newberry Library, Chicago, October 1991); Bynum, 130-50; Faust, "Trying to Do a Man's Business," and "Altars of Sacrifice: Confederate Women and the Narratives of War," Journal of American History 76 (March 1990): 1200-28; Noralee Frankel, Freedom's Women: African-American Women in Mississippi, 1860-1870 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, forthcoming); Jacqueline Jones, Labor of Love, Labor of Sorrow: Black Women, Work, and the Family from Slavery to the Present (New York: Basic Books, 1985); George Rable, Civil Wars: Women and the Crisis of Southern Nationalism (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1989); Leslie Ann Schwalm, "The Meaning of Freedom: African-American Women and Their Transition from Slavery to Freedom in Low Country South Carolina" (Ph.D. diss., University of Wisconsin, 1991); and Whites.
97. Elsa Barkley Brown, "To Catch a Vision of Freedom" (Paper presented at the Social History Seminar, Newberry Library, Chicago, October 1991); Bynum, 130-50; Faust, "Trying to Do a Man's Business," and "Altars of Sacrifice: Confederate Women and the Narratives of War," Journal of American History 76 (March 1990): 1200-28; Noralee Frankel, Freedom's Women: African-American Women in Mississippi, 1860-1870 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, forthcoming); Jacqueline Jones, Labor of Love, Labor of Sorrow: Black Women, Work, and the Family from Slavery to the Present (New York: Basic Books, 1985); George Rable, Civil Wars: Women and the Crisis of Southern Nationalism (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1989); Leslie Ann Schwalm, "The Meaning of Freedom: African-American Women and Their Transition from Slavery to Freedom in Low Country South Carolina" (Ph.D. diss., University of Wisconsin, 1991); and Whites.
98. Escott, Many Excellent People; Eric Foner, Reconstruction: America's Unfinished Revolution (New York: Harper & Row, 1988), 362-64; Donald Nieman, "Black Political Power and Criminal Justice: Washington County, Texas, 1868-1884," Journal of Southern History 55 (August 1989): 391-420.
99. Escott, Many Excellent People; Eric Foner, Reconstruction: America's Unfinished Revolution (New York: Harper & Row, 1988), 362-64; Donald Nieman, "Black Political Power and Criminal Justice: Washington County, Texas, 1868-1884," Journal of Southern History 55 (August 1989): 391-420.
100. Escott, Many Excellent People; Eric Foner, Reconstruction: America's Unfinished Revolution (New York: Harper & Row, 1988), 362-64; Donald Nieman, "Black Political Power and Criminal Justice: Washington County, Texas, 1868-1884," Journal of Southern History 55 (August 1989): 391-420.
101. For sexual violence cases in Granville County, see Edwards, "Sexual Violence, Gender, Reconstruction, and the Extension of Patriarchy in Granville County, North Carolina." Local courts elsewhere duplicated the pattern. See Criminal Action Papers, 1865-1890, Edgecombe County, NCDAH; Criminal Action Papers, 1865-1890, Orange County, NCDAH. These cases, moreover, underrepresent resistance to sexual assault, because they include only those in which the official charge was rape or attempted rape or where sexual assault was specifically mentioned in the compliant or testimony. They do not include cases dismissed by justices or those that involved sexual assault but were tried as simple assault. No doubt, poor white and Black women hesitated to submit to the ordeal of trial, where their actions and intentions would be treated with skepticism, if not open hostility. Some may have preferred to resolve the matter within their communities, without state interference. For a discussion of this point, see Sara Rapport, "The Freedmen's Bureau as a Legal Agent for Black Men and Women in Georgia, 1865-1868," Georgia Historical Quarterly 73 (spring 1989): 39-41. Women could not prosecute either husbands or fathers. Marital rape was unheard of, and North Carolina did not pass a law prohibiting incest until 1879. See Peter Bardaglio, "'An Outrage upon Nature': Incest and the Law in the Nineteenth-Century South," in In Joy and in Sorrow: Women, Family, and Marriage in the Victorian South, 1830-1900, ed. Carol Bleser (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991). For the rarity of rape cases in the antebellum period in North Carolina, see Bynum, 117.
102. For sexual violence cases in Granville County, see Edwards, "Sexual Violence, Gender, Reconstruction, and the Extension of Patriarchy in Granville County, North Carolina." Local courts elsewhere duplicated the pattern. See Criminal Action Papers, 1865-1890, Edgecombe County, NCDAH; Criminal Action Papers, 1865-1890, Orange County, NCDAH. These cases, moreover, underrepresent resistance to sexual assault, because they include only those in which the official charge was rape or attempted rape or where sexual assault was specifically mentioned in the compliant or testimony. They do not include cases dismissed by justices or those that involved sexual assault but were tried as simple assault. No doubt, poor white and Black women hesitated to submit to the ordeal of trial, where their actions and intentions would be treated with skepticism, if not open hostility. Some may have preferred to resolve the matter within their communities, without state interference. For a discussion of this point, see Sara Rapport, "The Freedmen's Bureau as a Legal Agent for Black Men and Women in Georgia, 1865-1868," Georgia Historical Quarterly 73 (spring 1989): 39-41. Women could not prosecute either husbands or fathers. Marital rape was unheard of, and North Carolina did not pass a law prohibiting incest until 1879. See Peter Bardaglio, "'An Outrage upon Nature': Incest and the Law in the Nineteenth-Century South," in In Joy and in Sorrow: Women, Family, and Marriage in the Victorian South, 1830-1900, ed. Carol Bleser (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991). For the rarity of rape cases in the antebellum period in North Carolina, see Bynum, 117.
