"This evil extends especially . . . to the feminine sex": Negotiating captivity in the New Mexico borderlands

Feminist Studies

Volumn 22, Issue 2, 1996, Pages 279-309

  Brooks, James F ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 0030167128     PISSN: 00463663     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/3178414     Document Type: Article

References (137)

1. Jack B. Tykal, "Taos to St. Louis: The Journey of Maria Rosa Villalpando," New Mexico Historical Review (April 1990): 161-74.
2. Frances Swadesh (Quintana) first proposed the "nondominant frontier" concept in her "Structure of Hispanic-Indian Relations in New Mexico," in The Survival of Spanish American Villages, ed. Paul M. Kutsche (Colorado Springs: Colorado College Press, 1979), 53-61. For a recent synthesis of the Spanish Borderlands that reflects similar thinking, see David J. Weber, The Spanish Frontier in North America (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1991).
3. Frances Swadesh (Quintana) first proposed the "nondominant frontier" concept in her "Structure of Hispanic-Indian Relations in New Mexico," in The Survival of Spanish American Villages, ed. Paul M. Kutsche (Colorado Springs: Colorado College Press, 1979), 53-61. For a recent synthesis of the Spanish Borderlands that reflects similar thinking, see David J. Weber, The Spanish Frontier in North America (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1991).
4. As used here, "borderlands political economy" indicates that despite profound and continuing cultural differences in the region, Native Americans and New Mexicans came to share some common understandings of the production and distribution of wealth, as conditioned by the social relations of power.
5. Treatments of "slavery" in New Mexico are L.R. Bailey's The Indian Slave Trade in the Southwest (Los Angeles: Westernlore Press, 1966), which contains no analysis of gender differentiation or captivity among Indian groups; David M. Brugge's Navajos in the Catholic Church Records of New Mexico, 1694-1875 (Tsaile: Navajo Community College Press, 1985), an important piece of documentary research upon which this essay relies heavily but which does not attempt a unifying analytical framework; and the recent work of Ramón Gutiérrez, When Jesus Came, the Corn Mothers Went Away: Marriage, Sexuality, and Power in New Mexico, 1500-1846 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1991), whose analysis relies on an exploitation paradigm drawn from chattel slavery in the southern United States. Gutiérrez does not consider the experience of Spanish captives in Indian societies.
6. Treatments of "slavery" in New Mexico are L.R. Bailey's The Indian Slave Trade in the Southwest (Los Angeles: Westernlore Press, 1966), which contains no analysis of gender differentiation or captivity among Indian groups; David M. Brugge's Navajos in the Catholic Church Records of New Mexico, 1694-1875 (Tsaile: Navajo Community College Press, 1985), an important piece of documentary research upon which this essay relies heavily but which does not attempt a unifying analytical framework; and the recent work of Ramón Gutiérrez, When Jesus Came, the Corn Mothers Went Away: Marriage, Sexuality, and Power in New Mexico, 1500-1846 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1991), whose analysis relies on an exploitation paradigm drawn from chattel slavery in the southern United States. Gutiérrez does not consider the experience of Spanish captives in Indian societies.
7. Treatments of "slavery" in New Mexico are L.R. Bailey's The Indian Slave Trade in the Southwest (Los Angeles: Westernlore Press, 1966), which contains no analysis of gender differentiation or captivity among Indian groups; David M. Brugge's Navajos in the Catholic Church Records of New Mexico, 1694-1875 (Tsaile: Navajo Community College Press, 1985), an important piece of documentary research upon which this essay relies heavily but which does not attempt a unifying analytical framework; and the recent work of Ramón Gutiérrez, When Jesus Came, the Corn Mothers Went Away: Marriage, Sexuality, and Power in New Mexico, 1500-1846 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1991), whose analysis relies on an exploitation paradigm drawn from chattel slavery in the southern United States. Gutiérrez does not consider the experience of Spanish captives in Indian societies.
8. For an in-depth treatment of this question of the meaning of the exchange of women, see the author's Ph.D. dissertation, "Captives and Cousins: Violence, Kinship, and Community in the New Mexico Borderlands, 1680-1880" (University of California, Davis, 1995).
9. Friedrich Engels, The Origin of the Family, Private Property, and the State (1884; rpt., New York: Pathfinder Press, 1972); Gerda Lerner, The Creation of Patriarchy (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986); Claude Levi-Strauss, The Elementary Structures of Kinship (1949: rpt., Boston: Beacon Press, 1969); Gayle Rubin, "The Traffic in Women: Notes on the 'Political Economy' of Sex" in Toward an Anthropology of Women, ed. Rayna R[app] Reiter (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1975); Verena Martínez-Alier, Marriage, Class, and Colour in Nineteenth-Century Cuba (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1974); Jane Fishburne Collier, Marriage and Inequality in Classless Societies (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1988).
10. Friedrich Engels, The Origin of the Family, Private Property, and the State (1884; rpt., New York: Pathfinder Press, 1972); Gerda Lerner, The Creation of Patriarchy (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986); Claude Levi-Strauss, The Elementary Structures of Kinship (1949: rpt., Boston: Beacon Press, 1969); Gayle Rubin, "The Traffic in Women: Notes on the 'Political Economy' of Sex" in Toward an Anthropology of Women, ed. Rayna R[app] Reiter (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1975); Verena Martínez-Alier, Marriage, Class, and Colour in Nineteenth-Century Cuba (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1974); Jane Fishburne Collier, Marriage and Inequality in Classless Societies (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1988).
11. Friedrich Engels, The Origin of the Family, Private Property, and the State (1884; rpt., New York: Pathfinder Press, 1972); Gerda Lerner, The Creation of Patriarchy (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986); Claude Levi-Strauss, The Elementary Structures of Kinship (1949: rpt., Boston: Beacon Press, 1969); Gayle Rubin, "The Traffic in Women: Notes on the 'Political Economy' of Sex" in Toward an Anthropology of Women, ed. Rayna R[app] Reiter (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1975); Verena Martínez-Alier, Marriage, Class, and Colour in Nineteenth-Century Cuba (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1974); Jane Fishburne Collier, Marriage and Inequality in Classless Societies (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1988).
