The Amesbury-Salisbury strike and the social origins of political nativism in antebellum Massachusetts

Journal of Social History

Volumn 29, Issue 3, 1996, Pages 565-590

  Voss Hubbard, Mark ^a,b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MASSACHUSETTS   (United States)

^b Department of History ^*  (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0030099648     PISSN: 00224529     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1353/jsh/29.3.565     Document Type: Review

References (249)

1. Amesbury and Salisbury Mills Villager, 5 June 1852; 8 July 1852.
2. "Ten Hour Circular" quoted in Villager, 15 July 1852; John Greenleaf Whittier to Harriet Farley, 8 March 1850, as printed in Farley, Operatives Reply to Honorable Jere Clemens (Lowell, 1850), 10.
3. "Ten Hour Circular" quoted in Villager, 15 July 1852; John Greenleaf Whittier to Harriet Farley, 8 March 1850, as printed in Farley, Operatives Reply to Honorable Jere Clemens (Lowell, 1850), 10.
4. Villager, 7 December 1854. Good recent studies of the Massachusetts Know Nothings include Ronald P. Formisano, The Transformation of Political Culture: Massachusetts Parties, 1790s-1840s (New York, 1983), 329-43; John R. Mulkern, The Know-Nothing Party in Massachusetts: The Rise and Fall of a People's Movement (Boston, 1990).
5. Villager, 7 December 1854. Good recent studies of the Massachusetts Know Nothings include Ronald P. Formisano, The Transformation of Political Culture: Massachusetts Parties, 1790s-1840s (New York, 1983), 329-43; John R. Mulkern, The Know-Nothing Party in Massachusetts: The Rise and Fall of a People's Movement (Boston, 1990).
6. The following studies, though attentive to other factors, emphasize ethnocultural influences on mid-nineteenth-century voting behavior. Lee Benson, The Concept of Jacksonian Democracy: New York as a Test Case (Princeton, 1961); Ronald P. Formisano, The Birth of Mass Political Parties: Michigan, 1827-1861 (Princeton, 1971); William E. Gienapp, The Origins of the Republican Party, 1852-1856 (New York, 1987); Michael F. Holt, Forging A Majority: The Formation of the Republican Party in Pittsburgh, 1848-1860 (New Haven, CT, 1969); Paul Kleppner, The Cross of Culture: A Social Analysis of Midwestern Politics, 1850-1890 (New York, 1970).
7. The following studies, though attentive to other factors, emphasize ethnocultural influences on mid-nineteenth-century voting behavior. Lee Benson, The Concept of Jacksonian Democracy: New York as a Test Case (Princeton, 1961); Ronald P. Formisano, The Birth of Mass Political Parties: Michigan, 1827-1861 (Princeton, 1971); William E. Gienapp, The Origins of the Republican Party, 1852-1856 (New York, 1987); Michael F. Holt, Forging A Majority: The Formation of the Republican Party in Pittsburgh, 1848-1860 (New Haven, CT, 1969); Paul Kleppner, The Cross of Culture: A Social Analysis of Midwestern Politics, 1850-1890 (New York, 1970).
8. The following studies, though attentive to other factors, emphasize ethnocultural influences on mid-nineteenth-century voting behavior. Lee Benson, The Concept of Jacksonian Democracy: New York as a Test Case (Princeton, 1961); Ronald P. Formisano, The Birth of Mass Political Parties: Michigan, 1827-1861 (Princeton, 1971); William E. Gienapp, The Origins of the Republican Party, 1852-1856 (New York, 1987); Michael F. Holt, Forging A Majority: The Formation of the Republican Party in Pittsburgh, 1848-1860 (New Haven, CT, 1969); Paul Kleppner, The Cross of Culture: A Social Analysis of Midwestern Politics, 1850-1890 (New York, 1970).
9. The following studies, though attentive to other factors, emphasize ethnocultural influences on mid-nineteenth-century voting behavior. Lee Benson, The Concept of Jacksonian Democracy: New York as a Test Case (Princeton, 1961); Ronald P. Formisano, The Birth of Mass Political Parties: Michigan, 1827-1861 (Princeton, 1971); William E. Gienapp, The Origins of the Republican Party, 1852-1856 (New York, 1987); Michael F. Holt, Forging A Majority: The Formation of the Republican Party in Pittsburgh, 1848-1860 (New Haven, CT, 1969); Paul Kleppner, The Cross of Culture: A Social Analysis of Midwestern Politics, 1850-1890 (New York, 1970).
10. The following studies, though attentive to other factors, emphasize ethnocultural influences on mid-nineteenth-century voting behavior. Lee Benson, The Concept of Jacksonian Democracy: New York as a Test Case (Princeton, 1961); Ronald P. Formisano, The Birth of Mass Political Parties: Michigan, 1827-1861 (Princeton, 1971); William E. Gienapp, The Origins of the Republican Party, 1852-1856 (New York, 1987); Michael F. Holt, Forging A Majority: The Formation of the Republican Party in Pittsburgh, 1848-1860 (New Haven, CT, 1969); Paul Kleppner, The Cross of Culture: A Social Analysis of Midwestern Politics, 1850-1890 (New York, 1970).
11. Tyler Anbinder, Nativism and Slavery: The Northern Know Nothings and the Politics of the 1850s (New York, 1992); Jean H. Baker, Ambivalent Americans: The Know-Nothing Party in Maryland (Baltimore, 1977); Amy Bridges, A City in the Republic: Antebellum New York and the Origins of Machine Politics (Ithaca, 1984), and idem., "Becoming American: The Working Classes in the United States Before the Civil War," in Ira Katznelson and Aristide R. Zolberg, eds., Working-Class Formation: Nineteenth-Century Patterns in Western Europe and the United States (Princeton, 1986), 157-96; Robert W. Fogel, Without Consent or Contract: The Rise and Fall of American Slavery (New York, 1989), 354-81; Formisano, Transformation of Political Culture, 329-43; Michael F. Holt, "The Politics of Impatience: The Origins of Know-Nothingism," Journal of American History (1973): 309-31; Mulkern, Know-Nothing Parry in Massachusetts. There is considerable variation among these works. Mulkern, Bridges, Fogel, and Holt, while acknowledging ethnocultural and antiparty influences, stress working-class nativism; Baker and Formisano stress the appeal of antiparty reform among a broader cross section of the native-born, evangelical Protestant community; Anbinder, in the latest twist, attempts a synthesis of antislavery, ethnocultural and antiparty explanations, but greatly underestimates the importance of social class and political economic issues.
12. Tyler Anbinder, Nativism and Slavery: The Northern Know Nothings and the Politics of the 1850s (New York, 1992); Jean H. Baker, Ambivalent Americans: The Know-Nothing Party in Maryland (Baltimore, 1977); Amy Bridges, A City in the Republic: Antebellum New York and the Origins of Machine Politics (Ithaca, 1984), and idem., "Becoming American: The Working Classes in the United States Before the Civil War," in Ira Katznelson and Aristide R. Zolberg, eds., Working-Class Formation: Nineteenth-Century Patterns in Western Europe and the United States (Princeton, 1986), 157-96; Robert W. Fogel, Without Consent or Contract: The Rise and Fall of American Slavery (New York, 1989), 354-81; Formisano, Transformation of Political Culture, 329-43; Michael F. Holt, "The Politics of Impatience: The Origins of Know-Nothingism," Journal of American History (1973): 309-31; Mulkern, Know-Nothing Parry in Massachusetts. There is considerable variation among these works. Mulkern, Bridges, Fogel, and Holt, while acknowledging ethnocultural and antiparty influences, stress working-class nativism; Baker and Formisano stress the appeal of antiparty reform among a broader cross section of the native-born, evangelical Protestant community; Anbinder, in the latest twist, attempts a synthesis of antislavery, ethnocultural and antiparty explanations, but greatly underestimates the importance of social class and political economic issues.
13. Tyler Anbinder, Nativism and Slavery: The Northern Know Nothings and the Politics of the 1850s (New York, 1992); Jean H. Baker, Ambivalent Americans: The Know-Nothing Party in Maryland (Baltimore, 1977); Amy Bridges, A City in the Republic: Antebellum New York and the Origins of Machine Politics (Ithaca, 1984), and idem., "Becoming American: The Working Classes in the United States Before the Civil War," in Ira Katznelson and Aristide R. Zolberg, eds., Working-Class Formation: Nineteenth-Century Patterns in Western Europe and the United States (Princeton, 1986), 157-96; Robert W. Fogel, Without Consent or Contract: The Rise and Fall of American Slavery (New York, 1989), 354-81; Formisano, Transformation of Political Culture, 329-43; Michael F. Holt, "The Politics of Impatience: The Origins of Know-Nothingism," Journal of American History (1973): 309-31; Mulkern, Know-Nothing Parry in Massachusetts. There is considerable variation among these works. Mulkern, Bridges, Fogel, and Holt, while acknowledging ethnocultural and antiparty influences, stress working-class nativism; Baker and Formisano stress the appeal of antiparty reform among a broader cross section of the native-born, evangelical Protestant community; Anbinder, in the latest twist, attempts a synthesis of antislavery, ethnocultural and antiparty explanations, but greatly underestimates the importance of social class and political economic issues.
14. Tyler Anbinder, Nativism and Slavery: The Northern Know Nothings and the Politics of the 1850s (New York, 1992); Jean H. Baker, Ambivalent Americans: The Know-Nothing Party in Maryland (Baltimore, 1977); Amy Bridges, A City in the Republic: Antebellum New York and the Origins of Machine Politics (Ithaca, 1984), and idem., "Becoming American: The Working Classes in the United States Before the Civil War," in Ira Katznelson and Aristide R. Zolberg, eds., Working-Class Formation: Nineteenth-Century Patterns in Western Europe and the United States (Princeton, 1986), 157-96; Robert W. Fogel, Without Consent or Contract: The Rise and Fall of American Slavery (New York, 1989), 354-81; Formisano, Transformation of Political Culture, 329-43; Michael F. Holt, "The Politics of Impatience: The Origins of Know-Nothingism," Journal of American History (1973): 309-31; Mulkern, Know-Nothing Parry in Massachusetts. There is considerable variation among these works. Mulkern, Bridges, Fogel, and Holt, while acknowledging ethnocultural and antiparty influences, stress working-class nativism; Baker and Formisano stress the appeal of antiparty reform among a broader cross section of the native-born, evangelical Protestant community; Anbinder, in the latest twist, attempts a synthesis of antislavery, ethnocultural and antiparty explanations, but greatly underestimates the importance of social class and political economic issues.
15. Tyler Anbinder, Nativism and Slavery: The Northern Know Nothings and the Politics of the 1850s (New York, 1992); Jean H. Baker, Ambivalent Americans: The Know-Nothing Party in Maryland (Baltimore, 1977); Amy Bridges, A City in the Republic: Antebellum New York and the Origins of Machine Politics (Ithaca, 1984), and idem., "Becoming American: The Working Classes in the United States Before the Civil War," in Ira Katznelson and Aristide R. Zolberg, eds., Working-Class Formation: Nineteenth-Century Patterns in Western Europe and the United States (Princeton, 1986), 157-96; Robert W. Fogel, Without Consent or Contract: The Rise and Fall of American Slavery (New York, 1989), 354-81; Formisano, Transformation of Political Culture, 329-43; Michael F. Holt, "The Politics of Impatience: The Origins of Know-Nothingism," Journal of American History (1973): 309-31; Mulkern, Know-Nothing Parry in Massachusetts. There is considerable variation among these works. Mulkern, Bridges, Fogel, and Holt, while acknowledging ethnocultural and antiparty influences, stress working-class nativism; Baker and Formisano stress the appeal of antiparty reform among a broader cross section of the native-born, evangelical Protestant community; Anbinder, in the latest twist, attempts a synthesis of antislavery, ethnocultural and antiparty explanations, but greatly underestimates the importance of social class and political economic issues.
16. Tyler Anbinder, Nativism and Slavery: The Northern Know Nothings and the Politics of the 1850s (New York, 1992); Jean H. Baker, Ambivalent Americans: The Know-Nothing Party in Maryland (Baltimore, 1977); Amy Bridges, A City in the Republic: Antebellum New York and the Origins of Machine Politics (Ithaca, 1984), and idem., "Becoming American: The Working Classes in the United States Before the Civil War," in Ira Katznelson and Aristide R. Zolberg, eds., Working-Class Formation: Nineteenth-Century Patterns in Western Europe and the United States (Princeton, 1986), 157-96; Robert W. Fogel, Without Consent or Contract: The Rise and Fall of American Slavery (New York, 1989), 354-81; Formisano, Transformation of Political Culture, 329-43; Michael F. Holt, "The Politics of Impatience: The Origins of Know-Nothingism," Journal of American History (1973): 309-31; Mulkern, Know-Nothing Parry in Massachusetts. There is considerable variation among these works. Mulkern, Bridges, Fogel, and Holt, while acknowledging ethnocultural and antiparty influences, stress working-class nativism; Baker and Formisano stress the appeal of antiparty reform among a broader cross section of the native-born, evangelical Protestant community; Anbinder, in the latest twist, attempts a synthesis of antislavery, ethnocultural and antiparty explanations, but greatly underestimates the importance of social class and political economic issues.
17. Tyler Anbinder, Nativism and Slavery: The Northern Know Nothings and the Politics of the 1850s (New York, 1992); Jean H. Baker, Ambivalent Americans: The Know-Nothing Party in Maryland (Baltimore, 1977); Amy Bridges, A City in the Republic: Antebellum New York and the Origins of Machine Politics (Ithaca, 1984), and idem., "Becoming American: The Working Classes in the United States Before the Civil War," in Ira Katznelson and Aristide R. Zolberg, eds., Working-Class Formation: Nineteenth-Century Patterns in Western Europe and the United States (Princeton, 1986), 157-96; Robert W. Fogel, Without Consent or Contract: The Rise and Fall of American Slavery (New York, 1989), 354-81; Formisano, Transformation of Political Culture, 329-43; Michael F. Holt, "The Politics of Impatience: The Origins of Know-Nothingism," Journal of American History (1973): 309-31; Mulkern, Know-Nothing Parry in Massachusetts. There is considerable variation among these works. Mulkern, Bridges, Fogel, and Holt, while acknowledging ethnocultural and antiparty influences, stress working-class nativism; Baker and Formisano stress the appeal of antiparty reform among a broader cross section of the native-born, evangelical Protestant community; Anbinder, in the latest twist, attempts a synthesis of antislavery, ethnocultural and antiparty explanations, but greatly underestimates the importance of social class and political economic issues.
18. Tyler Anbinder, Nativism and Slavery: The Northern Know Nothings and the Politics of the 1850s (New York, 1992); Jean H. Baker, Ambivalent Americans: The Know-Nothing Party in Maryland (Baltimore, 1977); Amy Bridges, A City in the Republic: Antebellum New York and the Origins of Machine Politics (Ithaca, 1984), and idem., "Becoming American: The Working Classes in the United States Before the Civil War," in Ira Katznelson and Aristide R. Zolberg, eds., Working-Class Formation: Nineteenth-Century Patterns in Western Europe and the United States (Princeton, 1986), 157-96; Robert W. Fogel, Without Consent or Contract: The Rise and Fall of American Slavery (New York, 1989), 354-81; Formisano, Transformation of Political Culture, 329-43; Michael F. Holt, "The Politics of Impatience: The Origins of Know-Nothingism," Journal of American History (1973): 309-31; Mulkern, Know-Nothing Parry in Massachusetts. There is considerable variation among these works. Mulkern, Bridges, Fogel, and Holt, while acknowledging ethnocultural and antiparty influences, stress working-class nativism; Baker and Formisano stress the appeal of antiparty reform among a broader cross section of the native-born, evangelical Protestant community; Anbinder, in the latest twist, attempts a synthesis of antislavery, ethnocultural and antiparty explanations, but greatly underestimates the importance of social class and political economic issues.
