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Volumn 70, Issue 1, 1996, Pages 1-23

How the concept of profession evolved in the work of historians of medicine

(1)  Burnham, John C a  

a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ARTICLE; EUROPE; HISTORY; HISTORY OF MEDICINE; HUMAN; SOCIOLOGY; UNITED STATES;

EID: 0030092848     PISSN: 00075140     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1353/bhm.1996.0034     Document Type: Article
Times cited : (27)

References (115)
  • 2
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    • Introduction
    • ed. idem Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press
    • Gerald L. Geison, "Introduction," in Professions and the French State, 1700-1900, ed. idem (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1984), pp. 2-3, discusses the limitations of the term in French scholarship;
    • (1984) Professions and the French State, 1700-1900 , pp. 2-3
    • Geison, G.L.1
  • 5
    • 27544445587 scopus 로고
    • trans. W. G. Spencer, 3 vols. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press
    • The classic example is Celsus, De medicina, trans. W. G. Spencer, 3 vols. (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1935-1938), 1: 4-9.
    • (1935) De Medicina , vol.1 , pp. 4-9
  • 6
    • 0003885667 scopus 로고
    • The History of the Medical Profession
    • ed. W. F. Bynum and Roy Porter, 2 vols. London: Routledge
    • See the masterful essay by Toby Gelfand, "The History of the Medical Profession," in Companion Encyclopedia of the History of Medicine, ed. W. F. Bynum and Roy Porter, 2 vols. (London: Routledge, 1993), 2: 1119-50.
    • (1993) Companion Encyclopedia of the History of Medicine , vol.2 , pp. 1119-1150
    • Gelfand, T.1
  • 7
    • 84888794184 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • offer in further evidence a random sample from my recent reading, which showed that the concept was important in two out of four main articles in the latest number of the U.S. journal, the Bulletin of the History of Medicine, at the same time that in the concurrent issue of the British-based Social History of Medicine the idea of profession was included in more than a third of the twenty-two book reviews.
    • Bulletin of the History of Medicine
  • 8
    • 84970110007 scopus 로고
    • The Order of Professionalization: An Empirical Analysis
    • Andrew Abbott, "The Order of Professionalization: An Empirical Analysis," Work Occup., 1991, 18: 355-56.
    • (1991) Work Occup. , vol.18 , pp. 355-356
    • Abbott, A.1
  • 9
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    • The Medical Professions in the Eighteenth Century
    • 2d serv.
    • Bernice Hamilton, "The Medical Professions in the Eighteenth Century," Econ. Hist. Rev., 2d serv., 1951, 4: 141-69.
    • (1951) Econ. Hist. Rev. , vol.4 , pp. 141-169
    • Hamilton, B.1
  • 10
    • 10144247735 scopus 로고
    • The Historiography of Medicine
    • ed. Piero Corsi and Paul Weindling London: Butterworth Scientific
    • Charles Webster, "The Historiography of Medicine," in Information Sources in the History of Science and Medicine, ed. Piero Corsi and Paul Weindling (London: Butterworth Scientific, 1983), pp. 29-43, provides an unusually incisive summary of major formative publications.
    • (1983) Information Sources in the History of Science and Medicine , pp. 29-43
    • Webster, C.1
  • 12
    • 27544436088 scopus 로고
    • Daniel Le Clerc (1652-1728) und seine Histoire de la médecine
    • For discussion of Le Clerc, see, for example, P. Röthlisberger, "Daniel Le Clerc (1652-1728) und seine Histoire de la médecine," Gesnerus, 1964, 2: 126-41.
    • (1964) Gesnerus , vol.2 , pp. 126-141
    • Röthlisberger, P.1
  • 18
    • 27544435645 scopus 로고
    • 5 vols. Halle: Johann Jacob Gebauer. esp. 1: 2: 159; 2d ed., 5 vols. (Halle: Johann Jacob Gebauer, 1800-1803), esp. 1: 3; 2: 215-27; 5: ii (the two eds. had identical vols. 5)
    • Kurt Sprengel, Versuch einer pragmatischen Geschichte der Anneikunde, 5 vols. (Halle: Johann Jacob Gebauer. 1792-1803), esp. 1: 4, 9, 12, and 2: 159; 2d ed., 5 vols. (Halle: Johann Jacob Gebauer, 1800-1803), esp. 1: 3; 2: 215-27; 5: ii (the two eds. had identical vols. 5).
    • (1792) Versuch Einer Pragmatischen Geschichte der Anneikunde , pp. 4
    • Sprengel, K.1
  • 20
    • 11244316743 scopus 로고
    • Levels of Integration in Medical Historiography: A Review