12. Friedrich Engels, The Origin of the Family, Private Property, and the State (1884; rpt., New York: Pathfinder Press, 1972); Gerda Lerner, The Creation of Patriarchy (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986); Claude Levi-Strauss, The Elementary Structures of Kinship (1949: rpt., Boston: Beacon Press, 1969); Gayle Rubin, "The Traffic in Women: Notes on the 'Political Economy' of Sex" in Toward an Anthropology of Women, ed. Rayna R[app] Reiter (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1975); Verena Martínez-Alier, Marriage, Class, and Colour in Nineteenth-Century Cuba (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1974); Jane Fishburne Collier, Marriage and Inequality in Classless Societies (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1988).
13. Friedrich Engels, The Origin of the Family, Private Property, and the State (1884; rpt., New York: Pathfinder Press, 1972); Gerda Lerner, The Creation of Patriarchy (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986); Claude Levi-Strauss, The Elementary Structures of Kinship (1949: rpt., Boston: Beacon Press, 1969); Gayle Rubin, "The Traffic in Women: Notes on the 'Political Economy' of Sex" in Toward an Anthropology of Women, ed. Rayna R[app] Reiter (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1975); Verena Martínez-Alier, Marriage, Class, and Colour in Nineteenth-Century Cuba (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1974); Jane Fishburne Collier, Marriage and Inequality in Classless Societies (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1988).
14. Friedrich Engels, The Origin of the Family, Private Property, and the State (1884; rpt., New York: Pathfinder Press, 1972); Gerda Lerner, The Creation of Patriarchy (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986); Claude Levi-Strauss, The Elementary Structures of Kinship (1949: rpt., Boston: Beacon Press, 1969); Gayle Rubin, "The Traffic in Women: Notes on the 'Political Economy' of Sex" in Toward an Anthropology of Women, ed. Rayna R[app] Reiter (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1975); Verena Martínez-Alier, Marriage, Class, and Colour in Nineteenth-Century Cuba (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1974); Jane Fishburne Collier, Marriage and Inequality in Classless Societies (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1988).
15. Lerner; Martínez-Alier applies this argument to nineteenth-century Cuba. Claude Meillasoux makes the case for the patrimony-to-property transition in his synthesis of indigenous/domestic African slave systems in The Anthropology of Slavery: The Womb of Iron and Gold (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991).
16. While reiterating the ban on Indian slavery first set forth in 1542, the Recopilacion reinforced the "just war" doctrine, whereby hostile Indians might be enslaved if taken in conflict. Indios de rescate (ransomed Indians), on the other hand, were "saved" from slavery among their captors and owed their redeemers loyalty and service. See Silvio Zavala, Los Esclavos Indios en Nueva España (Mexico City: El Colegio Nacional, 1967), for a complete treatment of these policies.
17. For theoretical and empirical cases, see the essays in Katherine Spielmann, ed., Farmers, Hunters, and Colonists: Interaction between the Southwest and the Southern Plains (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1991).
18. Report of the Reverend Father Provincial, Fray Pedro Serrano . . . to the Marquis de Cruillas . . . 1761, in Historical Documents Relating to New Mexico, Nueva Vizcaya, and Approaches Thereto, to 1773, trans. and ed. Charles Wilson Hackett (Washington, D.C.: Carnegie Institution of Washington, 1937), 486-87.
19. Fray Anatasio Domínguez, The Missions of New Mexico, 1776, ed. and trans., Eleanor B. Adams and Fray Angélico-Chávez (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1956), 252. See also ́Las Ferias hispano-indias del Nuevo Mexico,́ in La Espana Illustrada en el Lejano Oeste, ed. Armando Represa (Valladolid: Junta de Castilla y Léon, Consejeria de Cultura y Bienestan Social, 1990), 119-25.
20. Fray Anatasio Domínguez, The Missions of New Mexico, 1776, ed. and trans., Eleanor B. Adams and Fray Angélico-Chávez (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1956), 252. See also ́Las Ferias hispano-indias del Nuevo Mexico,́ in La Espana Illustrada en el Lejano Oeste, ed. Armando Represa (Valladolid: Junta de Castilla y Léon, Consejeria de Cultura y Bienestan Social, 1990), 119-25.
21. James S. Calhoun to Commissioner Brown, 31 Mar. 1850, in The Official Correspondence of James S. Calhoun, Indian Agent at Santa Fe, ed. Annie Heloise Abel (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1915), 181-83. For the archaeology of comanchero sites on the Plains, see Frances Levine, "Economic Perspectives on the Comanchero Trade," in Farmers, Hunters, and Colonists, 155-69.
22. James S. Calhoun to Commissioner Brown, 31 Mar. 1850, in The Official Correspondence of James S. Calhoun, Indian Agent at Santa Fe, ed. Annie Heloise Abel (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1915), 181-83. For the archaeology of comanchero sites on the Plains, see Frances Levine, "Economic Perspectives on the Comanchero Trade," in Farmers, Hunters, and Colonists, 155-69.
23. Because only about 75 percent of baptismal registers still exist, the actual figures are probably somewhat higher. Brugge, 2; for breakdown by tribal derivation and date, see 22-23.
24. "Analysis of the Spanish Colonial Census of 1750," Eleanor Olmsted, comp., New Mexico State Records Center, indicates a rural village population of 1,052, of whom 447 are recorded as having some Indian blood. In the "urban" areas of Santa Fe and Albuquerque, a total population of 2,757 contains only 400 individuals similarly designated. For a more detailed demographic analysis, see Brooks, chap. 2.
25. Brugge (116), estimates a sixty-to-forty female-male ratio for the Navajo captives he has studied. Working again with the Spanish Colonial Census of 1750, where individuals are designated either by proper name, or by a gendered noun (criada/o, genizara/o, India/o), I find that women total 153 of 282 individuals, or 54 percent. Because some bondwomen, for example, are designated simply "cinco indias criadas y ocho coyotitos" (Spanish Archives of New Mexico [hereafter SANM], New Mexico State Records Center, Santa Fe, series 1, roll 4, frame 1175), we cannot determine a precise gender breakdown. Nineteenth-century figures demonstrate continuity: Lafayette Head's 1865 census of Indian captives held in Costilla and Conejos Counties, Colorado Territory, shows women numbering 99 of 148 captives (67 percent), with children under age fifteen 96 of those 148 (65 percent) National Archives, New Mexico Superintendency, microcopy 234, roll 553. Microfilms in the Center for the Study of the Southwest, Fort Lewis College, Durango, Colorado. In 1770, Don Augustín Flores de Vargara donated "for the sermon of the day" at the Chapel of San Miguel in Santa Fe "one Indian girl of serviceable age valued at 80 pesos." See "Certified copy of the Expenditures made by Captain Don Augustín Flores de Vargara for the Chapel of Glorious San Miguel. . .," Crawford Buel Collection, New Mexico States Records Center, Santa Fe.