19. Tyler Anbinder, Nativism and Slavery: The Northern Know Nothings and the Politics of the 1850s (New York, 1992); Jean H. Baker, Ambivalent Americans: The Know-Nothing Party in Maryland (Baltimore, 1977); Amy Bridges, A City in the Republic: Antebellum New York and the Origins of Machine Politics (Ithaca, 1984), and idem., "Becoming American: The Working Classes in the United States Before the Civil War," in Ira Katznelson and Aristide R. Zolberg, eds., Working-Class Formation: Nineteenth-Century Patterns in Western Europe and the United States (Princeton, 1986), 157-96; Robert W. Fogel, Without Consent or Contract: The Rise and Fall of American Slavery (New York, 1989), 354-81; Formisano, Transformation of Political Culture, 329-43; Michael F. Holt, "The Politics of Impatience: The Origins of Know-Nothingism," Journal of American History (1973): 309-31; Mulkern, Know-Nothing Parry in Massachusetts. There is considerable variation among these works. Mulkern, Bridges, Fogel, and Holt, while acknowledging ethnocultural and antiparty influences, stress working-class nativism; Baker and Formisano stress the appeal of antiparty reform among a broader cross section of the native-born, evangelical Protestant community; Anbinder, in the latest twist, attempts a synthesis of antislavery, ethnocultural and antiparty explanations, but greatly underestimates the importance of social class and political economic issues.
20. Tyler Anbinder, Nativism and Slavery: The Northern Know Nothings and the Politics of the 1850s (New York, 1992); Jean H. Baker, Ambivalent Americans: The Know-Nothing Party in Maryland (Baltimore, 1977); Amy Bridges, A City in the Republic: Antebellum New York and the Origins of Machine Politics (Ithaca, 1984), and idem., "Becoming American: The Working Classes in the United States Before the Civil War," in Ira Katznelson and Aristide R. Zolberg, eds., Working-Class Formation: Nineteenth-Century Patterns in Western Europe and the United States (Princeton, 1986), 157-96; Robert W. Fogel, Without Consent or Contract: The Rise and Fall of American Slavery (New York, 1989), 354-81; Formisano, Transformation of Political Culture, 329-43; Michael F. Holt, "The Politics of Impatience: The Origins of Know-Nothingism," Journal of American History (1973): 309-31; Mulkern, Know-Nothing Parry in Massachusetts. There is considerable variation among these works. Mulkern, Bridges, Fogel, and Holt, while acknowledging ethnocultural and antiparty influences, stress working-class nativism; Baker and Formisano stress the appeal of antiparty reform among a broader cross section of the native-born, evangelical Protestant community; Anbinder, in the latest twist, attempts a synthesis of antislavery, ethnocultural and antiparty explanations, but greatly underestimates the importance of social class and political economic issues.
21. See Anbinder, Nativism and Slavery, 34-51; Baker, Ambivalent Americans, 142-6; Gerald G. Eggert, " 'Seeing Sam': The Know Nothing Episode in Harrisburg," The Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography 111 (July 1987): 305-40; George L. Haynes, "A Chapter From the Local History of Knownothingism," The New England Magazine (1896): 82-96.
22. See Anbinder, Nativism and Slavery, 34-51; Baker, Ambivalent Americans, 142-6; Gerald G. Eggert, " 'Seeing Sam': The Know Nothing Episode in Harrisburg," The Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography 111 (July 1987): 305-40; George L. Haynes, "A Chapter From the Local History of Knownothingism," The New England Magazine (1896): 82-96.
23. See Anbinder, Nativism and Slavery, 34-51; Baker, Ambivalent Americans, 142-6; Gerald G. Eggert, " 'Seeing Sam': The Know Nothing Episode in Harrisburg," The Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography 111 (July 1987): 305-40; George L. Haynes, "A Chapter From the Local History of Knownothingism," The New England Magazine (1896): 82-96.
24. See Anbinder, Nativism and Slavery, 34-51; Baker, Ambivalent Americans, 142-6; Gerald G. Eggert, " 'Seeing Sam': The Know Nothing Episode in Harrisburg," The Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography 111 (July 1987): 305-40; George L. Haynes, "A Chapter From the Local History of Knownothingism," The New England Magazine (1896): 82-96.
25. Key discussions are Geoff Eley and Keith Nield, "Why Does Social History Ignore Politics?" Social History 5 (1980): 249-71; Ira Katznelson, "The 'Bourgeois' Dimension: A Provocation About Institutions, Politics, and the Future of Labor History," and the challenges from members of the ILWCH Editorial Board in International Labor and Working-Class History 46 (Fall 1994): 7-92; Richard L. McCormick, The Party Period and Public Policy: American Politics from the Age of Jackson to the Progressive Era (New York, 1986), esp. 89-140.
26. Key discussions are Geoff Eley and Keith Nield, "Why Does Social History Ignore Politics?" Social History 5 (1980): 249-71; Ira Katznelson, "The 'Bourgeois' Dimension: A Provocation About Institutions, Politics, and the Future of Labor History," and the challenges from members of the ILWCH Editorial Board in International Labor and Working-Class History 46 (Fall 1994): 7-92; Richard L. McCormick, The Party Period and Public Policy: American Politics from the Age of Jackson to the Progressive Era (New York, 1986), esp. 89-140.
27. Key discussions are Geoff Eley and Keith Nield, "Why Does Social History Ignore Politics?" Social History 5 (1980): 249-71; Ira Katznelson, "The 'Bourgeois' Dimension: A Provocation About Institutions, Politics, and the Future of Labor History," and the challenges from members of the ILWCH Editorial Board in International Labor and Working-Class History 46 (Fall 1994): 7-92; Richard L. McCormick, The Party Period and Public Policy: American Politics from the Age of Jackson to the Progressive Era (New York, 1986), esp. 89-140.
28. Howard P. Chudacoff, "Success and Security: The Meaning of Social Mobility in America," Reviews in American History 10 (1982): 101-12; 106.
29. Here and throughout the paper I have attempted to occupy a middle ground on the vexed issue of mentalité and capitalism. My reading of this debate has been shaped by, among others, Joyce Appleby, Capitalism and A New Social Order: The Republican Vision of the 1790s (New York, 1984);
30. Christopher Clark, The Roots of Rural Capitalism: Western Massachusetts, 1780-1860 (Ithaca, 1990);
31. Steven Hahn and Jonathan Prude, eds., The Countryside in the Age of Capitalist Revolution: Essays in the Social History of Rural America (New York, 1985);
32. James A. Henretta, "Families and Farms: Mentalité in Preindustrial America," William and Mary Quarterly (January 1978): 3-32;
33. Allan Kulikoff, The Agrarian Origins of American Capitalism (Charlottesville, 1992);
34. James T. Lemon, The Best Poor Man's Country: A Geographical Study of Early Southeastern Pennsylvania (Baltimore, 1972);
35. Michael Merrill, "Cash Is Good To Eat: Self-Sufficiency and Market Exchange in the Rural Economy of the United States," Radical History Review 3 (1977): 42-71;
36. Winifred B. Rothenberg, From Market Places to a Market Economy: The Transformation of Rural Massachusetts, 1780-1850 (Chicago, 1992);
37. Scan Wilentz, Chants Democratic: New York City and the Origins of the American Working-Class, 1788-1850 (New York, 1984).
38. For a case study that analyzes antebellum politics in a way similar to the approach I adopt here, see Paul Goodman, "The Emergence of Homestead Exemption in the United States: Accommodation and Resistance to the Market Revolution, 1840-1880," Journal of American History 80 (1993): 470-98.
39. For an illuminating analysis of economic insecurity among small producers and its relationship to antebellum third partyism, see Bruce Laurie, "'Spavined Ministers, Lying Toothpullers, and Buggering Priests': Third Partyism and the Search for Security in the Antebellum North," in Howard Rock, Paul Gilje, Robert Asher, eds., American Artisans: Grafting Social Identity, 1750-1850 (Baltimore, 1995).
40. See for example, Gary Kulik, "Pawtucket Village and the Strike of 1824: The Origins of Class Conflict in Rhode Island," Radical History Review (Spring, 1978): 5-37; Jonathan Prude, The Coming of Industrial Order: Town and Factory Life in Rural Massachusetts, 1810-1860 (New York, 1982); Anthony F. C. Wallace, Rockdale: The Growth of an American Village in the Early Industrial Revolution (New York, 1972). Demographic data derived from Barbara M. Solomon, "The Growth of the Population in Essex County, 1850-1860," Essex Institute Historical Collections (1959): 82-103.
41. See for example, Gary Kulik, "Pawtucket Village and the Strike of 1824: The Origins of Class Conflict in Rhode Island," Radical History Review (Spring, 1978): 5-37; Jonathan Prude, The Coming of Industrial Order: Town and Factory Life in Rural Massachusetts, 1810-1860 (New York, 1982); Anthony F. C. Wallace, Rockdale: The Growth of an American Village in the Early Industrial Revolution (New York, 1972). Demographic data derived from Barbara M. Solomon, "The Growth of the Population in Essex County, 1850-1860," Essex Institute Historical Collections (1959): 82-103.
42. See for example, Gary Kulik, "Pawtucket Village and the Strike of 1824: The Origins of Class Conflict in Rhode Island," Radical History Review (Spring, 1978): 5-37; Jonathan Prude, The Coming of Industrial Order: Town and Factory Life in Rural Massachusetts, 1810-1860 (New York, 1982); Anthony F. C. Wallace, Rockdale: The Growth of an American Village in the Early Industrial Revolution (New York, 1972). Demographic data derived from Barbara M. Solomon, "The Growth of the Population in Essex County, 1850-1860," Essex Institute Historical Collections (1959): 82-103.
43. See for example, Gary Kulik, "Pawtucket Village and the Strike of 1824: The Origins of Class Conflict in Rhode Island," Radical History Review (Spring, 1978): 5-37; Jonathan Prude, The Coming of Industrial Order: Town and Factory Life in Rural Massachusetts, 1810-1860 (New York, 1982); Anthony F. C. Wallace, Rockdale: The Growth of an American Village in the Early Industrial Revolution (New York, 1972). Demographic data derived from Barbara M. Solomon, "The Growth of the Population in Essex County, 1850-1860," Essex Institute Historical Collections (1959): 82-103.
44. The above summary drawn from "A Few particulars in relation to Woolen Manufacturing during an Agency in Amesbury of 31 Years, Commencing in 1821 and ending in 1852," [photocopy of original], Mss. 176, Museum of American Textile History; "Captain John Wills, jr," in N. B. Gordon Papers, Mss: 442, 1813-1846, (12 vols.): vol. 10, Baker Library, Harvard Business School [hereafter HBS]; "Joshua Aubin, 1789-1861," collection of unpublished manuscripts, Amesbury Public Library [APL]; Newburyport Herald, 11 June 1852; Newburyport Daily Evening Union, 2 June 1852; Villager, 16 May 1850; Farley, Operatives' Reply, 10-11; George E. McNeill, ed., The Labor Movement: The Problem of To-Day (Boston, 1887), 118; Sara Locke Redford, History of Amesbury, Massachusetts (Salisbury, 1968), 40-2. Skilled and semi-skilled males constituted between 40 and 55 percent of each company's workforce. See Louis McLane, Report of the Secretary of the Treasury, 1832. Documents Relative to the Manufactures in the United States, 22d Cong., 1st sess., Doc. No. 308, 2 vols. (Washington, 1833), I: 210-1, 252-3; John G. Palfrey, Statistics of the Branches of Industry in Massachusetts . . . 1845 (Boston, 1846), 8, 34; Francis DeWitt, Statistical Information Relating to . . . Industry in Massachusetts . . . 1855 (Boston, 1856), 162.
45. The above summary drawn from "A Few particulars in relation to Woolen Manufacturing during an Agency in Amesbury of 31 Years, Commencing in 1821 and ending in 1852," [photocopy of original], Mss. 176, Museum of American Textile History; "Captain John Wills, jr," in N. B. Gordon Papers, Mss: 442, 1813-1846, (12 vols.): vol. 10, Baker Library, Harvard Business School [hereafter HBS]; "Joshua Aubin, 1789-1861," collection of unpublished manuscripts, Amesbury Public Library [APL]; Newburyport Herald, 11 June 1852; Newburyport Daily Evening Union, 2 June 1852; Villager, 16 May 1850; Farley, Operatives' Reply, 10-11; George E. McNeill, ed., The Labor Movement: The Problem of To-Day (Boston, 1887), 118; Sara Locke Redford, History of Amesbury, Massachusetts (Salisbury, 1968), 40-2. Skilled and semi-skilled males constituted between 40 and 55 percent of each company's workforce. See Louis McLane, Report of the Secretary of the Treasury, 1832. Documents Relative to the Manufactures in the United States, 22d Cong., 1st sess., Doc. No. 308, 2 vols. (Washington, 1833), I: 210-1, 252-3; John G. Palfrey, Statistics of the Branches of Industry in Massachusetts . . . 1845 (Boston, 1846), 8, 34; Francis DeWitt, Statistical Information Relating to . . . Industry in Massachusetts . . . 1855 (Boston, 1856), 162.
46. The above summary drawn from "A Few particulars in relation to Woolen Manufacturing during an Agency in Amesbury of 31 Years, Commencing in 1821 and ending in 1852," [photocopy of original], Mss. 176, Museum of American Textile History; "Captain John Wills, jr," in N. B. Gordon Papers, Mss: 442, 1813-1846, (12 vols.): vol. 10, Baker Library, Harvard Business School [hereafter HBS]; "Joshua Aubin, 1789-1861," collection of unpublished manuscripts, Amesbury Public Library [APL]; Newburyport Herald, 11 June 1852; Newburyport Daily Evening Union, 2 June 1852; Villager, 16 May 1850; Farley, Operatives' Reply, 10-11; George E. McNeill, ed., The Labor Movement: The Problem of To-Day (Boston, 1887), 118; Sara Locke Redford, History of Amesbury, Massachusetts (Salisbury, 1968), 40-2. Skilled and semi-skilled males constituted between 40 and 55 percent of each company's workforce. See Louis McLane, Report of the Secretary of the Treasury, 1832. Documents Relative to the Manufactures in the United States, 22d Cong., 1st sess., Doc. No. 308, 2 vols. (Washington, 1833), I: 210-1, 252-3; John G. Palfrey, Statistics of the Branches of Industry in Massachusetts . . . 1845 (Boston, 1846), 8, 34; Francis DeWitt, Statistical Information Relating to . . . Industry in Massachusetts . . . 1855 (Boston, 1856), 162.
47. The above summary drawn from "A Few particulars in relation to Woolen Manufacturing during an Agency in Amesbury of 31 Years, Commencing in 1821 and ending in 1852," [photocopy of original], Mss. 176, Museum of American Textile History; "Captain John Wills, jr," in N. B. Gordon Papers, Mss: 442, 1813-1846, (12 vols.): vol. 10, Baker Library, Harvard Business School [hereafter HBS]; "Joshua Aubin, 1789-1861," collection of unpublished manuscripts, Amesbury Public Library [APL]; Newburyport Herald, 11 June 1852; Newburyport Daily Evening Union, 2 June 1852; Villager, 16 May 1850; Farley, Operatives' Reply, 10-11; George E. McNeill, ed., The Labor Movement: The Problem of To-Day (Boston, 1887), 118; Sara Locke Redford, History of Amesbury, Massachusetts (Salisbury, 1968), 40-2. Skilled and semi-skilled males constituted between 40 and 55 percent of each company's workforce. See Louis McLane, Report of the Secretary of the Treasury, 1832. Documents Relative to the Manufactures in the United States, 22d Cong., 1st sess., Doc. No. 308, 2 vols. (Washington, 1833), I: 210-1, 252-3; John G. Palfrey, Statistics of the Branches of Industry in Massachusetts . . . 1845 (Boston, 1846), 8, 34; Francis DeWitt, Statistical Information Relating to . . . Industry in Massachusetts . . . 1855 (Boston, 1856), 162.