103. For sexual violence cases in Granville County, see Edwards, "Sexual Violence, Gender, Reconstruction, and the Extension of Patriarchy in Granville County, North Carolina." Local courts elsewhere duplicated the pattern. See Criminal Action Papers, 1865-1890, Edgecombe County, NCDAH; Criminal Action Papers, 1865-1890, Orange County, NCDAH. These cases, moreover, underrepresent resistance to sexual assault, because they include only those in which the official charge was rape or attempted rape or where sexual assault was specifically mentioned in the compliant or testimony. They do not include cases dismissed by justices or those that involved sexual assault but were tried as simple assault. No doubt, poor white and Black women hesitated to submit to the ordeal of trial, where their actions and intentions would be treated with skepticism, if not open hostility. Some may have preferred to resolve the matter within their communities, without state interference. For a discussion of this point, see Sara Rapport, "The Freedmen's Bureau as a Legal Agent for Black Men and Women in Georgia, 1865-1868," Georgia Historical Quarterly 73 (spring 1989): 39-41. Women could not prosecute either husbands or fathers. Marital rape was unheard of, and North Carolina did not pass a law prohibiting incest until 1879. See Peter Bardaglio, "'An Outrage upon Nature': Incest and the Law in the Nineteenth-Century South," in In Joy and in Sorrow: Women, Family, and Marriage in the Victorian South, 1830-1900, ed. Carol Bleser (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991). For the rarity of rape cases in the antebellum period in North Carolina, see Bynum, 117.
104. Edwards, "Sexual Violence, Gender, Reconstruction, and the Extension of Patriarchy in Granville County, North Carolina." For Black women's vulnerability, see Hannah Rosen, "Interracial Rape and the Politics of Reconstruction" (Paper presented at the National Graduate Women's Studies Conference, Ann Arbor, Michigan, 1990); Clinton, "Bloody Terrain." For unpublicized Black-male-on-white-female rape cases in addition to those in Granville County, see State v. Elias, 1865, Criminal Action Papers, Orange County; and State v. McMinn (documents forwarded to Gov. Worth in a pardon request), 9 June 1866, Governor's Papers, Worth, NCDAH.
105. Edwards, "Sexual Violence, Gender, Reconstruction, and the Extension of Patriarchy in Granville County, North Carolina." For Black women's vulnerability, see Hannah Rosen, "Interracial Rape and the Politics of Reconstruction" (Paper presented at the National Graduate Women's Studies Conference, Ann Arbor, Michigan, 1990); Clinton, "Bloody Terrain." For unpublicized Black-male-on-white-female rape cases in addition to those in Granville County, see State v. Elias, 1865, Criminal Action Papers, Orange County; and State v. McMinn (documents forwarded to Gov. Worth in a pardon request), 9 June 1866, Governor's Papers, Worth, NCDAH.
106. Edwards, "Sexual Violence, Gender, Reconstruction, and the Extension of Patriarchy in Granville County, North Carolina." For Black women's vulnerability, see Hannah Rosen, "Interracial Rape and the Politics of Reconstruction" (Paper presented at the National Graduate Women's Studies Conference, Ann Arbor, Michigan, 1990); Clinton, "Bloody Terrain." For unpublicized Black-male-on-white-female rape cases in addition to those in Granville County, see State v. Elias, 1865, Criminal Action Papers, Orange County; and State v. McMinn (documents forwarded to Gov. Worth in a pardon request), 9 June 1866, Governor's Papers, Worth, NCDAH.
107. I am also indebted to conversations with Hannah Rosen on this topic. Also Jacquelyn Dowd Hall makes this point in Revolt against Chivalry: Jessie Daniel Ames and the Women's Campaign against Lynching, rev. ed. (New York: Columbia University Press, 1993), xv-xxxviii.
108. In Granville County, between 1865 and 1886, there were records of fifty-two cases involving male-on-female violence and twenty-four recorded cases of domestic disputes, involving physical abuse, abandonment, and bigamy; Criminal Action Papers, Granville County. In many years, there were more cases involving women than those with just men. Other counties yield similar patterns. See Criminal Action Papers, 1865-1890, Edgecombe County; Criminal Action Papers, 1865-1890, Orange County, all in NCDAH. Frankel also points out that African American women rejected violence against them and often aggressively defended themselves, arguing that conflicts within families did not necessarily divide women and men within the community but often reinforced familial and community ties.
109. For an expanded discussion of this process, see Edwards, Gendered Strife and Confusion. Also see Jeanne Boydston, Home and Work: Housework, Wages, and the Ideology of Labor in the Early Republic (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990); Linda K. Kerber, "The Paradox of Women's Citizenship in the Early Republic: The Case of Martin v. Massachusetts, 1805," American Historical Review 97 (April 1992): 349-78; and Whites.
110. For an expanded discussion of this process, see Edwards, Gendered Strife and Confusion. Also see Jeanne Boydston, Home and Work: Housework, Wages, and the Ideology of Labor in the Early Republic (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990); Linda K. Kerber, "The Paradox of Women's Citizenship in the Early Republic: The Case of Martin v. Massachusetts, 1805," American Historical Review 97 (April 1992): 349-78; and Whites.
111. For an expanded discussion of this process, see Edwards, Gendered Strife and Confusion. Also see Jeanne Boydston, Home and Work: Housework, Wages, and the Ideology of Labor in the Early Republic (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990); Linda K. Kerber, "The Paradox of Women's Citizenship in the Early Republic: The Case of Martin v. Massachusetts, 1805," American Historical Review 97 (April 1992): 349-78; and Whites.