26. In 1760, a Comanche band attacked what is now Ranchos de Taos and carried fifty-seven women and children into captivity. See "Bishop Tamarón's Visitation of New Mexico, 1760," in Historical Society of New Mexico Publications in History, vol. 15, ed. and trans. Eleanor B. Adams (Albuquerque: National Historical Society of New Mexico, 1954), 58. See also a raid on Abiquiu in 1747, where twenty-three women and children were carried off: "An Account of Conditions in New Mexico, written by Fray Juan Sanz de Lezuan, in the year 1760," in Historical Documents, vol. 3, 477.
27. In 1760, a Comanche band attacked what is now Ranchos de Taos and carried fifty-seven women and children into captivity. See "Bishop Tamarón's Visitation of New Mexico, 1760," in Historical Society of New Mexico Publications in History, vol. 15, ed. and trans. Eleanor B. Adams (Albuquerque: National Historical Society of New Mexico, 1954), 58. See also a raid on Abiquiu in 1747, where twenty-three women and children were carried off: "An Account of Conditions in New Mexico, written by Fray Juan Sanz de Lezuan, in the year 1760," in Historical Documents, vol. 3, 477.
28. "Bando of Don Phelipe de Neve, Governor and Commander-General of the Interior Provinces of New Spain, May 8, 1784," Bexar Archives, University of Texas, Austin. For the 1830s' estimate, see Jean Luis Berlandier in The Indians of Texas in 1830, ed. John C. Ewers (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1969), 119. The 1933 Comanche Ethnographic Field School in Oklahoma estimated that 70 percent of Comanche society at that time were mixed-bloods, of primarily Mexican-Comanche descent; see E. Adamson Hoebel, "The Political Organization and Law-Ways of the Comanche Indians," Memoirs of the American Anthropological Association, 54 (Menasha, Wis.: American Anthropological Association,1940).
29. "Bando of Don Phelipe de Neve, Governor and Commander-General of the Interior Provinces of New Spain, May 8, 1784," Bexar Archives, University of Texas, Austin. For the 1830s' estimate, see Jean Luis Berlandier in The Indians of Texas in 1830, ed. John C. Ewers (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1969), 119. The 1933 Comanche Ethnographic Field School in Oklahoma estimated that 70 percent of Comanche society at that time were mixed-bloods, of primarily Mexican-Comanche descent; see E. Adamson Hoebel, "The Political Organization and Law-Ways of the Comanche Indians," Memoirs of the American Anthropological Association, 54 (Menasha, Wis.: American Anthropological Association,1940).
30. Dennis M. Riordan to Commissioner, 14 Aug. 1883, Annual Report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs for the Year 1883 (U.S. Department of the Interior, Washington, D.C.); it should be noted that here, twenty years after the Emancipation Proclamation, U.S. officials were still attempting to extinguish Indian "slavery" in New Mexico.
31. The best discussion of origins and functions of compadrazgo relations remains that of Sidney W. Mintz and Eric R. Wolf, "An Analysis of Ritual Co-Parenthood (Compadrazgo)," in Southwest Journal of Anthropology 6, no. 4 (1950): 341-68. In New Mexico, important new work is being done by Sandra Jaramillo Macias; see her "Bound by Family: Women and Cultural Change in Territorial Taos" (paper presented at the Carson Foundation, 30 July 1994, Taos, New Mexico), and "The Myth of High Skirts and Loose Blouses: Intercultural Marriage in the Mexican Period" (paper presented at the thirty-fifth Annual Conference of the Western History Association, 12 Oct. 1995, Denver).
32. The best discussion of origins and functions of compadrazgo relations remains that of Sidney W. Mintz and Eric R. Wolf, "An Analysis of Ritual Co-Parenthood (Compadrazgo)," in Southwest Journal of Anthropology 6, no. 4 (1950): 341-68. In New Mexico, important new work is being done by Sandra Jaramillo Macias; see her "Bound by Family: Women and Cultural Change in Territorial Taos" (paper presented at the Carson Foundation, 30 July 1994, Taos, New Mexico), and "The Myth of High Skirts and Loose Blouses: Intercultural Marriage in the Mexican Period" (paper presented at the thirty-fifth Annual Conference of the Western History Association, 12 Oct. 1995, Denver).
33. The best discussion of origins and functions of compadrazgo relations remains that of Sidney W. Mintz and Eric R. Wolf, "An Analysis of Ritual Co-Parenthood (Compadrazgo)," in Southwest Journal of Anthropology 6, no. 4 (1950): 341-68. In New Mexico, important new work is being done by Sandra Jaramillo Macias; see her "Bound by Family: Women and Cultural Change in Territorial Taos" (paper presented at the Carson Foundation, 30 July 1994, Taos, New Mexico), and "The Myth of High Skirts and Loose Blouses: Intercultural Marriage in the Mexican Period" (paper presented at the thirty-fifth Annual Conference of the Western History Association, 12 Oct. 1995, Denver).
34. My thinking on culturally specific structural constraints was inspired by Nancy Folbre, who in her work on the organization of social reproduction, defines "structures of constraint" as "sets of assets, rules, norms, and preferences that shape the interests and identities of individuals or social groups." In doing so, they "define the limits and rewards to individual choice." This conceptualization allows us to recognize the simultaneity of exploitation and agency, a key element in this essay. Nancy Folbre, Who Pays for the Kids? Gender and the Structures of Constraint (New York: Routledge, 1993).
35. See Fray Angélico Chávez, Origins of New Mexico Families (1954; rpt., Santa Fe: Museum of New Mexico Press, 1992), 49-50, for reference to Hurtado's encomienda holdings, including Santa Ana Pueblo.