48. The above summary drawn from "A Few particulars in relation to Woolen Manufacturing during an Agency in Amesbury of 31 Years, Commencing in 1821 and ending in 1852," [photocopy of original], Mss. 176, Museum of American Textile History; "Captain John Wills, jr," in N. B. Gordon Papers, Mss: 442, 1813-1846, (12 vols.): vol. 10, Baker Library, Harvard Business School [hereafter HBS]; "Joshua Aubin, 1789-1861," collection of unpublished manuscripts, Amesbury Public Library [APL]; Newburyport Herald, 11 June 1852; Newburyport Daily Evening Union, 2 June 1852; Villager, 16 May 1850; Farley, Operatives' Reply, 10-11; George E. McNeill, ed., The Labor Movement: The Problem of To-Day (Boston, 1887), 118; Sara Locke Redford, History of Amesbury, Massachusetts (Salisbury, 1968), 40-2. Skilled and semi-skilled males constituted between 40 and 55 percent of each company's workforce. See Louis McLane, Report of the Secretary of the Treasury, 1832. Documents Relative to the Manufactures in the United States, 22d Cong., 1st sess., Doc. No. 308, 2 vols. (Washington, 1833), I: 210-1, 252-3; John G. Palfrey, Statistics of the Branches of Industry in Massachusetts . . . 1845 (Boston, 1846), 8, 34; Francis DeWitt, Statistical Information Relating to . . . Industry in Massachusetts . . . 1855 (Boston, 1856), 162.
49. The above summary drawn from "A Few particulars in relation to Woolen Manufacturing during an Agency in Amesbury of 31 Years, Commencing in 1821 and ending in 1852," [photocopy of original], Mss. 176, Museum of American Textile History; "Captain John Wills, jr," in N. B. Gordon Papers, Mss: 442, 1813-1846, (12 vols.): vol. 10, Baker Library, Harvard Business School [hereafter HBS]; "Joshua Aubin, 1789-1861," collection of unpublished manuscripts, Amesbury Public Library [APL]; Newburyport Herald, 11 June 1852; Newburyport Daily Evening Union, 2 June 1852; Villager, 16 May 1850; Farley, Operatives' Reply, 10-11; George E. McNeill, ed., The Labor Movement: The Problem of To-Day (Boston, 1887), 118; Sara Locke Redford, History of Amesbury, Massachusetts (Salisbury, 1968), 40-2. Skilled and semi-skilled males constituted between 40 and 55 percent of each company's workforce. See Louis McLane, Report of the Secretary of the Treasury, 1832. Documents Relative to the Manufactures in the United States, 22d Cong., 1st sess., Doc. No. 308, 2 vols. (Washington, 1833), I: 210-1, 252-3; John G. Palfrey, Statistics of the Branches of Industry in Massachusetts . . . 1845 (Boston, 1846), 8, 34; Francis DeWitt, Statistical Information Relating to . . . Industry in Massachusetts . . . 1855 (Boston, 1856), 162.
50. The above summary drawn from "A Few particulars in relation to Woolen Manufacturing during an Agency in Amesbury of 31 Years, Commencing in 1821 and ending in 1852," [photocopy of original], Mss. 176, Museum of American Textile History; "Captain John Wills, jr," in N. B. Gordon Papers, Mss: 442, 1813-1846, (12 vols.): vol. 10, Baker Library, Harvard Business School [hereafter HBS]; "Joshua Aubin, 1789-1861," collection of unpublished manuscripts, Amesbury Public Library [APL]; Newburyport Herald, 11 June 1852; Newburyport Daily Evening Union, 2 June 1852; Villager, 16 May 1850; Farley, Operatives' Reply, 10-11; George E. McNeill, ed., The Labor Movement: The Problem of To-Day (Boston, 1887), 118; Sara Locke Redford, History of Amesbury, Massachusetts (Salisbury, 1968), 40-2. Skilled and semi-skilled males constituted between 40 and 55 percent of each company's workforce. See Louis McLane, Report of the Secretary of the Treasury, 1832. Documents Relative to the Manufactures in the United States, 22d Cong., 1st sess., Doc. No. 308, 2 vols. (Washington, 1833), I: 210-1, 252-3; John G. Palfrey, Statistics of the Branches of Industry in Massachusetts . . . 1845 (Boston, 1846), 8, 34; Francis DeWitt, Statistical Information Relating to . . . Industry in Massachusetts . . . 1855 (Boston, 1856), 162.
51. The above summary drawn from "A Few particulars in relation to Woolen Manufacturing during an Agency in Amesbury of 31 Years, Commencing in 1821 and ending in 1852," [photocopy of original], Mss. 176, Museum of American Textile History; "Captain John Wills, jr," in N. B. Gordon Papers, Mss: 442, 1813-1846, (12 vols.): vol. 10, Baker Library, Harvard Business School [hereafter HBS]; "Joshua Aubin, 1789-1861," collection of unpublished manuscripts, Amesbury Public Library [APL]; Newburyport Herald, 11 June 1852; Newburyport Daily Evening Union, 2 June 1852; Villager, 16 May 1850; Farley, Operatives' Reply, 10-11; George E. McNeill, ed., The Labor Movement: The Problem of To-Day (Boston, 1887), 118; Sara Locke Redford, History of Amesbury, Massachusetts (Salisbury, 1968), 40-2. Skilled and semi-skilled males constituted between 40 and 55 percent of each company's workforce. See Louis McLane, Report of the Secretary of the Treasury, 1832. Documents Relative to the Manufactures in the United States, 22d Cong., 1st sess., Doc. No. 308, 2 vols. (Washington, 1833), I: 210-1, 252-3; John G. Palfrey, Statistics of the Branches of Industry in Massachusetts . . . 1845 (Boston, 1846), 8, 34; Francis DeWitt, Statistical Information Relating to . . . Industry in Massachusetts . . . 1855 (Boston, 1856), 162.
52. The above summary drawn from "A Few particulars in relation to Woolen Manufacturing during an Agency in Amesbury of 31 Years, Commencing in 1821 and ending in 1852," [photocopy of original], Mss. 176, Museum of American Textile History; "Captain John Wills, jr," in N. B. Gordon Papers, Mss: 442, 1813-1846, (12 vols.): vol. 10, Baker Library, Harvard Business School [hereafter HBS]; "Joshua Aubin, 1789-1861," collection of unpublished manuscripts, Amesbury Public Library [APL]; Newburyport Herald, 11 June 1852; Newburyport Daily Evening Union, 2 June 1852; Villager, 16 May 1850; Farley, Operatives' Reply, 10-11; George E. McNeill, ed., The Labor Movement: The Problem of To-Day (Boston, 1887), 118; Sara Locke Redford, History of Amesbury, Massachusetts (Salisbury, 1968), 40-2. Skilled and semi-skilled males constituted between 40 and 55 percent of each company's workforce. See Louis McLane, Report of the Secretary of the Treasury, 1832. Documents Relative to the Manufactures in the United States, 22d Cong., 1st sess., Doc. No. 308, 2 vols. (Washington, 1833), I: 210-1, 252-3; John G. Palfrey, Statistics of the Branches of Industry in Massachusetts . . . 1845 (Boston, 1846), 8, 34; Francis DeWitt, Statistical Information Relating to . . . Industry in Massachusetts . . . 1855 (Boston, 1856), 162.
53. The above summary drawn from "A Few particulars in relation to Woolen Manufacturing during an Agency in Amesbury of 31 Years, Commencing in 1821 and ending in 1852," [photocopy of original], Mss. 176, Museum of American Textile History; "Captain John Wills, jr," in N. B. Gordon Papers, Mss: 442, 1813-1846, (12 vols.): vol. 10, Baker Library, Harvard Business School [hereafter HBS]; "Joshua Aubin, 1789-1861," collection of unpublished manuscripts, Amesbury Public Library [APL]; Newburyport Herald, 11 June 1852; Newburyport Daily Evening Union, 2 June 1852; Villager, 16 May 1850; Farley, Operatives' Reply, 10-11; George E. McNeill, ed., The Labor Movement: The Problem of To-Day (Boston, 1887), 118; Sara Locke Redford, History of Amesbury, Massachusetts (Salisbury, 1968), 40-2. Skilled and semi-skilled males constituted between 40 and 55 percent of each company's workforce. See Louis McLane, Report of the Secretary of the Treasury, 1832. Documents Relative to the Manufactures in the United States, 22d Cong., 1st sess., Doc. No. 308, 2 vols. (Washington, 1833), I: 210-1, 252-3; John G. Palfrey, Statistics of the Branches of Industry in Massachusetts . . . 1845 (Boston, 1846), 8, 34; Francis DeWitt, Statistical Information Relating to . . . Industry in Massachusetts . . . 1855 (Boston, 1856), 162.
54. The above summary drawn from "A Few particulars in relation to Woolen Manufacturing during an Agency in Amesbury of 31 Years, Commencing in 1821 and ending in 1852," [photocopy of original], Mss. 176, Museum of American Textile History; "Captain John Wills, jr," in N. B. Gordon Papers, Mss: 442, 1813-1846, (12 vols.): vol. 10, Baker Library, Harvard Business School [hereafter HBS]; "Joshua Aubin, 1789-1861," collection of unpublished manuscripts, Amesbury Public Library [APL]; Newburyport Herald, 11 June 1852; Newburyport Daily Evening Union, 2 June 1852; Villager, 16 May 1850; Farley, Operatives' Reply, 10-11; George E. McNeill, ed., The Labor Movement: The Problem of To-Day (Boston, 1887), 118; Sara Locke Redford, History of Amesbury, Massachusetts (Salisbury, 1968), 40-2. Skilled and semi-skilled males constituted between 40 and 55 percent of each company's workforce. See Louis McLane, Report of the Secretary of the Treasury, 1832. Documents Relative to the Manufactures in the United States, 22d Cong., 1st sess., Doc. No. 308, 2 vols. (Washington, 1833), I: 210-1, 252-3; John G. Palfrey, Statistics of the Branches of Industry in Massachusetts . . . 1845 (Boston, 1846), 8, 34; Francis DeWitt, Statistical Information Relating to . . . Industry in Massachusetts . . . 1855 (Boston, 1856), 162.
55. The above summary drawn from "A Few particulars in relation to Woolen Manufacturing during an Agency in Amesbury of 31 Years, Commencing in 1821 and ending in 1852," [photocopy of original], Mss. 176, Museum of American Textile History; "Captain John Wills, jr," in N. B. Gordon Papers, Mss: 442, 1813-1846, (12 vols.): vol. 10, Baker Library, Harvard Business School [hereafter HBS]; "Joshua Aubin, 1789-1861," collection of unpublished manuscripts, Amesbury Public Library [APL]; Newburyport Herald, 11 June 1852; Newburyport Daily Evening Union, 2 June 1852; Villager, 16 May 1850; Farley, Operatives' Reply, 10-11; George E. McNeill, ed., The Labor Movement: The Problem of To-Day (Boston, 1887), 118; Sara Locke Redford, History of Amesbury, Massachusetts (Salisbury, 1968), 40-2. Skilled and semi-skilled males constituted between 40 and 55 percent of each company's workforce. See Louis McLane, Report of the Secretary of the Treasury, 1832. Documents Relative to the Manufactures in the United States, 22d Cong., 1st sess., Doc. No. 308, 2 vols. (Washington, 1833), I: 210-1, 252-3; John G. Palfrey, Statistics of the Branches of Industry in Massachusetts . . . 1845 (Boston, 1846), 8, 34; Francis DeWitt, Statistical Information Relating to . . . Industry in Massachusetts . . . 1855 (Boston, 1856), 162.
56. Aubin quoted in "A Few Particulars," 6. For mill relations of production see "Joshua Aubin, 1789-1861, " APL; Amesbury Morning Courier, 28 July 1837; Amesbury Essex Transcript, 22 February 1849; Villager, 29 March 1850; 31 October 1850; 3 July 1851; 24 November 1853; Newburyport Herald, 8 June 1852; "Eleventh Annual Report of the Massachusetts Bureau of Statistics of Labor, January, 1880,"
57. Aubin quoted in "A Few Particulars," 6. For mill relations of production see "Joshua Aubin, 1789-1861, " APL; Amesbury Morning Courier, 28 July 1837; Amesbury Essex Transcript, 22 February 1849; Villager, 29 March 1850; 31 October 1850; 3 July 1851; 24 November 1853; Newburyport Herald, 8 June 1852; "Eleventh Annual Report of the Massachusetts Bureau of Statistics of Labor, January, 1880,"
58. Aubin quoted in "A Few Particulars," 6. For mill relations of production see "Joshua Aubin, 1789-1861, " APL; Amesbury Morning Courier, 28 July 1837; Amesbury Essex Transcript, 22 February 1849; Villager, 29 March 1850; 31 October 1850; 3 July 1851; 24 November 1853; Newburyport Herald, 8 June 1852; "Eleventh Annual Report of the Massachusetts Bureau of Statistics of Labor, January, 1880,"
59. Aubin quoted in "A Few Particulars," 6. For mill relations of production see "Joshua Aubin, 1789-1861, " APL; Amesbury Morning Courier, 28 July 1837; Amesbury Essex Transcript, 22 February 1849; Villager, 29 March 1850; 31 October 1850; 3 July 1851; 24 November 1853; Newburyport Herald, 8 June 1852; "Eleventh Annual Report of the Massachusetts Bureau of Statistics of Labor, January, 1880,"
60. Aubin quoted in "A Few Particulars," 6. For mill relations of production see "Joshua Aubin, 1789-1861, " APL; Amesbury Morning Courier, 28 July 1837; Amesbury Essex Transcript, 22 February 1849; Villager, 29 March 1850; 31 October 1850; 3 July 1851; 24 November 1853; Newburyport Herald, 8 June 1852; "Eleventh Annual Report of the Massachusetts Bureau of Statistics of Labor, January, 1880,"
61. Aubin quoted in "A Few Particulars," 6. For mill relations of production see "Joshua Aubin, 1789-1861, " APL; Amesbury Morning Courier, 28 July 1837; Amesbury Essex Transcript, 22 February 1849; Villager, 29 March 1850; 31 October 1850; 3 July 1851; 24 November 1853; Newburyport Herald, 8 June 1852; "Eleventh Annual Report of the Massachusetts Bureau of Statistics of Labor, January, 1880,"
62. Mass. Public Documents, 1880 No. 15, 9-10.
63. Villager, 25 April 1852. The record reveals only one incident of overt conflict at Mills Village prior to 1852. In 1836 about 100 women weavers at the AFMC struck when ordered to work two looms with no increase in wages. Agent Aubin met with the women and a mutually acceptable compromise was soon reached, for most of the women returned to their work after two or three days. See Amesbury Morning Courier, 11 April, 18 April 1836.
64. Villager, 25 April 1852. The record reveals only one incident of overt conflict at Mills Village prior to 1852. In 1836 about 100 women weavers at the AFMC struck when ordered to work two looms with no increase in wages. Agent Aubin met with the women and a mutually acceptable compromise was soon reached, for most of the women returned to their work after two or three days. See Amesbury Morning Courier, 11 April, 18 April 1836.
65. Villager, 25 April 1852. The record reveals only one incident of overt conflict at Mills Village prior to 1852. In 1836 about 100 women weavers at the AFMC struck when ordered to work two looms with no increase in wages. Agent Aubin met with the women and a mutually acceptable compromise was soon reached, for most of the women returned to their work after two or three days. See Amesbury Morning Courier, 11 April, 18 April 1836.
66. For example, in 1845 there were fifty-six carriage-making shops with a total of 116 hands. Moreover the mills' combined male workforce of 248 in 1845 was 22% less than the combined number of males employed in carriage-making, the various leather trades, boots and shoes, boat and ship building, and hat-making. See Palfrey, Statistics of the Branches of Industry in Massachusetts . . . 1845, 8-10; Federal Nonpopulation Census Schedules, Manufacturing: 1850.
67. For example, in 1845 there were fifty-six carriage-making shops with a total of 116 hands. Moreover the mills' combined male workforce of 248 in 1845 was 22% less than the combined number of males employed in carriage-making, the various leather trades, boots and shoes, boat and ship building, and hat-making. See Palfrey, Statistics of the Branches of Industry in Massachusetts . . . 1845, 8-10; Federal Nonpopulation Census Schedules, Manufacturing: 1850.
68. See for example Clark, Roots of Rural Capitalism, esp. ch. 1; Peter Kriedte, Hans Medick, and Jurgen Schlumbohm, Industrialization before Industrialization: Rural Industry in the Genesis of Capitalism (Cambridge, 1981); Kulikoff, Agrarian Origins of American Capitalism, esp. ch. 1; Karl Marx, Capital: A Critique of Political Economy (New York, 1906 [orig. publ. 1867]), chs. 26-33; Jean H. Quataert, "A New View of Industrialization: 'Protoindustry' or the role of Small Scale, Labor-intensive Manufacture in the Capitalist Environment," International Labor and Working-Class History 33 (1988): 3-22.
69. See for example Clark, Roots of Rural Capitalism, esp. ch. 1; Peter Kriedte, Hans Medick, and Jurgen Schlumbohm, Industrialization before Industrialization: Rural Industry in the Genesis of Capitalism (Cambridge, 1981); Kulikoff, Agrarian Origins of American Capitalism, esp. ch. 1; Karl Marx, Capital: A Critique of Political Economy (New York, 1906 [orig. publ. 1867]), chs. 26-33; Jean H. Quataert, "A New View of Industrialization: 'Protoindustry' or the role of Small Scale, Labor-intensive Manufacture in the Capitalist Environment," International Labor and Working-Class History 33 (1988): 3-22.
70. See for example Clark, Roots of Rural Capitalism, esp. ch. 1; Peter Kriedte, Hans Medick, and Jurgen Schlumbohm, Industrialization before Industrialization: Rural Industry in the Genesis of Capitalism (Cambridge, 1981); Kulikoff, Agrarian Origins of American Capitalism, esp. ch. 1; Karl Marx, Capital: A Critique of Political Economy (New York, 1906 [orig. publ. 1867]), chs. 26-33; Jean H. Quataert, "A New View of Industrialization: 'Protoindustry' or the role of Small Scale, Labor-intensive Manufacture in the Capitalist Environment," International Labor and Working-Class History 33 (1988): 3-22.
71. See for example Clark, Roots of Rural Capitalism, esp. ch. 1; Peter Kriedte, Hans Medick, and Jurgen Schlumbohm, Industrialization before Industrialization: Rural Industry in the Genesis of Capitalism (Cambridge, 1981); Kulikoff, Agrarian Origins of American Capitalism, esp. ch. 1; Karl Marx, Capital: A Critique of Political Economy (New York, 1906 [orig. publ. 1867]), chs. 26-33; Jean H. Quataert, "A New View of Industrialization: 'Protoindustry' or the role of Small Scale, Labor-intensive Manufacture in the Capitalist Environment," International Labor and Working-Class History 33 (1988): 3-22.
72. See for example Clark, Roots of Rural Capitalism, esp. ch. 1; Peter Kriedte, Hans Medick, and Jurgen Schlumbohm, Industrialization before Industrialization: Rural Industry in the Genesis of Capitalism (Cambridge, 1981); Kulikoff, Agrarian Origins of American Capitalism, esp. ch. 1; Karl Marx, Capital: A Critique of Political Economy (New York, 1906 [orig. publ. 1867]), chs. 26-33; Jean H. Quataert, "A New View of Industrialization: 'Protoindustry' or the role of Small Scale, Labor-intensive Manufacture in the Capitalist Environment," International Labor and Working-Class History 33 (1988): 3-22.
73. "H" quoted in Essex Banner, 21 August 1852. On the informal, decentralized nature of petty production and exchange in these towns, see Account Book of John Sargent, Carriage Maker, West Amesbury, MA, 1804-1837, Peabody Essex Museum [PEM]; Samuel Kendrick Jr., [blacksmith] Account Book, Baker Library, HBS; Diary and Account Book of Unnamed Shoemaker, 1848-1857, APL; Thomas Blaisdell [mason], Day Book, 1845-1851, APL; "Joseph Gale," in Mass. Vol. 23, 238, and "William Carey," in Mass. Vol. 23, 153, 216, R. G. Dun and Company Collection, Baker Library, HBS; Valuation and Tax Assessments Lists, Amesbury, [microfilm] Reel #2: 1837-1845, and Reel #3: 1846-1854, APL; Salisbury Assessors and Valuation Records, 1838-1859, original Mss., Salisbury Town Hall; Federal Population Schedules for Massachusetts, Agriculture: 1850. For more on these themes see Mary H. Blewett, Men, Women, and Work: Class, Gender, and Protest in the New England Shoe Industry, 1780-1910 (Urbana, 1988); Clark, Roots of Rural Capitalism; Thomas Dublin, "Rural Putting-Out Work in Early Nineteenth-Century New England: Women and the Transition to Capitalism in the Countryside," New England Quarterly 64 (1991): 531-73; Prude, Coming of Industrial Order; Daniel Vickers, Farmers and Fishermen: Two Centuries of Work in Essex County, Massachusetts, 1630-1850 (Chapel Hill, 1994).
74. "H" quoted in Essex Banner, 21 August 1852. On the informal, decentralized nature of petty production and exchange in these towns, see Account Book of John Sargent, Carriage Maker, West Amesbury, MA, 1804-1837, Peabody Essex Museum [PEM]; Samuel Kendrick Jr., [blacksmith] Account Book, Baker Library, HBS; Diary and Account Book of Unnamed Shoemaker, 1848-1857, APL; Thomas Blaisdell [mason], Day Book, 1845-1851, APL; "Joseph Gale," in Mass. Vol. 23, 238, and "William Carey," in Mass. Vol. 23, 153, 216, R. G. Dun and Company Collection, Baker Library, HBS; Valuation and Tax Assessments Lists, Amesbury, [microfilm] Reel #2: 1837-1845, and Reel #3: 1846-1854, APL; Salisbury Assessors and Valuation Records, 1838-1859, original Mss., Salisbury Town Hall; Federal Population Schedules for Massachusetts, Agriculture: 1850. For more on these themes see Mary H. Blewett, Men, Women, and Work: Class, Gender, and Protest in the New England Shoe Industry, 1780-1910 (Urbana, 1988); Clark, Roots of Rural Capitalism; Thomas Dublin, "Rural Putting-Out Work in Early Nineteenth-Century New England: Women and the Transition to Capitalism in the Countryside," New England Quarterly 64 (1991): 531-73; Prude, Coming of Industrial Order; Daniel Vickers, Farmers and Fishermen: Two Centuries of Work in Essex County, Massachusetts, 1630-1850 (Chapel Hill, 1994).
75. "H" quoted in Essex Banner, 21 August 1852. On the informal, decentralized nature of petty production and exchange in these towns, see Account Book of John Sargent, Carriage Maker, West Amesbury, MA, 1804-1837, Peabody Essex Museum [PEM]; Samuel Kendrick Jr., [blacksmith] Account Book, Baker Library, HBS; Diary and Account Book of Unnamed Shoemaker, 1848-1857, APL; Thomas Blaisdell [mason], Day Book, 1845-1851, APL; "Joseph Gale," in Mass. Vol. 23, 238, and "William Carey," in Mass. Vol. 23, 153, 216, R. G. Dun and Company Collection, Baker Library, HBS; Valuation and Tax Assessments Lists, Amesbury, [microfilm] Reel #2: 1837-1845, and Reel #3: 1846-1854, APL; Salisbury Assessors and Valuation Records, 1838-1859, original Mss., Salisbury Town Hall; Federal Population Schedules for Massachusetts, Agriculture: 1850. For more on these themes see Mary H. Blewett, Men, Women, and Work: Class, Gender, and Protest in the New England Shoe Industry, 1780-1910 (Urbana, 1988); Clark, Roots of Rural Capitalism; Thomas Dublin, "Rural Putting-Out Work in Early Nineteenth-Century New England: Women and the Transition to Capitalism in the Countryside," New England Quarterly 64 (1991): 531-73; Prude, Coming of Industrial Order; Daniel Vickers, Farmers and Fishermen: Two Centuries of Work in Essex County, Massachusetts, 1630-1850 (Chapel Hill, 1994).
76. "H" quoted in Essex Banner, 21 August 1852. On the informal, decentralized nature of petty production and exchange in these towns, see Account Book of John Sargent, Carriage Maker, West Amesbury, MA, 1804-1837, Peabody Essex Museum [PEM]; Samuel Kendrick Jr., [blacksmith] Account Book, Baker Library, HBS; Diary and Account Book of Unnamed Shoemaker, 1848-1857, APL; Thomas Blaisdell [mason], Day Book, 1845-1851, APL; "Joseph Gale," in Mass. Vol. 23, 238, and "William Carey," in Mass. Vol. 23, 153, 216, R. G. Dun and Company Collection, Baker Library, HBS; Valuation and Tax Assessments Lists, Amesbury, [microfilm] Reel #2: 1837-1845, and Reel #3: 1846-1854, APL; Salisbury Assessors and Valuation Records, 1838-1859, original Mss., Salisbury Town Hall; Federal Population Schedules for Massachusetts, Agriculture: 1850. For more on these themes see Mary H. Blewett, Men, Women, and Work: Class, Gender, and Protest in the New England Shoe Industry, 1780-1910 (Urbana, 1988); Clark, Roots of Rural Capitalism; Thomas Dublin, "Rural Putting-Out Work in Early Nineteenth-Century New England: Women and the Transition to Capitalism in the Countryside," New England Quarterly 64 (1991): 531-73; Prude, Coming of Industrial Order; Daniel Vickers, Farmers and Fishermen: Two Centuries of Work in Essex County, Massachusetts, 1630-1850 (Chapel Hill, 1994).
77. "H" quoted in Essex Banner, 21 August 1852. On the informal, decentralized nature of petty production and exchange in these towns, see Account Book of John Sargent, Carriage Maker, West Amesbury, MA, 1804-1837, Peabody Essex Museum [PEM]; Samuel Kendrick Jr., [blacksmith] Account Book, Baker Library, HBS; Diary and Account Book of Unnamed Shoemaker, 1848-1857, APL; Thomas Blaisdell [mason], Day Book, 1845-1851, APL; "Joseph Gale," in Mass. Vol. 23, 238, and "William Carey," in Mass. Vol. 23, 153, 216, R. G. Dun and Company Collection, Baker Library, HBS; Valuation and Tax Assessments Lists, Amesbury, [microfilm] Reel #2: 1837-1845, and Reel #3: 1846-1854, APL; Salisbury Assessors and Valuation Records, 1838-1859, original Mss., Salisbury Town Hall; Federal Population Schedules for Massachusetts, Agriculture: 1850. For more on these themes see Mary H. Blewett, Men, Women, and Work: Class, Gender, and Protest in the New England Shoe Industry, 1780-1910
78. "H" quoted in Essex Banner, 21 August 1852. On the informal, decentralized nature of petty production and exchange in these towns, see Account Book of John Sargent, Carriage Maker, West Amesbury, MA, 1804-1837, Peabody Essex Museum [PEM]; Samuel Kendrick Jr., [blacksmith] Account Book, Baker Library, HBS; Diary and Account Book of Unnamed Shoemaker, 1848-1857, APL; Thomas Blaisdell [mason], Day Book, 1845-1851, APL; "Joseph Gale," in Mass. Vol. 23, 238, and "William Carey," in Mass. Vol. 23, 153, 216, R. G. Dun and Company Collection, Baker Library, HBS; Valuation and Tax Assessments Lists, Amesbury, [microfilm] Reel #2: 1837-1845, and Reel #3: 1846-1854, APL; Salisbury Assessors and Valuation Records, 1838-1859, original Mss., Salisbury Town Hall; Federal Population Schedules for Massachusetts, Agriculture: 1850. For more on these themes see Mary H. Blewett, Men, Women, and Work: Class, Gender, and Protest in the New England Shoe Industry, 1780-1910 (Urbana, 1988); Clark, Roots of Rural Capitalism; Thomas Dublin, "Rural Putting-Out Work in Early Nineteenth-Century New England: Women and the Transition to Capitalism in the Countryside," New England Quarterly 64 (1991): 531-73; Prude, Coming of Industrial Order; Daniel Vickers, Farmers and Fishermen: Two Centuries of Work in Essex County, Massachusetts, 1630-1850 (Chapel Hill, 1994).
79. "H" quoted in Essex Banner, 21 August 1852. On the informal, decentralized nature of petty production and exchange in these towns, see Account Book of John Sargent, Carriage Maker, West Amesbury, MA, 1804-1837, Peabody Essex Museum [PEM]; Samuel Kendrick Jr., [blacksmith] Account Book, Baker Library, HBS; Diary and Account Book of Unnamed Shoemaker, 1848-1857, APL; Thomas Blaisdell [mason], Day Book, 1845-1851, APL; "Joseph Gale," in Mass. Vol. 23, 238, and "William Carey," in Mass. Vol. 23, 153, 216, R. G. Dun and Company Collection, Baker Library, HBS; Valuation and Tax Assessments Lists, Amesbury, [microfilm] Reel #2: 1837-1845, and Reel #3: 1846-1854, APL; Salisbury Assessors and Valuation Records, 1838-1859, original Mss., Salisbury Town Hall; Federal Population Schedules for Massachusetts, Agriculture: 1850. For more on these themes see Mary H. Blewett, Men, Women, and Work: Class, Gender, and Protest in the New England Shoe Industry, 1780-1910 (Urbana, 1988); Clark, Roots of Rural Capitalism; Thomas Dublin, "Rural Putting-Out Work in Early Nineteenth-Century New England: Women and the Transition to Capitalism in the Countryside," New England Quarterly 64 (1991): 531-73; Prude, Coming of Industrial Order; Daniel Vickers, Farmers and Fishermen: Two Centuries of Work in Essex County, Massachusetts, 1630-1850 (Chapel Hill, 1994).
80. "H" quoted in Essex Banner, 21 August 1852. On the informal, decentralized nature of petty production and exchange in these towns, see Account Book of John Sargent, Carriage Maker, West Amesbury, MA, 1804-1837, Peabody Essex Museum [PEM]; Samuel Kendrick Jr., [blacksmith] Account Book, Baker Library, HBS; Diary and Account Book of Unnamed Shoemaker, 1848-1857, APL; Thomas Blaisdell [mason], Day Book, 1845-1851, APL; "Joseph Gale," in Mass. Vol. 23, 238, and "William Carey," in Mass. Vol. 23, 153, 216, R. G. Dun and Company Collection, Baker Library, HBS; Valuation and Tax Assessments Lists, Amesbury, [microfilm] Reel #2: 1837-1845, and Reel #3: 1846-1854, APL; Salisbury Assessors and Valuation Records, 1838-1859, original Mss., Salisbury Town Hall; Federal Population Schedules for Massachusetts, Agriculture: 1850. For more on these themes see Mary H. Blewett, Men, Women, and Work: Class, Gender, and Protest in the New England Shoe Industry, 1780-1910 (Urbana, 1988); Clark, Roots of Rural Capitalism; Thomas Dublin, "Rural Putting-Out Work in Early Nineteenth-Century New England: Women and the Transition to Capitalism in the Countryside," New England Quarterly 64 (1991): 531-73; Prude, Coming of Industrial Order; Daniel Vickers, Farmers and Fishermen: Two Centuries of Work in Essex County, Massachusetts, 1630-1850 (Chapel Hill, 1994).
81. "H" quoted in Essex Banner, 21 August 1852. On the informal, decentralized nature of petty production and exchange in these towns, see Account Book of John Sargent, Carriage Maker, West Amesbury, MA, 1804-1837, Peabody Essex Museum [PEM]; Samuel Kendrick Jr., [blacksmith] Account Book, Baker Library, HBS; Diary and Account Book of Unnamed Shoemaker, 1848-1857, APL; Thomas Blaisdell [mason], Day Book, 1845-1851, APL; "Joseph Gale," in Mass. Vol. 23, 238, and "William Carey," in Mass. Vol. 23, 153, 216, R. G. Dun and Company Collection, Baker Library, HBS; Valuation and Tax Assessments Lists, Amesbury, [microfilm] Reel #2: 1837-1845, and Reel #3: 1846-1854, APL; Salisbury Assessors and Valuation Records, 1838-1859, original Mss., Salisbury Town Hall; Federal Population Schedules for Massachusetts, Agriculture: 1850. For more on these themes see Mary H. Blewett, Men, Women, and Work: Class, Gender, and Protest in the New England Shoe Industry, 1780-1910 (Urbana, 1988); Clark, Roots of Rural Capitalism; Thomas Dublin, "Rural Putting-Out Work in Early Nineteenth-Century New England: Women and the Transition to Capitalism in the Countryside," New England Quarterly 64 (1991): 531-73; Prude, Coming of Industrial Order; Daniel Vickers, Farmers and Fishermen: Two Centuries of Work in Essex County, Massachusetts, 1630-1850 (Chapel Hill, 1994).