36. "Inventory and settlement of the estate of Juana Galvana, genízara of Zia Pueblo, 1753," SANM 1, no. 193. I thank Frances Swadesh Quintana for suggesting Juana Hurtado as a case study in captivity and for sharing her notes with me. Her essay, "They Settled by Little Bubbling Springs," El Palacio 84 (autumn 1978): 19-49, treats the history of the Santisima Trinidad Grant at Los Ojitos Hervidores.
37. "Inventory and settlement of the estate of Juana Galvana, genízara of Zia Pueblo, 1753," SANM 1, no. 193. I thank Frances Swadesh Quintana for suggesting Juana Hurtado as a case study in captivity and for sharing her notes with me. Her essay, "They Settled by Little Bubbling Springs," El Palacio 84 (autumn 1978): 19-49, treats the history of the Santisima Trinidad Grant at Los Ojitos Hervidores.
38. SANM 2, no. 367, reel 6, frames 1010-23.
39. The journal of Don Diego de Vargas records Martín ransoming Juana at the Zuni Pueblo of Halona, along with her fourteen-year-old daughter María Naranjo, as well as a younger daughter and a son "about three years-old." This raises some confusion as to Juana's age at her capture in 1680 and suggests that at least one, and probably two, of her children were born to her during her captivity. As we will see, if true, this would have given Juana and her "Navajo" children membership in a Navajo clan and may help explain her long-term good relations with Navajos in the years to come. See J. Manuel Espinosa, trans. and ed., First Expedition of Vargas into New Mexico, 1692 (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1940), 237.
40. Archdiocesan Archives of Santa Fe (hereafter AASF), Burials, reel 43, frame 371, New Mexico State Records; see also SANM 2, no. 406.
41. Archdiocesan Archives of Santa Fe (hereafter AASF), Burials, reel 43, frame 371, New Mexico State Records; see also SANM 2, no. 406.
42. "Declaration of Fray Miguel de Menchero, Santa Barbara, May 10, 1744," in Historical Documents, vol. 3, 404-5.
43. Abandonment of the Pueblo for defensible mesa-top positions often preceded Pueblo-Spanish conflict. See Swadesh, "They Settled. . . ." See SANM 2, no. 345, for details of the incident. For a treatment in broader historical context, see Swadesh.
44. See Morris E. Opler, "The Kinship Systems of the Southern Athabascan-Speaking Tribes," American Anthropologist, n.s., (1936): 622-33, and "Cause and Effect in Apachean Agriculture, Division of Labor, Residence Patterns, and Girl's Puberty Rites," American Anthropologist 74 (1972): 1133-46; also Harold E. Driver's reply to Opler ibid., 1147-51; Jane Fishburne Collier.
45. See Morris E. Opler, "The Kinship Systems of the Southern Athabascan-Speaking Tribes," American Anthropologist, n.s., (1936): 622-33, and "Cause and Effect in Apachean Agriculture, Division of Labor, Residence Patterns, and Girl's Puberty Rites," American Anthropologist 74 (1972): 1133-46; also Harold E. Driver's reply to Opler ibid., 1147-51; Jane Fishburne Collier.
46. See Morris E. Opler, "The Kinship Systems of the Southern Athabascan-Speaking Tribes," American Anthropologist, n.s., (1936): 622-33, and "Cause and Effect in Apachean Agriculture, Division of Labor, Residence Patterns, and Girl's Puberty Rites," American Anthropologist 74 (1972): 1133-46; also Harold E. Driver's reply to Opler ibid., 1147-51; Jane Fishburne Collier.
47. See W.W. Hill, "Some Navaho Culture Changes during Two Centuries, with a Translation of the Early Eighteenth-Century Rabal Manuscript," in Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections 100 (1939): 395-415. For Navajo kinship and marriage systems, see David F. Aberle, "Navaho," in Matrilineal Kinship, ed. David M. Schneider and Kathleen Gough (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1961), 96-201; and Gary Witherspoon, Navajo Kinship and Marriage (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1975).
48. See W.W. Hill, "Some Navaho Culture Changes during Two Centuries, with a Translation of the Early Eighteenth-Century Rabal Manuscript," in Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections 100 (1939): 395-415. For Navajo kinship and marriage systems, see David F. Aberle, "Navaho," in Matrilineal Kinship, ed. David M. Schneider and Kathleen Gough (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1961), 96-201; and Gary Witherspoon, Navajo Kinship and Marriage (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1975).
49. See W.W. Hill, "Some Navaho Culture Changes during Two Centuries, with a Translation of the Early Eighteenth-Century Rabal Manuscript," in Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections 100 (1939): 395-415. For Navajo kinship and marriage systems, see David F. Aberle, "Navaho," in Matrilineal Kinship, ed. David M. Schneider and Kathleen Gough (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1961), 96-201; and Gary Witherspoon, Navajo Kinship and Marriage (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1975).
50. For Navajo warfare, and raiding/assimilation patterns for captives and livestock, see W.W. Hill, "Navaho Warfare," Yale University Publications in Anthropology, no. 5 (1936): 3-19.
51. See Arnold Van Gennep, The Rites of Passage (1909; rpt., Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1960), for a treatment of the cross-cultural attributes of integration rituals.
52. Brugge, 138, citing a conversation with Bruce Yazzi, a son of Nakai Na'dis Saal. See appendix B, 175; David M. Brugge, "Story of Interpreter for Treaty of 1868. . . .," Navajo Times, 21 Aug. 1968, 22B.
53. Ibid., 139. This seems an anomaly in the matrilineal reckoning of kin by Navajo clans, but given the nonkin status of an unadopted captive, it would be the only method of integrating her progeny.
54. "Agent Bowman to the Commissioner of Indian Affairs, 3 Sept. 1884," in Annual Report of the Commissioners of Indian Affairs for the Year 1884, quoted with extensive corroborative evidence in Brugge, 142.
55. Morris E. Opler, "A Summary of Jicarilla Apache Culture," American Anthropologist, n.s., 38 (1936): 206, 208, 209.
56. Ibid., 213. This information, gathered by Opler in the 1930s, may reflect an intensification of social stratification following the American conquest of the 1850s.