82. "H" quoted in Essex Banner, 21 August 1852. On the informal, decentralized nature of petty production and exchange in these towns, see Account Book of John Sargent, Carriage Maker, West Amesbury, MA, 1804-1837, Peabody Essex Museum [PEM]; Samuel Kendrick Jr., [blacksmith] Account Book, Baker Library, HBS; Diary and Account Book of Unnamed Shoemaker, 1848-1857, APL; Thomas Blaisdell [mason], Day Book, 1845-1851, APL; "Joseph Gale," in Mass. Vol. 23, 238, and "William Carey," in Mass. Vol. 23, 153, 216, R. G. Dun and Company Collection, Baker Library, HBS; Valuation and Tax Assessments Lists, Amesbury, [microfilm] Reel #2: 1837-1845, and Reel #3: 1846-1854, APL; Salisbury Assessors and Valuation Records, 1838-1859, original Mss., Salisbury Town Hall; Federal Population Schedules for Massachusetts, Agriculture: 1850. For more on these themes see Mary H. Blewett, Men, Women, and Work: Class, Gender, and Protest in the New England Shoe Industry, 1780-1910 (Urbana, 1988); Clark, Roots of Rural Capitalism; Thomas Dublin, "Rural Putting-Out Work in Early Nineteenth-Century New England: Women and the Transition to Capitalism in the Countryside," New England Quarterly 64 (1991): 531-73; Prude, Coming of Industrial Order; Daniel Vickers, Farmers and Fishermen: Two Centuries of Work in Essex County, Massachusetts, 1630-1850 (Chapel Hill, 1994).
83. "H" quoted in Essex Banner, 21 August 1852. On the informal, decentralized nature of petty production and exchange in these towns, see Account Book of John Sargent, Carriage Maker, West Amesbury, MA, 1804-1837, Peabody Essex Museum [PEM]; Samuel Kendrick Jr., [blacksmith] Account Book, Baker Library, HBS; Diary and Account Book of Unnamed Shoemaker, 1848-1857, APL; Thomas Blaisdell [mason], Day Book, 1845-1851, APL; "Joseph Gale," in Mass. Vol. 23, 238, and "William Carey," in Mass. Vol. 23, 153, 216, R. G. Dun and Company Collection, Baker Library, HBS; Valuation and Tax Assessments Lists, Amesbury, [microfilm] Reel #2: 1837-1845, and Reel #3: 1846-1854, APL; Salisbury Assessors and Valuation Records, 1838-1859, original Mss., Salisbury Town Hall; Federal Population Schedules for Massachusetts, Agriculture: 1850. For more on these themes see Mary H. Blewett, Men, Women, and Work: Class, Gender, and Protest in the New England Shoe Industry, 1780-1910 (Urbana, 1988); Clark, Roots of Rural Capitalism; Thomas Dublin, "Rural Putting-Out Work in Early Nineteenth-Century New England: Women and the Transition to Capitalism in the Countryside," New England Quarterly 64 (1991): 531-73; Prude, Coming of Industrial Order; Daniel Vickers, Farmers and Fishermen: Two Centuries of Work in Essex County, Massachusetts, 1630-1850 (Chapel Hill, 1994).
84. "H" quoted in Essex Banner, 21 August 1852. On the informal, decentralized nature of petty production and exchange in these towns, see Account Book of John Sargent, Carriage Maker, West Amesbury, MA, 1804-1837, Peabody Essex Museum [PEM]; Samuel Kendrick Jr., [blacksmith] Account Book, Baker Library, HBS; Diary and Account Book of Unnamed Shoemaker, 1848-1857, APL; Thomas Blaisdell [mason], Day Book, 1845-1851, APL; "Joseph Gale," in Mass. Vol. 23, 238, and "William Carey," in Mass. Vol. 23, 153, 216, R. G. Dun and Company Collection, Baker Library, HBS; Valuation and Tax Assessments Lists, Amesbury, [microfilm] Reel #2: 1837-1845, and Reel #3: 1846-1854, APL; Salisbury Assessors and Valuation Records, 1838-1859, original Mss., Salisbury Town Hall; Federal Population Schedules for Massachusetts, Agriculture: 1850. For more on these themes see Mary H. Blewett, Men, Women, and Work: Class, Gender, and Protest in the New England Shoe Industry, 1780-1910 (Urbana, 1988); Clark, Roots of Rural Capitalism; Thomas Dublin, "Rural Putting-Out Work in Early Nineteenth-Century New England: Women and the Transition to Capitalism in the Countryside," New England Quarterly 64 (1991): 531-73; Prude, Coming of Industrial Order; Daniel Vickers, Farmers and Fishermen: Two Centuries of Work in Essex County, Massachusetts, 1630-1850 (Chapel Hill, 1994).
85. N. B. Gordon Papers, Mss: 442, vol. 10, "wage book," Baker Library, HBS; Thomas Blaisdell, 1845-1851 Day Book, Amesbury, APL; "Receipts of John Blaisdell, Jr.," in Miscellaneous Papers, Essex County Collection, Amesbury, PEM; Account Book of John Martin (1776-1843), Amesbury Carpenter, PEM; "Eleventh Annual Report of the Bureau of Statistics for Labor," 10; John J. Allen, "History of Carriage Manufacturing, Automobile Building, and Accessories, in Salisbury, Amesbury, and West Amesbury . . . 1800-1955," unpublished manuscript, APL, n.d., 112-9.
86. N. B. Gordon Papers, Mss: 442, vol. 10, "wage book," Baker Library, HBS; Thomas Blaisdell, 1845-1851 Day Book, Amesbury, APL; "Receipts of John Blaisdell, Jr.," in Miscellaneous Papers, Essex County Collection, Amesbury, PEM; Account Book of John Martin (1776-1843), Amesbury Carpenter, PEM; "Eleventh Annual Report of the Bureau of Statistics for Labor," 10; John J. Allen, "History of Carriage Manufacturing, Automobile Building, and Accessories, in Salisbury, Amesbury, and West Amesbury . . . 1800-1955," unpublished manuscript, APL, n.d., 112-9.
87. N. B. Gordon Papers, Mss: 442, vol. 10, "wage book," Baker Library, HBS; Thomas Blaisdell, 1845-1851 Day Book, Amesbury, APL; "Receipts of John Blaisdell, Jr.," in Miscellaneous Papers, Essex County Collection, Amesbury, PEM; Account Book of John Martin (1776-1843), Amesbury Carpenter, PEM; "Eleventh Annual Report of the Bureau of Statistics for Labor," 10; John J. Allen, "History of Carriage Manufacturing, Automobile Building, and Accessories, in Salisbury, Amesbury, and West Amesbury . . . 1800-1955," unpublished manuscript, APL, n.d., 112-9.
88. N. B. Gordon Papers, Mss: 442, vol. 10, "wage book," Baker Library, HBS; Thomas Blaisdell, 1845-1851 Day Book, Amesbury, APL; "Receipts of John Blaisdell, Jr.," in Miscellaneous Papers, Essex County Collection, Amesbury, PEM; Account Book of John Martin (1776-1843), Amesbury Carpenter, PEM; "Eleventh Annual Report of the Bureau of Statistics for Labor," 10; John J. Allen, "History of Carriage Manufacturing, Automobile Building, and Accessories, in Salisbury, Amesbury, and West Amesbury . . . 1800-1955," unpublished manuscript, APL, n.d., 112-9.
89. N. B. Gordon Papers, Mss: 442, vol. 10, "wage book," Baker Library, HBS; Thomas Blaisdell, 1845-1851 Day Book, Amesbury, APL; "Receipts of John Blaisdell, Jr.," in Miscellaneous Papers, Essex County Collection, Amesbury, PEM; Account Book of John Martin (1776-1843), Amesbury Carpenter, PEM; "Eleventh Annual Report of the Bureau of Statistics for Labor," 10; John J. Allen, "History of Carriage Manufacturing, Automobile Building, and Accessories, in Salisbury, Amesbury, and West Amesbury . . . 1800-1955," unpublished manuscript, APL, n.d., 112-9.
90. Of course Whig power was not absolute. The aggregate vote of Democratic and Liberty/Free-Soil candidates frequently prevented Whigs from obtaining the required majority. But between 1844 and 1851 the party dominated local politics: Amesbury sent a Whig to the General Court in 1849 and 1851; Salisbury in 1844, 1845, 1847 and 1848. Amesbury Town Meeting Records: 1796-1844, and 1846-1861 [microfilm Mss: reels 1-2], APL; Salisbury Town Meeting Records, 1797-1858 [microfilm Mss], Massachusetts Archives. Generally voting patterns for lesser state offices closely followed the votes for Governor contained in Table I.
91. The best study of Massachusetts' political economy remains Oscar and Mary Flug Handlin, Commonwealth: A Study of the Role of Government in the American Economy: Massachusetts, 1774-1861 (Cambridge, 1947). Also see Ronald Formisano, The Transformation of Political Culture: Massachusetts Parties, 1790s-1840s (New York, 1983), 268-301; Paul Goodman, "The Politics of Industrialism: Massachusetts, 1830-1870," in Richard L. Bushman, et al., eds., Uprooted Americans: Essays to Honor Oscar Handlin (Boston, 1979), 163-207. Important general treatments of Whig thought include John Ashworth, "Agrarians" & "Aristocrats": Party Political Ideology in the United States, 1837-1846 (London, 1983); Daniel Walker Howe, The Political Culture of the American Whigs (Chicago, 1979).
92. The best study of Massachusetts' political economy remains Oscar and Mary Flug Handlin, Commonwealth: A Study of the Role of Government in the American Economy: Massachusetts, 1774-1861 (Cambridge, 1947). Also see Ronald Formisano, The Transformation of Political Culture: Massachusetts Parties, 1790s-1840s (New York, 1983), 268-301; Paul Goodman, "The Politics of Industrialism: Massachusetts, 1830-1870," in Richard L. Bushman, et al., eds., Uprooted Americans: Essays to Honor Oscar Handlin (Boston, 1979), 163-207. Important general treatments of Whig thought include John Ashworth, "Agrarians" & "Aristocrats": Party Political Ideology in the United States, 1837-1846 (London, 1983); Daniel Walker Howe, The Political Culture of the American Whigs (Chicago, 1979).
93. The best study of Massachusetts' political economy remains Oscar and Mary Flug Handlin, Commonwealth: A Study of the Role of Government in the American Economy: Massachusetts, 1774-1861 (Cambridge, 1947). Also see Ronald Formisano, The Transformation of Political Culture: Massachusetts Parties, 1790s-1840s (New York, 1983), 268-301; Paul Goodman, "The Politics of Industrialism: Massachusetts, 1830-1870," in Richard L. Bushman, et al., eds., Uprooted Americans: Essays to Honor Oscar Handlin (Boston, 1979), 163-207. Important general treatments of Whig thought include John Ashworth, "Agrarians" & "Aristocrats": Party Political Ideology in the United States, 1837-1846 (London, 1983); Daniel Walker Howe, The Political Culture of the American Whigs (Chicago, 1979).
94. The best study of Massachusetts' political economy remains Oscar and Mary Flug Handlin, Commonwealth: A Study of the Role of Government in the American Economy: Massachusetts, 1774-1861 (Cambridge, 1947). Also see Ronald Formisano, The Transformation of Political Culture: Massachusetts Parties, 1790s-1840s (New York, 1983), 268-301; Paul Goodman, "The Politics of Industrialism: Massachusetts, 1830-1870," in Richard L. Bushman, et al., eds., Uprooted Americans: Essays to Honor Oscar Handlin (Boston, 1979), 163-207. Important general treatments of Whig thought include John Ashworth, "Agrarians" & "Aristocrats": Party Political Ideology in the United States, 1837-1846 (London, 1983); Daniel Walker Howe, The Political Culture of the American Whigs (Chicago, 1979).
95. The best study of Massachusetts' political economy remains Oscar and Mary Flug Handlin, Commonwealth: A Study of the Role of Government in the American Economy: Massachusetts, 1774-1861 (Cambridge, 1947). Also see Ronald Formisano, The Transformation of Political Culture: Massachusetts Parties, 1790s-1840s (New York, 1983), 268-301; Paul Goodman, "The Politics of Industrialism: Massachusetts, 1830-1870," in Richard L. Bushman, et al., eds., Uprooted Americans: Essays to Honor Oscar Handlin (Boston, 1979), 163-207. Important general treatments of Whig thought include John Ashworth, "Agrarians" & "Aristocrats": Party Political Ideology in the United States, 1837-1846 (London, 1983); Daniel Walker Howe, The Political Culture of the American Whigs (Chicago, 1979).
96. The best study of Massachusetts' political economy remains Oscar and Mary Flug Handlin, Commonwealth: A Study of the Role of Government in the American Economy: Massachusetts, 1774-1861 (Cambridge, 1947). Also see Ronald Formisano, The Transformation of Political Culture: Massachusetts Parties, 1790s-1840s (New York, 1983), 268-301; Paul Goodman, "The Politics of Industrialism: Massachusetts, 1830-1870," in Richard L. Bushman, et al., eds., Uprooted Americans: Essays to Honor Oscar Handlin (Boston, 1979), 163-207. Important general treatments of Whig thought include John Ashworth, "Agrarians" & "Aristocrats": Party Political Ideology in the United States, 1837-1846 (London, 1983); Daniel Walker Howe, The Political Culture of the American Whigs (Chicago, 1979).
97. Fourteen Whigs, eleven of them candidates for state representative, were linked to Population and Nonpopulation Census lists producing the following breakdown: Master Craftsmen, 6; Mill Agent/Overseer, 5; Small Proprietor, 2; Professional, 1. On the local appeal of the protective tariff and economic expansion, see for example Essex Transcript, 14 April 1840; 28 May 1841; 22 April 1842; 29 April 1842; 11 May 1848; Villager, 24 May 1849; 15 May 1851.
98. Fourteen Whigs, eleven of them candidates for state representative, were linked to Population and Nonpopulation Census lists producing the following breakdown: Master Craftsmen, 6; Mill Agent/Overseer, 5; Small Proprietor, 2; Professional, 1. On the local appeal of the protective tariff and economic expansion, see for example Essex Transcript, 14 April 1840; 28 May 1841; 22 April 1842; 29 April 1842; 11 May 1848; Villager, 24 May 1849; 15 May 1851.
99. Fourteen Whigs, eleven of them candidates for state representative, were linked to Population and Nonpopulation Census lists producing the following breakdown: Master Craftsmen, 6; Mill Agent/Overseer, 5; Small Proprietor, 2; Professional, 1. On the local appeal of the protective tariff and economic expansion, see for example Essex Transcript, 14 April 1840; 28 May 1841; 22 April 1842; 29 April 1842; 11 May 1848; Villager, 24 May 1849; 15 May 1851.
100. Fourteen Whigs, eleven of them candidates for state representative, were linked to Population and Nonpopulation Census lists producing the following breakdown: Master Craftsmen, 6; Mill Agent/Overseer, 5; Small Proprietor, 2; Professional, 1. On the local appeal of the protective tariff and economic expansion, see for example Essex Transcript, 14 April 1840; 28 May 1841; 22 April 1842; 29 April 1842; 11 May 1848; Villager, 24 May 1849; 15 May 1851.
101. Fourteen Whigs, eleven of them candidates for state representative, were linked to Population and Nonpopulation Census lists producing the following breakdown: Master Craftsmen, 6; Mill Agent/Overseer, 5; Small Proprietor, 2; Professional, 1. On the local appeal of the protective tariff and economic expansion, see for example Essex Transcript, 14 April 1840; 28 May 1841; 22 April 1842; 29 April 1842; 11 May 1848; Villager, 24 May 1849; 15 May 1851.
102. Fourteen Whigs, eleven of them candidates for state representative, were linked to Population and Nonpopulation Census lists producing the following breakdown: Master Craftsmen, 6; Mill Agent/Overseer, 5; Small Proprietor, 2; Professional, 1. On the local appeal of the protective tariff and economic expansion, see for example Essex Transcript, 14 April 1840; 28 May 1841; 22 April 1842; 29 April 1842; 11 May 1848; Villager, 24 May 1849; 15 May 1851.
103. Fourteen Whigs, eleven of them candidates for state representative, were linked to Population and Nonpopulation Census lists producing the following breakdown: Master Craftsmen, 6; Mill Agent/Overseer, 5; Small Proprietor, 2; Professional, 1. On the local appeal of the protective tariff and economic expansion, see for example Essex Transcript, 14 April 1840; 28 May 1841; 22 April 1842; 29 April 1842; 11 May 1848; Villager, 24 May 1849; 15 May 1851.
104. It is likely that the Liberty party recruited heavily from the towns' "dissenting" sects - Baptists, Methodists, and Universalists. Based on a sample of church membership published in the Villager, I estimate these denominations accounted for 45% of all churchgoers in these communities. See Villager, 9 August 1849. For more on the relationship between religious dissent and political opposition in Massachusetts, see John L. Brooke, The Heart of the Commonwealth: Society and Political Culture in Worcester County, Massachusetts: 1713-1861 (New York, 1989), 360-75; Formisano, Transformation of Political Culture, esp. 283-301; Goodman, "The Politics of Industrialism," esp. 171-3.
105. It is likely that the Liberty party recruited heavily from the towns' "dissenting" sects - Baptists, Methodists, and Universalists. Based on a sample of church membership published in the Villager, I estimate these denominations accounted for 45% of all churchgoers in these communities. See Villager, 9 August 1849. For more on the relationship between religious dissent and political opposition in Massachusetts, see John L. Brooke, The Heart of the Commonwealth: Society and Political Culture in Worcester County, Massachusetts: 1713-1861 (New York, 1989), 360-75; Formisano, Transformation of Political Culture, esp. 283-301; Goodman, "The Politics of Industrialism," esp. 171-3.
106. It is likely that the Liberty party recruited heavily from the towns' "dissenting" sects - Baptists, Methodists, and Universalists. Based on a sample of church membership published in the Villager, I estimate these denominations accounted for 45% of all churchgoers in these communities. See Villager, 9 August 1849. For more on the relationship between religious dissent and political opposition in Massachusetts, see John L. Brooke, The Heart of the Commonwealth: Society and Political Culture in Worcester County, Massachusetts: 1713-1861 (New York, 1989), 360-75; Formisano, Transformation of Political Culture, esp. 283-301; Goodman, "The Politics of Industrialism," esp. 171-3.
107. It is likely that the Liberty party recruited heavily from the towns' "dissenting" sects - Baptists, Methodists, and Universalists. Based on a sample of church membership published in the Villager, I estimate these denominations accounted for 45% of all churchgoers in these communities. See Villager, 9 August 1849. For more on the relationship between religious dissent and political opposition in Massachusetts, see John L. Brooke, The Heart of the Commonwealth: Society and Political Culture in Worcester County, Massachusetts: 1713-1861 (New York, 1989), 360-75; Formisano, Transformation of Political Culture, esp. 283-301; Goodman, "The Politics of Industrialism," esp. 171-3.
108. See for example Essex Transcript, 8 December 1843; 28 March 1845; 11 June 1846; 10 August; 7 September 1848. For more on the local Liberty party and political culture in Essex county during the 1840s, see my "Political Responses to the Market Revolution: Antipartyism, Politics and the State in the Antebellum North, 1840-1860," (Ph.D. dissertation in progress, University of Massachusetts). Scholars who have recognized the potential for social radicalism in the Liberty party include Bruce Laurie, "The Making of an Antislavery Bloc in Massachusetts," (unpublished manuscript in my possession); Edward Magdol, The Antislavery Rank and File: A Social Profile of the Abolitionists' Constituency (Westport, CT, 1986), 101-15.
109. See for example Essex Transcript, 8 December 1843; 28 March 1845; 11 June 1846; 10 August; 7 September 1848. For more on the local Liberty party and political culture in Essex county during the 1840s, see my "Political Responses to the Market Revolution: Antipartyism, Politics and the State in the Antebellum North, 1840-1860," (Ph.D. dissertation in progress, University of Massachusetts). Scholars who have recognized the potential for social radicalism in the Liberty party include Bruce Laurie, "The Making of an Antislavery Bloc in Massachusetts," (unpublished manuscript in my possession); Edward Magdol, The Antislavery Rank and File: A Social Profile of the Abolitionists' Constituency (Westport, CT, 1986), 101-15.
110. See for example Essex Transcript, 8 December 1843; 28 March 1845; 11 June 1846; 10 August; 7 September 1848. For more on the local Liberty party and political culture in Essex county during the 1840s, see my "Political Responses to the Market Revolution: Antipartyism, Politics and the State in the Antebellum North, 1840-1860," (Ph.D. dissertation in progress, University of Massachusetts). Scholars who have recognized the potential for social radicalism in the Liberty party include Bruce Laurie, "The Making of an Antislavery Bloc in Massachusetts," (unpublished manuscript in my possession); Edward Magdol, The Antislavery Rank and File: A Social Profile of the Abolitionists' Constituency (Westport, CT, 1986), 101-15.
111. See for example Essex Transcript, 8 December 1843; 28 March 1845; 11 June 1846; 10 August; 7 September 1848. For more on the local Liberty party and political culture in Essex county during the 1840s, see my "Political Responses to the Market Revolution: Antipartyism, Politics and the State in the Antebellum North, 1840-1860," (Ph.D. dissertation in progress, University of Massachusetts). Scholars who have recognized the potential for social radicalism in the Liberty party include Bruce Laurie, "The Making of an Antislavery Bloc in Massachusetts," (unpublished manuscript in my possession); Edward Magdol, The Antislavery Rank and File: A Social Profile of the Abolitionists' Constituency (Westport, CT, 1986), 101-15.
112. See for example Essex Transcript, 8 December 1843; 28 March 1845; 11 June 1846; 10 August; 7 September 1848. For more on the local Liberty party and political culture in Essex county during the 1840s, see my "Political Responses to the Market Revolution: Antipartyism, Politics and the State in the Antebellum North, 1840-1860," (Ph.D. dissertation in progress, University of Massachusetts). Scholars who have recognized the potential for social radicalism in the Liberty party include Bruce Laurie, "The Making of an Antislavery Bloc in Massachusetts," (unpublished manuscript in my possession); Edward Magdol, The Antislavery Rank and File: A Social Profile of the Abolitionists' Constituency (Westport, CT, 1986), 101-15.
113. Whittier to Thomas Wentworth Higginson, 3 November 1848, in John B. Pickard, ed., The Letters of John Greerdeaf Whittier, vol. II (Cambridge, 1975), 119.
114. Whittier to Thomas Wentworth Higginson, 3 November 1848, in John B. Pickard, ed., The Letters of John Greerdeaf Whittier, vol. II (Cambridge, 1975), 119.
115. For more on these points, see Goodman, "Politics of Industrialism," 176; Formisano, Transformation of Political Culture, 270. Scholarship on antebellum Massachusetts suggests the Democrats recruited best among religious dissenters in the state's rural regions. See works cited in note 21. Evidence, anecdotal or otherwise, on the political behavior of the towns' farmers is very sketchy, a fact that itself may be illustrative. These were communities with dynamic industrial economies centered around the woolen mills, a strong orientation toward the progressive, improvement-side of Whiggery and moral reform, and a local press that celebrated these values. By contrast local farmers lived on the outskirts of town and were reputed to be far less enthusiastic about experimenting in "modern techniques of farming and husbandry" than neighboring farmers. See James R. Newhall, Essex Memorial for 1836 (Lynn, 1837), 42.
116. For more on these points, see Goodman, "Politics of Industrialism," 176; Formisano, Transformation of Political Culture, 270. Scholarship on antebellum Massachusetts suggests the Democrats recruited best among religious dissenters in the state's rural regions. See works cited in note 21. Evidence, anecdotal or otherwise, on the political behavior of the towns' farmers is very sketchy, a fact that itself may be illustrative. These were communities with dynamic industrial economies centered around the woolen mills, a strong orientation toward the progressive, improvement-side of Whiggery and moral reform, and a local press that celebrated these values. By contrast local farmers lived on the outskirts of town and were reputed to be far less enthusiastic about experimenting in "modern techniques of farming and husbandry" than neighboring farmers. See James R. Newhall, Essex Memorial for 1836 (Lynn, 1837), 42.
117. For more on these points, see Goodman, "Politics of Industrialism," 176; Formisano, Transformation of Political Culture, 270. Scholarship on antebellum Massachusetts suggests the Democrats recruited best among religious dissenters in the state's rural regions. See works cited in note 21. Evidence, anecdotal or otherwise, on the political behavior of the towns' farmers is very sketchy, a fact that itself may be illustrative. These were communities with dynamic industrial economies centered around the woolen mills, a strong orientation toward the progressive, improvement-side of Whiggery and moral reform, and a local press that celebrated these values. By contrast local farmers lived on the outskirts of town and were reputed to be far less enthusiastic about experimenting in "modern techniques of farming and husbandry" than neighboring farmers. See James R. Newhall, Essex Memorial for 1836 (Lynn, 1837), 42.
118. Amesbury Town Meeting Records: 1844-1861 [microfilm Mss: reel #2], 26; "Petition to construct and maintain a railroad . . ." Ref. #11865: 1-12, Senate Unenacted, 1846, Mass. Archives.
119. Amesbury Town Meeting Records: 1844-1861 [microfilm Mss: reel #2], 26; "Petition to construct and maintain a railroad . . ." Ref. #11865: 1-12, Senate Unenacted, 1846, Mass. Archives.
120. Nayson, a druggist, had built the local Democratic party on a solid Jacksonian foundation in the early 1830s. See Amesbury Chronicle, 25 April 1833; Essex Transcript, 26 January 1844.
121. Nayson, a druggist, had built the local Democratic party on a solid Jacksonian foundation in the early 1830s. See Amesbury Chronicle, 25 April 1833; Essex Transcript, 26 January 1844.
122. Similar mobilizations elsewhere also suggest a middling base of support. See Thelma M. Kistler, "The Rise of Railroads in the Connecticut River Valley," Smith College Studies in History 23 (October, 1937-July, 1938): 73-90;
123. John Majewski and Daniel B. Klein, "Economy, Community, and the Law: the Turnpike Movement in New York, 1797-1845, " Law & Society Review 26 (1992): 469-512;
124. Majewski, Klein, and Christopher Baer, "Responding to Relative Economic Decline: The Plank Road Boom of Antebellum New York," The Journal of Economic History 53 (1993): 106-22.
125. Dale Baum, The Civil War Party System: The Case of Massachusetts, 1848-1876 (Chapel Hill, 1984), 24-31; Mulkern, Know-Nothing Party in Massachusetts, 29-59; Kevin Sweeney, "Rum, Romanism, Representation, and Reform: Coalition Politics in Massachusetts, 1847-1853," Civil War History 22 (1976): 116-37.
126. Dale Baum, The Civil War Party System: The Case of Massachusetts, 1848-1876 (Chapel Hill, 1984), 24-31; Mulkern, Know-Nothing Party in Massachusetts, 29-59; Kevin Sweeney, "Rum, Romanism, Representation, and Reform: Coalition Politics in Massachusetts, 1847-1853," Civil War History 22 (1976): 116-37.
127. Dale Baum, The Civil War Party System: The Case of Massachusetts, 1848-1876 (Chapel Hill, 1984), 24-31; Mulkern, Know-Nothing Party in Massachusetts, 29-59; Kevin Sweeney, "Rum, Romanism, Representation, and Reform: Coalition Politics in Massachusetts, 1847-1853," Civil War History 22 (1976): 116-37.
128. Villager, 25 April 1852; A Succinct Account of the Late Difficulties on the Salisbury Corporation (Salisbury, MA, 1852), 3.
129. Villager, 25 April 1852; A Succinct Account of the Late Difficulties on the Salisbury Corporation (Salisbury, MA, 1852), 3.
130. Victor S. Clark, History of Manufactures in the United States, 1607-1860 (Washington, DC, 1916), 613-5; Arthur H. Cole, The American Wool Manufacture, 2 vols. (Boston, 1926), I: 267-78; Thomas Dublin, Women at Work: The Transformation of Work and Community in Lowell, Massachusetts, 1826-1860 (New York, 1979), 133-6; Caroline F. Ware, Early New England Cotton Manufacture: A Study in Industrial Beginnings (New York, 1966 [originally published in 1931]), 108-14.
131. Victor S. Clark, History of Manufactures in the United States, 1607-1860 (Washington, DC, 1916), 613-5; Arthur H. Cole, The American Wool Manufacture, 2 vols. (Boston, 1926), I: 267-78; Thomas Dublin, Women at Work: The Transformation of Work and Community in Lowell, Massachusetts, 1826-1860 (New York, 1979), 133-6; Caroline F. Ware, Early New England Cotton Manufacture: A Study in Industrial Beginnings (New York, 1966 [originally published in 1931]), 108-14.
132. Victor S. Clark, History of Manufactures in the United States, 1607-1860 (Washington, DC, 1916), 613-5; Arthur H. Cole, The American Wool Manufacture, 2 vols. (Boston, 1926), I: 267-78; Thomas Dublin, Women at Work: The Transformation of Work and Community in Lowell, Massachusetts, 1826-1860 (New York, 1979), 133-6; Caroline F. Ware, Early New England Cotton Manufacture: A Study in Industrial Beginnings (New York, 1966 [originally published in 1931]), 108-14.
133. Victor S. Clark, History of Manufactures in the United States, 1607-1860 (Washington, DC, 1916), 613-5; Arthur H. Cole, The American Wool Manufacture, 2 vols. (Boston, 1926), I: 267-78; Thomas Dublin, Women at Work: The Transformation of Work and Community in Lowell, Massachusetts, 1826-1860 (New York, 1979), 133-6; Caroline F. Ware, Early New England Cotton Manufacture: A Study in Industrial Beginnings (New York, 1966 [originally published in 1931]), 108-14.
134. Derived from Boston Journal, 4 September 1854; Newburyport Daily Evening Union, 18 March 1853; Newburyport Herald, 7 September 1854; Villager, 12 February 1853; 16 March 1853; 12 January 1854; 1 December 1853.
135. Derived from Boston Journal, 4 September 1854; Newburyport Daily Evening Union, 18 March 1853; Newburyport Herald, 7 September 1854; Villager, 12 February 1853; 16 March 1853; 12 January 1854; 1 December 1853.
136. Derived from Boston Journal, 4 September 1854; Newburyport Daily Evening Union, 18 March 1853; Newburyport Herald, 7 September 1854; Villager, 12 February 1853; 16 March 1853; 12 January 1854; 1 December 1853.
137. Derived from Boston Journal, 4 September 1854; Newburyport Daily Evening Union, 18 March 1853; Newburyport Herald, 7 September 1854; Villager, 12 February 1853; 16 March 1853; 12 January 1854; 1 December 1853.
138. Derived from Boston Journal, 4 September 1854; Newburyport Daily Evening Union, 18 March 1853; Newburyport Herald, 7 September 1854; Villager, 12 February 1853; 16 March 1853; 12 January 1854; 1 December 1853.
139. Derived from Boston Journal, 4 September 1854; Newburyport Daily Evening Union, 18 March 1853; Newburyport Herald, 7 September 1854; Villager, 12 February 1853; 16 March 1853; 12 January 1854; 1 December 1853.
140. Derived from Boston Journal, 4 September 1854; Newburyport Daily Evening Union, 18 March 1853; Newburyport Herald, 7 September 1854; Villager, 12 February 1853; 16 March 1853; 12 January 1854; 1 December 1853.
141. Villager, 3 June 1852; 5 June 1852.
142. Villager, 3 June 1852; 5 June 1852.
143. ibid., 5 June 1852.
144. ibid., 24 June 1852; 15 July 1852; A Succinct Account, 14-16. For more on this theme, see Blewett, Men, Women, and Work, 68-96.
145. ibid., 24 June 1852; 15 July 1852; A Succinct Account, 14-16. For more on this theme, see Blewett, Men, Women, and Work, 68-96.
146. ibid., 24 June 1852; 15 July 1852; A Succinct Account, 14-16. For more on this theme, see Blewett, Men, Women, and Work, 68-96.
147. Villager, 10 June 1852: 17 June, 1852; A Succinct Account, 6-7.
148. Villager, 10 June 1852: 17 June, 1852; A Succinct Account, 6-7.
149. "Reply of Agent," Villager, 10 June 1852. See also "Letter from Overseers," Newburyport Herald, 8 June 1952.
150. "Reply of Agent," Villager, 10 June 1852. See also "Letter from Overseers," Newburyport Herald, 8 June 1952.