57. Collier, 23.
58. See Adamson Hoebel, 49ff.
59. Hoebel, 51, 62. Absconding cases accounted for twenty-two of the forty-five marital disputes recorded by Hoebel.
60. See Ernest Wallace and E. Adamson Hoebel, The Comanche: Lords of the Southern Plains (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1952), 72.
61. David E. Jones, Sanapia: Comanche Medicine Woman (1972; rpt., Prospect Heights, Ill.: Waveland Press, 1984). Sanapia received her medicine powers through her mother and maternal uncle, consistent with the Shoshonean levirate. They became fully developed only after she experienced menopause.
62. Stanley Noyes, Los Comanches: The Horse People (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1993); Brooks, 133-35; also Dan Flores, "Bison Ecology and Bison Diplomacy: The Southern Plains from 1800-1850," Journal of American History 78 (September 1991): 465-85.
63. Stanley Noyes, Los Comanches: The Horse People (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1993); Brooks, 133-35; also Dan Flores, "Bison Ecology and Bison Diplomacy: The Southern Plains from 1800-1850," Journal of American History 78 (September 1991): 465-85.
64. Stanley Noyes, Los Comanches: The Horse People (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1993); Brooks, 133-35; also Dan Flores, "Bison Ecology and Bison Diplomacy: The Southern Plains from 1800-1850," Journal of American History 78 (September 1991): 465-85.
65. Wallace and Hoebel, 241-42.
66. Ralph Linton, "The Comanche Sun Dance," American Anthropologist, n.s., 37 (1935): 420-28.
67. For Loki-Mokeen's story, and others, see Maurice Boyd, "The Southern Plains: Captives and Warfare," in Kiowa Voices: Myths, Legends, and Folktales (Fort Worth: Texas Christian University Press, 1983), 2: 155-82.
68. For Andres Martínez' life story, see James F. Brooks, ed., Andele: The Mexican-Kiowa Captive (1899; rpt., Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1996).
69. Hoebel, 68.
70. Rosita Rodrigues to Don Miguel Rodrigues, 13 Jan. 1846, Bexar Archives, Barker History Center, University of Texas, Austin.
71. "A Narrative of the Captivity of Mrs. Horn and Her Two Children" (St. Louis, 1839), reprinted in C.C. Rister, Comanche Bondage (Glendale, Calif.: Arthur H. Clarke Co., 1955), 157.
72. "A Narrative of the Captivity of Mrs. Horn and Her Two Children" (St. Louis, 1839), reprinted in C.C. Rister, Comanche Bondage (Glendale, Calif.: Arthur H. Clarke Co., 1955), 157.
73. On the incest taboo, see Hoebel, 108. I am indebted to Tressa L. Berman for suggesting the association between captive women's low incidence of sexual abuse and the adoptive incest taboo. For similar examples among other Indian groups, see James Axtell, "The White Indians of Colonial America," William and Mary Quarterly 32 (January 1975): 55-88.
74. Cynthia Ann Parker, the mother of Quanah Parker, the last Comanche war chief, is the most famous example of women who remained with their captors. See Margaret Schmidt Hacker, Cynthia Ann Parker (El Paso: Texas Western Press, University of Texas at El Paso, 1990). Parker lived thirty-four years among the Comanche and died "of heartbreak" shortly after her "rescue."
75. Rodrigues letter.
76. Josiah Gregg, The Commerce of the Prairies, ed. Milo Milton Quaife (1844; rpt., Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1967), 208.
77. "Expediente of de Croix, June 6, 1780; Bonilla's Certification of June 15, 1780," Bexar Archives.
78. Gutiérrez, 190, 206. The genízaros remain the center of scholarly debate around their true status in New Mexican society, focusing on whether they constituted a caste category, defined from without, or if in time they developed as an "ethnogenetic" identity group. See Tibo Chavez, chap. 10, "The Genízaro" El Rio Abajo (Albuquerque: Pampa Print Shop, n.d.); Fray Angélico Chávez, "Genízaros," in The Handbook of North American Indians (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution, 1980), 198-200; Robert Archibald, "Acculturation and Assimilation in Colonial New Mexico," New Mexico Historical Review 53 (July 1978): 205-17; Steven M. Horvath, "The Genizaro of Eighteenth-Century New Mexico: A Re-Examination," Discovery (Santa Fe: School of American Research, 1977), 25-40; Russel M. Magnaghi, "Plains Indians in New Mexico: The Genizaro Experience," Great Plains Quarterly 10 (spring 1990): 86-95.
79. Gutiérrez, 190, 206. The genízaros remain the center of scholarly debate around their true status in New Mexican society, focusing on whether they constituted a caste category, defined from without, or if in time they developed as an "ethnogenetic" identity group. See Tibo Chavez, chap. 10, "The Genízaro" El Rio Abajo (Albuquerque: Pampa Print Shop, n.d.); Fray Angélico Chávez, "Genízaros," in The Handbook of North American Indians (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution, 1980), 198-200; Robert Archibald, "Acculturation and Assimilation in Colonial New Mexico," New Mexico Historical Review 53 (July 1978): 205-17; Steven M. Horvath, "The Genizaro of Eighteenth-Century New Mexico: A Re-Examination," Discovery (Santa Fe: School of American Research, 1977), 25-40; Russel M. Magnaghi, "Plains Indians in New Mexico: The Genizaro Experience," Great Plains Quarterly 10 (spring 1990): 86-95.
80. Gutiérrez, 190, 206. The genízaros remain the center of scholarly debate around their true status in New Mexican society, focusing on whether they constituted a caste category, defined from without, or if in time they developed as an "ethnogenetic" identity group. See Tibo Chavez, chap. 10, "The Genízaro" El Rio Abajo (Albuquerque: Pampa Print Shop, n.d.); Fray Angélico Chávez, "Genízaros," in The Handbook of North American Indians (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution, 1980), 198-200; Robert Archibald, "Acculturation and Assimilation in Colonial New Mexico," New Mexico Historical Review 53 (July 1978): 205-17; Steven M. Horvath, "The Genizaro of Eighteenth-Century New Mexico: A Re-Examination," Discovery (Santa Fe: School of American Research, 1977), 25-40; Russel M. Magnaghi, "Plains Indians in New Mexico: The Genizaro Experience," Great Plains Quarterly 10 (spring 1990): 86-95.
81. Gutiérrez, 190, 206. The genízaros remain the center of scholarly debate around their true status in New Mexican society, focusing on whether they constituted a caste category, defined from without, or if in time they developed as an "ethnogenetic" identity group. See Tibo Chavez, chap. 10, "The Genízaro" El Rio Abajo (Albuquerque: Pampa Print Shop, n.d.); Fray Angélico Chávez, "Genízaros," in The Handbook of North American Indians (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution, 1980), 198-200; Robert Archibald, "Acculturation and Assimilation in Colonial New Mexico," New Mexico Historical Review 53 (July 1978): 205-17; Steven M. Horvath, "The Genizaro of Eighteenth-Century New Mexico: A Re-Examination," Discovery (Santa Fe: School of American Research, 1977), 25-40; Russel M. Magnaghi, "Plains Indians in New Mexico: The Genizaro Experience," Great Plains Quarterly 10 (spring 1990): 86-95.
82. Gutiérrez, 190, 206. The genízaros remain the center of scholarly debate around their true status in New Mexican society, focusing on whether they constituted a caste category, defined from without, or if in time they developed as an "ethnogenetic" identity group. See Tibo Chavez, chap. 10, "The Genízaro" El Rio Abajo (Albuquerque: Pampa Print Shop, n.d.); Fray Angélico Chávez, "Genízaros," in The Handbook of North American Indians (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution, 1980), 198-200; Robert Archibald, "Acculturation and Assimilation in Colonial New Mexico," New Mexico Historical Review 53 (July 1978): 205-17; Steven M. Horvath, "The Genizaro of Eighteenth-Century New Mexico: A Re-Examination," Discovery (Santa Fe: School of American Research, 1977), 25-40; Russel M. Magnaghi, "Plains Indians in New Mexico: The Genizaro Experience," Great Plains Quarterly 10 (spring 1990): 86-95.
83. See Richard White's Middle Ground: Indians, Empires, and Republics in the Great Lakes Region, 1640-1815 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1991); Gregory Evans Dowd, A Spirited Resistance: The North American Indian Struggle for Unity, 1745-1815 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991); and Daniel H. Usner Jr., Indians, Settlers, and Slaves in a Frontier Exchange Economy: The Lower Mississippi Valley before 1763 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1992), for new, sometimes divergent, conceptualizations of these relationships. Other authors preceded White and Dowd in stressing the importance of intermarriage in patterns of accommodation, principally Sylvia Van Kirk in her Many Tender Ties: Women in Fur Trade Society in Western Canada, 1670-1870 (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1980); and Jennifer S.H. Brown in Strangers in Blood: Fur Trade Company Families in Indian Country (Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 1980).
84. See Richard White's Middle Ground: Indians, Empires, and Republics in the Great Lakes Region, 1640-1815 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1991); Gregory Evans Dowd, A Spirited Resistance: The North American Indian Struggle for Unity, 1745-1815 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991); and Daniel H. Usner Jr., Indians, Settlers, and Slaves in a Frontier Exchange Economy: The Lower Mississippi Valley before 1763 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1992), for new, sometimes divergent, conceptualizations of these relationships. Other authors preceded White and Dowd in stressing the importance of intermarriage in patterns of accommodation, principally Sylvia Van Kirk in her Many Tender Ties: Women in Fur Trade Society in Western Canada, 1670-1870 (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1980); and Jennifer S.H. Brown in Strangers in Blood: Fur Trade Company Families in Indian Country (Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 1980).
85. See Richard White's Middle Ground: Indians, Empires, and Republics in the Great Lakes Region, 1640-1815 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1991); Gregory Evans Dowd, A Spirited Resistance: The North American Indian Struggle for Unity, 1745-1815 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991); and Daniel H. Usner Jr., Indians, Settlers, and Slaves in a Frontier Exchange Economy: The Lower Mississippi Valley before 1763 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1992), for new, sometimes divergent, conceptualizations of these relationships. Other authors preceded White and Dowd in stressing the importance of intermarriage in patterns of accommodation, principally Sylvia Van Kirk in her Many Tender Ties: Women in Fur Trade Society in Western Canada, 1670-1870 (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1980); and Jennifer S.H. Brown in Strangers in Blood: Fur Trade Company Families in Indian Country (Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 1980).
86. See Richard White's Middle Ground: Indians, Empires, and Republics in the Great Lakes Region, 1640-1815 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1991); Gregory Evans Dowd, A Spirited Resistance: The North American Indian Struggle for Unity, 1745-1815 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991); and Daniel H. Usner Jr., Indians, Settlers, and Slaves in a Frontier Exchange Economy: The Lower Mississippi Valley before 1763 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1992), for new, sometimes divergent, conceptualizations of these relationships. Other authors preceded White and Dowd in stressing the importance of intermarriage in patterns of accommodation, principally Sylvia Van Kirk in her Many Tender Ties: Women in Fur Trade Society in Western Canada, 1670-1870 (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1980); and Jennifer S.H. Brown in Strangers in Blood: Fur Trade Company Families in Indian Country (Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 1980).
87. See Richard White's Middle Ground: Indians, Empires, and Republics in the Great Lakes Region, 1640-1815 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1991); Gregory Evans Dowd, A Spirited Resistance: The North American Indian Struggle for Unity, 1745-1815 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991); and Daniel H. Usner Jr., Indians, Settlers, and Slaves in a Frontier Exchange Economy: The Lower Mississippi Valley before 1763 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1992), for new, sometimes divergent, conceptualizations of these relationships. Other authors preceded White and Dowd in stressing the importance of intermarriage in patterns of accommodation, principally Sylvia Van Kirk in her Many Tender Ties: Women in Fur Trade Society in Western Canada, 1670-1870 (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1980); and Jennifer S.H. Brown in Strangers in Blood: Fur Trade Company Families in Indian Country (Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 1980).
88. Donald E. Worcester, trans., "Don Fernando de la Concha to Lieutenant Colonel Don Fernando Chacón, Advice on Governing New Mexico, 1794," New Mexico Histor-ical Review 24 (1949): 236-54, quotation on 250.
89. Alfred B. Thomas, ed. and trans., "Antonio de Bonilla and the Spanish Plans for the Defense of New Mexico, 1777-1778," in Alfred B. Thomas, New Spain and the West (Lancaster, Penn.: Lancaster Press, 1932), 1: 196.