151. Villager, 10 June 1852; Daily Evening Union, 8 June 1852; Villager, 8 July 1852.
152. Villager, 10 June 1852; Daily Evening Union, 8 June 1852; Villager, 8 July 1852.
153. Villager, 10 June 1852; Daily Evening Union, 8 June 1852; Villager, 8 July 1852.
154. Newburyport Daily Evening Union, 12 June, 29 June 1852; Villager, 10 June, 15 July 1852; Haverhill Essex Banner, 10 July 1852; Amesbury Town Meeting Records, 1844-1861, 153-6, APL; Salisbury Town Meeting Records, 1797-1858, 693-5, Mass. Archives. Salisbury town selectmen, concerned that the incident might erode local support for the strike, published a stern rebuke and offered a reward for information leading to the apprehension of the alleged arsonist.
155. Newburyport Daily Evening Union, 12 June, 29 June 1852; Villager, 10 June, 15 July 1852; Haverhill Essex Banner, 10 July 1852; Amesbury Town Meeting Records, 1844-1861, 153-6, APL; Salisbury Town Meeting Records, 1797-1858, 693-5, Mass. Archives. Salisbury town selectmen, concerned that the incident might erode local support for the strike, published a stern rebuke and offered a reward for information leading to the apprehension of the alleged arsonist.
156. Newburyport Daily Evening Union, 12 June, 29 June 1852; Villager, 10 June, 15 July 1852; Haverhill Essex Banner, 10 July 1852; Amesbury Town Meeting Records, 1844-1861, 153-6, APL; Salisbury Town Meeting Records, 1797-1858, 693-5, Mass. Archives. Salisbury town selectmen, concerned that the incident might erode local support for the strike, published a stern rebuke and offered a reward for information leading to the apprehension of the alleged arsonist.
157. Newburyport Daily Evening Union, 12 June, 29 June 1852; Villager, 10 June, 15 July 1852; Haverhill Essex Banner, 10 July 1852; Amesbury Town Meeting Records, 1844-1861, 153-6, APL; Salisbury Town Meeting Records, 1797-1858, 693-5, Mass. Archives. Salisbury town selectmen, concerned that the incident might erode local support for the strike, published a stern rebuke and offered a reward for information leading to the apprehension of the alleged arsonist.
158. Newburyport Daily Evening Union, 12 June, 29 June 1852; Villager, 10 June, 15 July 1852; Haverhill Essex Banner, 10 July 1852; Amesbury Town Meeting Records, 1844-1861, 153-6, APL; Salisbury Town Meeting Records, 1797-1858, 693-5, Mass. Archives. Salisbury town selectmen, concerned that the incident might erode local support for the strike, published a stern rebuke and offered a reward for information leading to the apprehension of the alleged arsonist.
159. Solomon, "The Growth of the Population of Essex County," Tables I-III; Shurtleff, Census of Massachusetts . . . 1855, Table I.
160. Solomon, "The Growth of the Population of Essex County," Tables I-III; Shurtleff, Census of Massachusetts . . . 1855, Table I.
161. Villager, 24 June 1852; 8 July 1852; 30 September 1852. On the Massachusetts ten-hour movement, see Teresa Anne Murphy, Ten Hours' Labor: Religion, Reform, and Gender in Early New England (Ithaca, 1992).
162. Villager, 24 June 1852; 8 July 1852; 30 September 1852. On the Massachusetts ten-hour movement, see Teresa Anne Murphy, Ten Hours' Labor: Religion, Reform, and Gender in Early New England (Ithaca, 1992).
163. Villager, 24 June 1852; 8 July 1852; 30 September 1852. On the Massachusetts ten-hour movement, see Teresa Anne Murphy, Ten Hours' Labor: Religion, Reform, and Gender in Early New England (Ithaca, 1992).
164. Villager, 24 June 1852; 8 July 1852; 30 September 1852. On the Massachusetts ten-hour movement, see Teresa Anne Murphy, Ten Hours' Labor: Religion, Reform, and Gender in Early New England (Ithaca, 1992).
165. Currier in Villager, 30 September 1852; Ten Hour Circular in ibid., 8 July 1852; Nayson, "Minority Report," Massachusetts House Document No. 122, 1853, 3.
166. Currier in Villager, 30 September 1852; Ten Hour Circular in ibid., 8 July 1852; Nayson, "Minority Report," Massachusetts House Document No. 122, 1853, 3.
167. Currier in Villager, 30 September 1852; Ten Hour Circular in ibid., 8 July 1852; Nayson, "Minority Report," Massachusetts House Document No. 122, 1853, 3.
168. My thoughts here have been shaped by Goodman, "Emergence of Homestead Exemption;" James A. Marone, The Democratic Wish: Popular Participation and the Limits of American Government (New York, 1990), esp. 1-30; McCormick, Party Period and Public Policy, esp. 319-32; Michael Merrill and Sean Wilentz, "'The Key of Libberty': William Manning and Plebeian Democracy, 1747-1814," in Alfred F. Young, ed., Beyond the American Revolution: Explorations in the History of American Radicalism (DeKalb, IL, 1993), 246-82.
169. My thoughts here have been shaped by Goodman, "Emergence of Homestead Exemption;" James A. Marone, The Democratic Wish: Popular Participation and the Limits of American Government (New York, 1990), esp. 1-30; McCormick, Party Period and Public Policy, esp. 319-32; Michael Merrill and Sean Wilentz, "'The Key of Libberty': William Manning and Plebeian Democracy, 1747-1814," in Alfred F. Young, ed., Beyond the American Revolution: Explorations in the History of American Radicalism (DeKalb, IL, 1993), 246-82.
170. My thoughts here have been shaped by Goodman, "Emergence of Homestead Exemption;" James A. Marone, The Democratic Wish: Popular Participation and the Limits of American Government (New York, 1990), esp. 1-30; McCormick, Party Period and Public Policy, esp. 319-32; Michael Merrill and Sean Wilentz, "'The Key of Libberty': William Manning and Plebeian Democracy, 1747-1814," in Alfred F. Young, ed., Beyond the American Revolution: Explorations in the History of American Radicalism (DeKalb, IL, 1993), 246-82.
171. Villager, 30 September 1852;
172. 15 July 1852.
173. The movement also showed a clear tendency to attract old Liberty party activists. Fifteen of the twenty-four ten-hour activists (63%) whose partisan affiliation could be identified were associated with the antislavery insurgency. See my "Political Responses to the Market Revolution."
174. See Statistical Tables of Certain Branches of Industry in Massachusetts . . . 1837 (Boston, 1838), 5, 19; Palfrey, Statistics of the Branches of Industry in Massachusetts . . . 1845, 8, 34; De Witt Industry in Massachusetts . . . 1855, 111-3, 162-4; Federal Nonpopulation Schedules for Massachusetts, Manufacturing: 1850 and 1860.
175. See Statistical Tables of Certain Branches of Industry in Massachusetts . . . 1837 (Boston, 1838), 5, 19; Palfrey, Statistics of the Branches of Industry in Massachusetts . . . 1845, 8, 34; De Witt Industry in Massachusetts . . . 1855, 111-3, 162-4; Federal Nonpopulation Schedules for Massachusetts, Manufacturing: 1850 and 1860.
176. See Statistical Tables of Certain Branches of Industry in Massachusetts . . . 1837 (Boston, 1838), 5, 19; Palfrey, Statistics of the Branches of Industry in Massachusetts . . . 1845, 8, 34; De Witt Industry in Massachusetts . . . 1855, 111-3, 162-4; Federal Nonpopulation Schedules for Massachusetts, Manufacturing: 1850 and 1860.
177. See Statistical Tables of Certain Branches of Industry in Massachusetts . . . 1837 (Boston, 1838), 5, 19; Palfrey, Statistics of the Branches of Industry in Massachusetts . . . 1845, 8, 34; De Witt Industry in Massachusetts . . . 1855, 111-3, 162-4; Federal Nonpopulation Schedules for Massachusetts, Manufacturing: 1850 and 1860.
178. "H" quoted in Essex Banner, 7 August 1852. On Sawyer, Neale, & Co. see Mass. Vol. 23, 288, R. G. Dun & Co. Records, HBS. For further evidence of partnership, consolidation, and expansion see Essex Banner, 15 July 1852; Villager [?], December 1853; R. G. Dun & Co. Records, HBS, 180; DeWitt, Industry in Massachusetts . . . 1855, 111-3, 162-4; Federal Nonpopularion Schedules for Massachusetts, Manufacturing: 1850 and 1860; Allen, "History of Carriage Manufacturing," 1-4, 109-112.
179. "H" quoted in Essex Banner, 7 August 1852. On Sawyer, Neale, & Co. see Mass. Vol. 23, 288, R. G. Dun & Co. Records, HBS. For further evidence of partnership, consolidation, and expansion see Essex Banner, 15 July 1852; Villager [?], December 1853; R. G. Dun & Co. Records, HBS, 180; DeWitt, Industry in Massachusetts . . . 1855, 111-3, 162-4; Federal Nonpopularion Schedules for Massachusetts, Manufacturing: 1850 and 1860; Allen, "History of Carriage Manufacturing," 1-4, 109-112.
180. "H" quoted in Essex Banner, 7 August 1852. On Sawyer, Neale, & Co. see Mass. Vol. 23, 288, R. G. Dun & Co. Records, HBS. For further evidence of partnership, consolidation, and expansion see Essex Banner, 15 July 1852; Villager [?], December 1853; R. G. Dun & Co. Records, HBS, 180; DeWitt, Industry in Massachusetts . . . 1855, 111-3, 162-4; Federal Nonpopularion Schedules for Massachusetts, Manufacturing: 1850 and 1860; Allen, "History of Carriage Manufacturing," 1-4, 109-112.
181. "H" quoted in Essex Banner, 7 August 1852. On Sawyer, Neale, & Co. see Mass. Vol. 23, 288, R. G. Dun & Co. Records, HBS. For further evidence of partnership, consolidation, and expansion see Essex Banner, 15 July 1852; Villager [?], December 1853; R. G. Dun & Co. Records, HBS, 180; DeWitt, Industry in Massachusetts . . . 1855, 111-3, 162-4; Federal Nonpopularion Schedules for Massachusetts, Manufacturing: 1850 and 1860; Allen, "History of Carriage Manufacturing," 1-4, 109-112.
182. "H" quoted in Essex Banner, 7 August 1852. On Sawyer, Neale, & Co. see Mass. Vol. 23, 288, R. G. Dun & Co. Records, HBS. For further evidence of partnership, consolidation, and expansion see Essex Banner, 15 July 1852; Villager [?], December 1853; R. G. Dun & Co. Records, HBS, 180; DeWitt, Industry in Massachusetts . . . 1855, 111-3, 162-4; Federal Nonpopularion Schedules for Massachusetts, Manufacturing: 1850 and 1860; Allen, "History of Carriage Manufacturing," 1-4, 109-112.
183. "H" quoted in Essex Banner, 7 August 1852. On Sawyer, Neale, & Co. see Mass. Vol. 23, 288, R. G. Dun & Co. Records, HBS. For further evidence of partnership, consolidation, and expansion see Essex Banner, 15 July 1852; Villager [?], December 1853; R. G. Dun & Co. Records, HBS, 180; DeWitt, Industry in Massachusetts . . . 1855, 111-3, 162-4; Federal Nonpopularion Schedules for Massachusetts, Manufacturing: 1850 and 1860; Allen, "History of Carriage Manufacturing," 1-4, 109-112.
184. "H" quoted in Essex Banner, 7 August 1852. On Sawyer, Neale, & Co. see Mass. Vol. 23, 288, R. G. Dun & Co. Records, HBS. For further evidence of partnership, consolidation, and expansion see Essex Banner, 15 July 1852; Villager [?], December 1853; R. G. Dun & Co. Records, HBS, 180; DeWitt, Industry in Massachusetts . . . 1855, 111-3, 162-4; Federal Nonpopularion Schedules for Massachusetts, Manufacturing: 1850 and 1860; Allen, "History of Carriage Manufacturing," 1-4, 109-112.
185. "H" quoted in Essex Banner, 7 August 1852. On Sawyer, Neale, & Co. see Mass. Vol. 23, 288, R. G. Dun & Co. Records, HBS. For further evidence of partnership, consolidation, and expansion see Essex Banner, 15 July 1852; Villager [?], December 1853; R. G. Dun & Co. Records, HBS, 180; DeWitt, Industry in Massachusetts . . . 1855, 111-3, 162-4; Federal Nonpopularion Schedules for Massachusetts, Manufacturing: 1850 and 1860; Allen, "History of Carriage Manufacturing," 1-4, 109-112.
186. Amesbury Valuation and Tax Assessments Lists, 1840-1855 [microfilm Mss], APL; Federal Nonpopulation Census Schedules for Massachusetts, Manufacturing: 1850; Manufacturing: 1860.
187. Amesbury Valuation and Tax Assessments Lists, 1840-1855 [microfilm Mss], APL; Federal Nonpopulation Census Schedules for Massachusetts, Manufacturing: 1850; Manufacturing: 1860.
188. Amesbury Valuation and Tax Assessments Lists, 1840-1855 [microfilm Mss], APL; Federal Nonpopulation Census Schedules for Massachusetts, Manufacturing: 1850; Manufacturing: 1860.
189. The popular vote for state representative in 1852 was Amesbury: Ten Hour 58%; Whig 32%; Free Soil 07%; Other 03%; Salisbury: Ten Hour 62%; Whig 28%; Free Soil 10%.
190. Nayson, "Minority Report," 3-4. See also Newburyport Herald, 20 April 1853; "Bills and All Papers Relating to the Ten Hour Law," House Unenacted, file no. 3757, Mass. Archives; Villager, 5 May 1853.
191. Nayson, "Minority Report," 3-4. See also Newburyport Herald, 20 April 1853; "Bills and All Papers Relating to the Ten Hour Law," House Unenacted, file no. 3757, Mass. Archives; Villager, 5 May 1853.
192. Nayson, "Minority Report," 3-4. See also Newburyport Herald, 20 April 1853; "Bills and All Papers Relating to the Ten Hour Law," House Unenacted, file no. 3757, Mass. Archives; Villager, 5 May 1853.
193. See for example Villager, 24 February; 17 March; 7 April 1853; 8 November, 1853; Essex Banner, 15 October 1853.
194. See for example Villager, 24 February; 17 March; 7 April 1853; 8 November, 1853; Essex Banner, 15 October 1853.
195. See for example Villager, 24 February; 17 March; 7 April 1853; 8 November, 1853; Essex Banner, 15 October 1853.
196. Amesbury Town Meeting Records, 1844-1861, APL, 169-70; Salisbury Town Meeting Records, 1797-1858, Mass Archives 699-700. The Constitution of 1853 also included election by plurality, abolition of the poll tax, and a prohibition of state funding of sectarian schools. For more on the 1853 Constitutional Convention see Baum, Civil War Party System, 29-36; Mulkern, Know Nothings in Massachusetts, 40-59.
197. Amesbury Town Meeting Records, 1844-1861, APL, 169-70; Salisbury Town Meeting Records, 1797-1858, Mass Archives 699-700. The Constitution of 1853 also included election by plurality, abolition of the poll tax, and a prohibition of state funding of sectarian schools. For more on the 1853 Constitutional Convention see Baum, Civil War Party System, 29-36; Mulkern, Know Nothings in Massachusetts, 40-59.
198. Amesbury Town Meeting Records, 1844-1861, APL, 169-70; Salisbury Town Meeting Records, 1797-1858, Mass Archives 699-700. The Constitution of 1853 also included election by plurality, abolition of the poll tax, and a prohibition of state funding of sectarian schools. For more on the 1853 Constitutional Convention see Baum, Civil War Party System, 29-36; Mulkern, Know Nothings in Massachusetts, 40-59.
199. Amesbury Town Meeting Records, 1844-1861, APL, 169-70; Salisbury Town Meeting Records, 1797-1858, Mass Archives 699-700. The Constitution of 1853 also included election by plurality, abolition of the poll tax, and a prohibition of state funding of sectarian schools. For more on the 1853 Constitutional Convention see Baum, Civil War Party System, 29-36; Mulkern, Know Nothings in Massachusetts, 40-59.