90. Fray Juan Augustín de Morfi," Desórdenes que se advierten en el Nuevo Mexico, 1780," Archiva Generale del Nacion (Mexico City), Historia, 25: 288.
91. "Don Fernando de la Concha to Lieutenant Colonel Don Fernando Chacón," 251.
92. Marc Simmons, ed. and trans., "The Chacón Economic Report of 1803," New Mexico Historical Review 60 (1985): 81-83, quotations on 83, 87.
93. The economic "modernization" of New Mexico has usually been attributed to the influence of the St. Louis-Santa Fe-Chíhuahua trade that began in 1821. For a much earlier emergence, see Ross H. Frank, "From Settler to Citizen: Economic Development and Cultural Change in Late Colonial New Mexico, 1750-1820" (Ph.D. diss., University of California, Berkeley, 1992); for this aspect in the sheep commerce, see John O. Baxter, Las Carneradas: Sheep Trade in New Mexico, 1700-1860 (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1987).
94. The economic "modernization" of New Mexico has usually been attributed to the influence of the St. Louis-Santa Fe-Chíhuahua trade that began in 1821. For a much earlier emergence, see Ross H. Frank, "From Settler to Citizen: Economic Development and Cultural Change in Late Colonial New Mexico, 1750-1820" (Ph.D. diss., University of California, Berkeley, 1992); for this aspect in the sheep commerce, see John O. Baxter, Las Carneradas: Sheep Trade in New Mexico, 1700-1860 (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1987).
95. Janet Lecompte has collected and interpreted most of the primary source material on this revolt, in Rebellion in Rio Arriba, 1837 (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1985). Her class-conflict interpretation stressed tensions between ricos and pobres and neglects to consider the cultural issues at work.
96. Governor Manuel Armijo, "Diario del Gobierno de la Republica Mexicana," Nov. 30, 1837, translated ibid., 139.
97. For the extensiveness of the 1847 "Taos" Revolt, see U.S. Senate, 56th Congress, 1st sess., Document No. 442 (1900), Insurrection against the Military Government in New Mexico and California, 1847 and 1848; Michael McNierney, ed. and trans., Taos 1847: The Revolt in Contemporary Accounts (Boulder: Johnson Publishing Co., 1980); James W. Goodrich, "Revolt at Mora, 1847," New Mexico Historical Review 47 (1972): 49-60.
98. For the extensiveness of the 1847 "Taos" Revolt, see U.S. Senate, 56th Congress, 1st sess., Document No. 442 (1900), Insurrection against the Military Government in New Mexico and California, 1847 and 1848; Michael McNierney, ed. and trans., Taos 1847: The Revolt in Contemporary Accounts (Boulder: Johnson Publishing Co., 1980); James W. Goodrich, "Revolt at Mora, 1847," New Mexico Historical Review 47 (1972): 49-60.
99. For the extensiveness of the 1847 "Taos" Revolt, see U.S. Senate, 56th Congress, 1st sess., Document No. 442 (1900), Insurrection against the Military Government in New Mexico and California, 1847 and 1848; Michael McNierney, ed. and trans., Taos 1847: The Revolt in Contemporary Accounts (Boulder: Johnson Publishing Co., 1980); James W. Goodrich, "Revolt at Mora, 1847," New Mexico Historical Review 47 (1972): 49-60.
100. See the Spanish Colonial Census of 1750, Eleanor Olmsted comp., New Mexico State Records Center, 47, 48.
101. See Horvath.
102. Fray Miguel de Menchero claimed in 1744 that the "genizaro Indians . . . engage in agriculture and are under obligation to go out and explore the country in pursuit of the enemy, which they are doing with great bravery and zeal." See Declaration of Menchero, in Historical Documents, 3: 401.
103. See "Appeal of Bentura Bustamante, Lieutenant of Genízaro Indians," SANM 1, no. 1229, roll 6, frames 323-35, 20 June 1780.
104. "Jose Manrique, draft of a Report for Nemesio Salcedo y Salcedo, Nov. 26, 1808," Pinart Collection, Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley.
105. Lecompte, 36-40, n. 54.
106. Gutiérrez, chap. 7-9.
107. Angelina F. Veyna, "Hago, dispongo, y ordeno mi testamento: Reflections of Colonial New Mexican Women" (paper presented at the Annual Meetings of the Western History Association, October 1991, Austin, Texas).
108. SANM 1, no. 344, cited in ibid.
109. "Testament of Don Santiago Roibal, 1762," fragment in New Mexico State Records Center, Santa Fe.
110. SANM 2, no. 427, roll 7, frames 1023-25.
111. Gutiérrez, 182.
112. Frances S. Quintana, Pobladores: Hispanic Americans of the Ute Frontier (Aztec, N.M., 1991 [originally published as Los Primeros Pobladores: Hispanic Americans of the Ute Frontier (South Bend: University of Notre Dame Press, 1974)], 206-10.
113. Frances S. Quintana, Pobladores: Hispanic Americans of the Ute Frontier (Aztec, N.M., 1991 [originally published as Los Primeros Pobladores: Hispanic Americans of the Ute Frontier (South Bend: University of Notre Dame Press, 1974)], 206-10.
114. Gutiérrez, 252.
115. As early as 1714, Spanish authorities ordered "married" couples in the Rio Grande Pueblos to establish neolocal households, rather than residing with their parents, a clear attempt to break matrilocal residence patterns and assert colonial control over the institution of marriage. See SANM 2, reel 4, frame 1014, as an example.
116. Swadesh, 44.
117. Marietta Morrissey, Slave Women in the New World: Gender Stratification in the Caribbean (Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 1989), 13-15. See also Barbara Bush, Slave Women in Caribbean Society, 1650-1838 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1990). The ambiguous benefits of maternity to women held captive in patrilineal societies is borne out by looking at women under indigenous African systems of captivity and slavery. Among the Margi of Nigeria, for example, social integration of captive-descended children could result in the elevation of mothers, if those children achieved social prominence in trade or warfare. See James H. Vaughan, "Mafakur: A Limbic Institution of the Margi," in Slavery in Africa, ed. Suzanne Miers and Igor Kopytoff (Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press, 1977), 85-102.
118. Marietta Morrissey, Slave Women in the New World: Gender Stratification in the Caribbean (Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 1989), 13-15. See also Barbara Bush, Slave Women in Caribbean Society, 1650-1838 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1990). The ambiguous benefits of maternity to women held captive in patrilineal societies is borne out by looking at women under indigenous African systems of captivity and slavery. Among the Margi of Nigeria, for example, social integration of captive-descended children could result in the elevation of mothers, if those children achieved social prominence in trade or warfare. See James H. Vaughan, "Mafakur: A Limbic Institution of the Margi," in Slavery in Africa, ed. Suzanne Miers and Igor Kopytoff (Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press, 1977), 85-102.
119. Marietta Morrissey, Slave Women in the New World: Gender Stratification in the Caribbean (Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 1989), 13-15. See also Barbara Bush, Slave Women in Caribbean Society, 1650-1838 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1990). The ambiguous benefits of maternity to women held captive in patrilineal societies is borne out by looking at women under indigenous African systems of captivity and slavery. Among the Margi of Nigeria, for example, social integration of captive-descended children could result in the elevation of mothers, if those children achieved social prominence in trade or warfare. See James H. Vaughan, "Mafakur: A Limbic Institution of the Margi," in Slavery in Africa, ed. Suzanne Miers and Igor Kopytoff (Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press, 1977), 85-102.
120. Alan M. Klein, "The Political Economy of Gender: A Nineteenth-Century Plains Indian Case Study," in The Hidden Half: Studies of Plains Indian Women, ed. Patricia Albers and Beatrice Medicine (Lanham, Md.: University Press of America, 1983), 143-74; for a study of the bison economy, see Flores, 465-85.
121. Alan M. Klein, "The Political Economy of Gender: A Nineteenth-Century Plains Indian Case Study," in The Hidden Half: Studies of Plains Indian Women, ed. Patricia Albers and Beatrice Medicine (Lanham, Md.: University Press of America, 1983), 143-74; for a study of the bison economy, see Flores, 465-85.
122. Veyna, 9. Veyna also notes that "when tools were distributed to the settlers of Santa Cruz de la Canada in 1712, only women were allotted rejas."
123. H.P. Mera, The Slave Blanket, General Series Bulletin No. 5 (Santa Fe: New Mexico Laboratory of Anthropology, 1938).
124. See Lansing Bloom, "Early Weaving in New Mexico," New Mexico Historical Review 2 (1927): 228-38; Baxter, 60. See also Suzanne Baizerman, "Textile Traditions and Tourist Art: Hispanic Weaving in New Mexico" (Ph.D. diss., University of Minnesota, St. Paul, 1987), esp. 76-79; 130-31.
125. See Lansing Bloom, "Early Weaving in New Mexico," New Mexico Historical Review 2 (1927): 228-38; Baxter, 60. See also Suzanne Baizerman, "Textile Traditions and Tourist Art: Hispanic Weaving in New Mexico" (Ph.D. diss., University of Minnesota, St. Paul, 1987), esp. 76-79; 130-31.
126. General Campaign: Report of Governor Vélez Cachupín to Conde de Revilla Gigedo, Nov. 27, 1751," in Alfred B. Thomas, The Plains Indians and New Mexico, 1751-1778 (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1940), 74. "Juan José Lobato to Vélez, August 28, 1752," ibid., 114-15.
127. General Campaign: Report of Governor Vélez Cachupín to Conde de Revilla Gigedo, Nov. 27, 1751," in Alfred B. Thomas, The Plains Indians and New Mexico, 1751-1778 (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1940), 74. "Juan José Lobato to Vélez, August 28, 1752," ibid., 114-15.
128. "Report of Governor Vélez to Marqués de Cruillas, 1762," ibid., 152-53.
129. "Abstract of Report Offered by de Anza, as Written by Pedro Garrido y Durran, Chihuahua, December 21, 1786," in Alfred B. Thomas, Forgotten Frontiers: A Study of the Spanish Indian Policy of Don Juan Bautista de Anza, Governor of New Mexico, 1777-1787 (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1932), 296; Elizabeth A. John, Storms Brewed in Other Men's Worlds (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1975), 732.
130. "Abstract of Report Offered by de Anza, as Written by Pedro Garrido y Durran, Chihuahua, December 21, 1786," in Alfred B. Thomas, Forgotten Frontiers: A Study of the Spanish Indian Policy of Don Juan Bautista de Anza, Governor of New Mexico, 1777-1787 (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1932), 296; Elizabeth A. John, Storms Brewed in Other Men's Worlds (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1975), 732.
131. Maria Mies, "Social Origins of the Sexual Division of Labor," in Women: The Last Colony, ed. Maria Mies, Veronika Bennholdt-Thomsen, Claudia van Werlhof (London: Zed Books, 1988), 67-95, 87.
132. See Gregg, 86, 208, 219.
133. The French traders Jean Chapuis and Luis Fueilli were guided to Santa Fe in 1752 by "an Indian woman of the Aa tribe, who had fled to the house of her master [in Santa Fe] four months before and was following the road to her country." See "Vélez to Revilla Gigedo, Sept. 18, 1752," in Thomas, Plains Indians and New Mexico, 109.
134. See SANM 1, no. 657, "Demanda puesta por Lucia Ortega contra Roque Lovato sobre una Donacion-Ano del 1769," New Mexico State Records Center.
135. See Tykal; "Report of Governor Vélez to Marqués de Cruillas," in Thomas, The Plains Indians, 151. Vélez had asked the Comanche leader Nimiricante of the whereabouts of the women and children seized at Ranches de Taos in 1760, Nimiricante replied that "they might have died, or been traded to the French and Jumanos." For José Juliano's problems in San Antonio, see Salcedo to Manrique, 27 July 1809, SANM 2, no. 2239.
136. See Tykal; "Report of Governor Vélez to Marqués de Cruillas," in Thomas, The Plains Indians, 151. Vélez had asked the Comanche leader Nimiricante of the whereabouts of the women and children seized at Ranches de Taos in 1760, Nimiricante replied that "they might have died, or been traded to the French and Jumanos." For José Juliano's problems in San Antonio, see Salcedo to Manrique, 27 July 1809, SANM 2, no. 2239.
137. Author's field notes, 17 Aug. 1990.