200. On the Constitution's defeat, see Baum, Civil War Party System, 29-30; Mulkern, Know Nothings in Massachusetts, 53-59; Sweeney, "Rum, Romanism, Representation, and Reform," 135-6.
201. On the Constitution's defeat, see Baum, Civil War Party System, 29-30; Mulkern, Know Nothings in Massachusetts, 53-59; Sweeney, "Rum, Romanism, Representation, and Reform," 135-6.
202. On the Constitution's defeat, see Baum, Civil War Party System, 29-30; Mulkern, Know Nothings in Massachusetts, 53-59; Sweeney, "Rum, Romanism, Representation, and Reform," 135-6.
203. Villager, 29 July 1853. See also Herald, 5 November 1853; Mulkern, Know Nothings in Massachusetts, 53-4; Charles E. Persons, "Early History of Factory Legislation," in Susan Kingsbury, ed., Labor Laws and Their Enforcement: With Special Reference to Massachusetts (New York, 1911), 88.
204. Villager, 29 July 1853. See also Herald, 5 November 1853; Mulkern, Know Nothings in Massachusetts, 53-4; Charles E. Persons, "Early History of Factory Legislation," in Susan Kingsbury, ed., Labor Laws and Their Enforcement: With Special Reference to Massachusetts (New York, 1911), 88.
205. Villager, 29 July 1853. See also Herald, 5 November 1853; Mulkern, Know Nothings in Massachusetts, 53-4; Charles E. Persons, "Early History of Factory Legislation," in Susan Kingsbury, ed., Labor Laws and Their Enforcement: With Special Reference to Massachusetts (New York, 1911), 88.
206. Villager, 29 July 1853. See also Herald, 5 November 1853; Mulkern, Know Nothings in Massachusetts, 53-4; Charles E. Persons, "Early History of Factory Legislation," in Susan Kingsbury, ed., Labor Laws and Their Enforcement: With Special Reference to Massachusetts (New York, 1911), 88.
207. In the aggregate, the results on the referendum questions were: Question #1 (reapportionment, secret ballot, election by plurality, etc.): Yeas 441 Nays 403; Question #5 (abolition of imprisonment for debt): Y 455 N 384; Question #6 (prohibit state funds to sectarian schools): Y 472 N 371; Question #7 (prohibit special incorporation): Y 445 N 398; Question #8 (prohibit special charters to banks): Y 445 N 398. See Amesbury Town Meeting Records, 1844-1861, APL, 171; Salisbury Town Meeting Records, 1797-1858, Mass. Archives, 701.
208. Both quotes from "Yours etc." in Essex Banner, 26 November 1853.
209. The best accounts of the rise of the Republican party are Fogel, Without Consent or Contract; Eric Foner, Free Soil, Free Labor, Free Men: The Ideology of the Republican Party before the Civil War (New York, 1970).
210. Villager, 16 March; 27 April 1854; 17 August; 31 August 1854.
211. Villager, 16 March; 27 April 1854; 17 August; 31 August 1854.
212. ibid., 24 June 1852; 2 November; 14 December 1854.
213. ibid., 24 June 1852; 2 November; 14 December 1854.
214. ibid., 24 June 1852.
215. See also ibid. 21 October 1852;
216. 17 March 1853;
217. 2 June 1853;
218. 22 September 1853;
219. 24 November 1853;
220. 11 May 1854.
221. For more on the ethnocultural dimension of the Know Nothing appeal, see Anbinder, Nativism and Slavery, esp. 103-22;
222. Gienapp, Origins of the Republican Party, passim.
223. Villager, 24 June; 27 January 1853; 23 February 1854.
224. Villager, 24 June; 27 January 1853; 23 February 1854.
225. ibid., 24 November 1853; 17 November 1853. See also Essex Banner, 5 August 1854; Newburyport Herald, 24 August; 4 October; 11 October 1854.
226. ibid., 24 November 1853; 17 November 1853. See also Essex Banner, 5 August 1854; Newburyport Herald, 24 August; 4 October; 11 October 1854.
227. ibid., 24 November 1853; 17 November 1853. See also Essex Banner, 5 August 1854; Newburyport Herald, 24 August; 4 October; 11 October 1854.
228. ibid., 24 November 1853; 17 November 1853. See also Essex Banner, 5 August 1854; Newburyport Herald, 24 August; 4 October; 11 October 1854.
229. Villager, 2 March 1854; 28 September 1854. Studies that have recognized the centrality of antislavery to the Know Nothing revolt are Anbinder, Nativism and Slavery, 44-102, and passim; Fogel, Without Consent or Contract, 320-87; Foner, Free Soil, Free Labor, Free Men, 238-40. Indeed, the strength of antislavery sentiment in the two towns is indicated further by the consistently large majorities polled by the Republican party beginning 1856. See sources listed in Table I.
230. Villager, 2 March 1854; 28 September 1854. Studies that have recognized the centrality of antislavery to the Know Nothing revolt are Anbinder, Nativism and Slavery, 44-102, and passim; Fogel, Without Consent or Contract, 320-87; Foner, Free Soil, Free Labor, Free Men, 238-40. Indeed, the strength of antislavery sentiment in the two towns is indicated further by the consistently large majorities polled by the Republican party beginning 1856. See sources listed in Table I.
231. Villager, 2 March 1854; 28 September 1854. Studies that have recognized the centrality of antislavery to the Know Nothing revolt are Anbinder, Nativism and Slavery, 44-102, and passim; Fogel, Without Consent or Contract, 320-87; Foner, Free Soil, Free Labor, Free Men, 238-40. Indeed, the strength of antislavery sentiment in the two towns is indicated further by the consistently large majorities polled by the Republican party beginning 1856. See sources listed in Table I.
232. Villager, 2 March 1854; 28 September 1854. Studies that have recognized the centrality of antislavery to the Know Nothing revolt are Anbinder, Nativism and Slavery, 44-102, and passim; Fogel, Without Consent or Contract, 320-87; Foner, Free Soil, Free Labor, Free Men, 238-40. Indeed, the strength of antislavery sentiment in the two towns is indicated further by the consistently large majorities polled by the Republican party beginning 1856. See sources listed in Table I.
233. Villager, 2 March 1854; 28 September 1854. Studies that have recognized the centrality of antislavery to the Know Nothing revolt are Anbinder, Nativism and Slavery, 44-102, and passim; Fogel, Without Consent or Contract, 320-87; Foner, Free Soil, Free Labor, Free Men, 238-40. Indeed, the strength of antislavery sentiment in the two towns is indicated further by the consistently large majorities polled by the Republican party beginning 1856. See sources listed in Table I.
234. Other noteworthy reforms passed by, or with the solid backing of, Know Nothings in Massachusetts (1855-1857) included the creation of the state's first Insurance Commission with powers of inspection; expansion of railroad safety laws; substantial reductions in the amount of capital increases granted to private banks. Popular electoral reforms were also enacted that curtailed the appointive powers of the Governor and made the offices of secretary of state, treasurer, and attorney general elective; instituted election by plurality, and established a fairer scheme of apportionment among senate and house districts. Without diminishing the real prejudice at the center of the measures, one can also read the abolition of Irish militia companies, the dismissal of Irish state workers, the harassment of convents, and the efforts to disenfranchise immigrants as reprehensible attempts by nativists to uphold the rights and opportunities of native-born small producers. In a similar fashion, strong antislavery resolutions and the radical Personal Liberty Law adopted in 1855 may be interpreted in more honorable light as symbolic efforts to protect northern small producers against the threats of the slave oligarchy. For more on Know Nothing government in Massachusetts, see Formisano, Transformation of Political Culture, 331-43; Mulkern, Know Nothing Party in Massachusetts, 87-113.
235. Other noteworthy reforms passed by, or with the solid backing of, Know Nothings in Massachusetts (1855-1857) included the creation of the state's first Insurance Commission with powers of inspection; expansion of railroad safety laws; substantial reductions in the amount of capital increases granted to private banks. Popular electoral reforms were also enacted that curtailed the appointive powers of the Governor and made the offices of secretary of state, treasurer, and attorney general elective; instituted election by plurality, and established a fairer scheme of apportionment among senate and house districts. Without diminishing the real prejudice at the center of the measures, one can also read the abolition of Irish militia companies, the dismissal of Irish state workers, the harassment of convents, and the efforts to disenfranchise immigrants as reprehensible attempts by nativists to uphold the rights and opportunities of native-born small producers. In a similar fashion, strong antislavery resolutions and the radical Personal Liberty Law adopted in 1855 may be interpreted in more honorable light as symbolic efforts to protect northern small producers against the threats of the slave oligarchy. For more on Know Nothing government in Massachusetts, see Formisano, Transformation of Political Culture, 331-43; Mulkern, Know Nothing Party in Massachusetts, 87-113.
236. Villager, 15 March 1855; Carey, "Report from the Committee on Regulating Hours of Labor in Incorporated Establishments," in "Papers Relating to an Act Concerning the Hours of Labor in Incorporated Establishments," Senate Unenacted ,(1855) file No. 18268, Mass. Archives. Also see Villager, 2 February; 6 April 1854; 8 February; 22 February; 1 March; 29 March; 19 April 1855. The House vote on the ten-hour bill was 191 to 81 in favor; the Senate's 26 to 11 against. Representatives Rich and Rowell, and Senator Evans voted yea.
237. Villager, 15 March 1855; Carey, "Report from the Committee on Regulating Hours of Labor in Incorporated Establishments," in "Papers Relating to an Act Concerning the Hours of Labor in Incorporated Establishments," Senate Unenacted ,(1855) file No. 18268, Mass. Archives. Also see Villager, 2 February; 6 April 1854; 8 February; 22 February; 1 March; 29 March; 19 April 1855. The House vote on the ten-hour bill was 191 to 81 in favor; the Senate's 26 to 11 against. Representatives Rich and Rowell, and Senator Evans voted yea.
238. Villager, 15 March 1855; Carey, "Report from the Committee on Regulating Hours of Labor in Incorporated Establishments," in "Papers Relating to an Act Concerning the Hours of Labor in Incorporated Establishments," Senate Unenacted ,(1855) file No. 18268, Mass. Archives. Also see Villager, 2 February; 6 April 1854; 8 February; 22 February; 1 March; 29 March; 19 April 1855. The House vote on the ten-hour bill was 191 to 81 in favor; the Senate's 26 to 11 against. Representatives Rich and Rowell, and Senator Evans voted yea.
239. Villager, 15 March 1855; Carey, "Report from the Committee on Regulating Hours of Labor in Incorporated Establishments," in "Papers Relating to an Act Concerning the Hours of Labor in Incorporated Establishments," Senate Unenacted ,(1855) file No. 18268, Mass. Archives. Also see Villager, 2 February; 6 April 1854; 8 February; 22 February; 1 March; 29 March; 19 April 1855. The House vote on the ten-hour bill was 191 to 81 in favor; the Senate's 26 to 11 against. Representatives Rich and Rowell, and Senator Evans voted yea.
240. Villager, 15 March 1855; Carey, "Report from the Committee on Regulating Hours of Labor in Incorporated Establishments," in "Papers Relating to an Act Concerning the Hours of Labor in Incorporated Establishments," Senate Unenacted ,(1855) file No. 18268, Mass. Archives. Also see Villager, 2 February; 6 April 1854; 8 February; 22 February; 1 March; 29 March; 19 April 1855. The House vote on the ten-hour bill was 191 to 81 in favor; the Senate's 26 to 11 against. Representatives Rich and Rowell, and Senator Evans voted yea.
241. Villager, 15 March 1855; Carey, "Report from the Committee on Regulating Hours of Labor in Incorporated Establishments," in "Papers Relating to an Act Concerning the Hours of Labor in Incorporated Establishments," Senate Unenacted ,(1855) file No. 18268, Mass. Archives. Also see Villager, 2 February; 6 April 1854; 8 February; 22 February; 1 March; 29 March; 19 April 1855. The House vote on the ten-hour bill was 191 to 81 in favor; the Senate's 26 to 11 against. Representatives Rich and Rowell, and Senator Evans voted yea.
242. Villager, 15 March 1855; Carey, "Report from the Committee on Regulating Hours of Labor in Incorporated Establishments," in "Papers Relating to an Act Concerning the Hours of Labor in Incorporated Establishments," Senate Unenacted ,(1855) file No. 18268, Mass. Archives. Also see Villager, 2 February; 6 April 1854; 8 February; 22 February; 1 March; 29 March; 19 April 1855. The House vote on the ten-hour bill was 191 to 81 in favor; the Senate's 26 to 11 against. Representatives Rich and Rowell, and Senator Evans voted yea.
243. Villager, 15 March 1855; Carey, "Report from the Committee on Regulating Hours of Labor in Incorporated Establishments," in "Papers Relating to an Act Concerning the Hours of Labor in Incorporated Establishments," Senate Unenacted ,(1855) file No. 18268, Mass. Archives. Also see Villager, 2 February; 6 April 1854; 8 February; 22 February; 1 March; 29 March; 19 April 1855. The House vote on the ten-hour bill was 191 to 81 in favor; the Senate's 26 to 11 against. Representatives Rich and Rowell, and Senator Evans voted yea.
244. Villager, 15 March 1855; Carey, "Report from the Committee on Regulating Hours of Labor in Incorporated Establishments," in "Papers Relating to an Act Concerning the Hours of Labor in Incorporated Establishments," Senate Unenacted ,(1855) file No. 18268, Mass. Archives. Also see Villager, 2 February; 6 April 1854; 8 February; 22 February; 1 March; 29 March; 19 April 1855. The House vote on the ten-hour bill was 191 to 81 in favor; the Senate's 26 to 11 against. Representatives Rich and Rowell, and Senator Evans voted yea.
245. Carruthers in Villager, 6 October 1853. For other states see for example Tony A. Freyer, Producers versus Capitalists: Constitutional Conflict in Antebellum America (Charlottesville, 1994); Goodman, "Emergence of Homestead Exemption"; L. Ray Gunn, The Decline of Authority: Public Economic Policy and Political Development in New York State, 1800-1860 (Ithaca, 1988), 170-221; Louis Hartz, Economic Policy and Democratic Thought: Pennsylvania, 1776-1860 (Cambridge, 1948), 187-235; 254-85.
246. Carruthers in Villager, 6 October 1853. For other states see for example Tony A. Freyer, Producers versus Capitalists: Constitutional Conflict in Antebellum America (Charlottesville, 1994); Goodman, "Emergence of Homestead Exemption"; L. Ray Gunn, The Decline of Authority: Public Economic Policy and Political Development in New York State, 1800-1860 (Ithaca, 1988), 170-221; Louis Hartz, Economic Policy and Democratic Thought: Pennsylvania, 1776-1860 (Cambridge, 1948), 187-235; 254-85.
247. Carruthers in Villager, 6 October 1853. For other states see for example Tony A. Freyer, Producers versus Capitalists: Constitutional Conflict in Antebellum America (Charlottesville, 1994); Goodman, "Emergence of Homestead Exemption"; L. Ray Gunn, The Decline of Authority: Public Economic Policy and Political Development in New York State, 1800-1860 (Ithaca, 1988), 170-221; Louis Hartz, Economic Policy and Democratic Thought: Pennsylvania, 1776-1860 (Cambridge, 1948), 187-235; 254-85.
248. Carruthers in Villager, 6 October 1853. For other states see for example Tony A. Freyer, Producers versus Capitalists: Constitutional Conflict in Antebellum America (Charlottesville, 1994); Goodman, "Emergence of Homestead Exemption"; L. Ray Gunn, The Decline of Authority: Public Economic Policy and Political Development in New York State, 1800-1860 (Ithaca, 1988), 170-221; Louis Hartz, Economic Policy and Democratic Thought: Pennsylvania, 1776-1860 (Cambridge, 1948), 187-235; 254-85.
249. Carruthers in Villager, 6 October 1853. For other states see for example Tony A. Freyer, Producers versus Capitalists: Constitutional Conflict in Antebellum America (Charlottesville, 1994); Goodman, "Emergence of Homestead Exemption"; L. Ray Gunn, The Decline of Authority: Public Economic Policy and Political Development in New York State, 1800-1860 (Ithaca, 1988), 170-221; Louis Hartz, Economic Policy and Democratic Thought: Pennsylvania, 1776-1860 (Cambridge, 1948), 187-235; 254-85.