    • The descriptive term "iatrocentric" is attributed to George Rosen, "Levels of Integration in Medical Historiography: A Review," J. Hist. Med., 1949, 4: 465.
    • (1949) J. Hist. Med. , vol.4 , pp. 465
    • Rosen, G.1
  • 23
    • 24544459327 scopus 로고
    • 2 vols. Paris: Librairie Germer-Baillière
    • See, for another example, E. Bouchut, Histoire de la médecine et des doctrines médicales, 2 vols. (Paris: Librairie Germer-Baillière, 1873), who really did stick to his announced subject, the history of medical doctrines.
    • (1873) Histoire de la Médecine et des Doctrines Médicales
    • Bouchut, E.1
  • 24
    • 27544458388 scopus 로고
    • History of the Medical Profession, and Its Influence on Public Health, in England
    • William Fair, "History of the Medical Profession, and Its Influence on Public Health, in England," The Medical Annual, or, British Medical Almanack, 1839, 113-78; quotation on p. 113. A promised continuation of the narrative never appeared.
    • (1839) The Medical Annual, or, British Medical Almanack , pp. 113-178
    • Fair, W.1
  • 25
    • 0003859475 scopus 로고
    • Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press
    • John M. Eyler, Victorian Social Medicine: The Ideas and Methods of William Farr (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1979), esp. pp. 2-3, places this work in context and suggests that Farr used at least the language of political reform (as against the monopolies of corporations) in his medical reform campaigns. I shall note below how a national focus in medical historical writing could elicit attention to professional collectivities.
    • (1979) Victorian Social Medicine: The Ideas and Methods of William Farr , pp. 2-3
    • Eyler, J.M.1
  • 28
    • 0038092824 scopus 로고
    • trans. and ed. H. E. Handerson New York: J. H. Vail
    • Johann Hermann Baas, idem, Outlines of the History of Medicine and the Medical Profession, trans. and ed. H. E. Handerson (New York: J. H. Vail, 1889). Stand is ambiguous, and Handerson sometimes translated it, perhaps more appropriately, in the sense of the conditions under which physicians practiced. The narrow emphasis of Baas on the legal standing of the profession, as opposed to professional sense, is underlined, for example, by Handerson's gratuitously adding a passage about "colleagueship" (p. 733) that was not in the German original (p. 589).
    • (1889) Outlines of the History of Medicine and the Medical Profession
    • Baas, J.H.1
  • 29
    • 27544460430 scopus 로고
    • Berlin: Friedrich Wreden
    • Later, in Johann Hermann Baas, Die geschichtliche Entwicklung des ärztlichen Standes und der medicinischen Wissenschaften (Berlin: Friedrich Wreden, 1896), Baas retold the narrative, with the institutional base of medicine as the setting in which medical ideas developed; other historians very seldom cited this second work; the work was reprinted much later (Wiesbaden: Sendig, 1967).
    • (1896) Die Geschichtliche Entwicklung des Ärztlichen Standes und der Medicinischen Wissenschaften
    • Baas, J.H.1
  • 30
    • 20144372452 scopus 로고
    • trans. Evan H. Hare London: H. K. Lewis
    • Theodor Puschmann, A History of Medical Education from the Most Remote to the Most Recent Times [1889], trans. Evan H. Hare (London: H. K. Lewis, 1891). The coverage of an early chapter on "The Medical Profession in Rome," which included in a broad way institutions, status, fees, and especially legal recognition, was not recapitulated in the rest of the book; instead, the later focus was on curriculum and the scientific developments that went into it.
    • (1889) A History of Medical Education from the Most Remote to the Most Recent Times
    • Puschmann, T.1
  • 31
    • 27544467700 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Another subject that often entered standard narratives in an incidental way was the history of successive epidemics neither epidemics nor the profession was usually integrated into the customary intellectual history. The intellectual history format was modeled on traditions of the history of civilization and history of philosophy common in the late nineteenth century.
  • 33
    • 27544497376 scopus 로고
    • Geschichte des ärztlichen Standes
    • ed. Max Neuburger and Julius Pagel, 3 vols. Jena: Gustav Fischer
    • A similar list of publications about conditions of the medical profession from that period can be found in the Surgeon General's Index-Catalogue. Similarly, Wolf Becher, "Geschichte des ärztlichen Standes," in Handbuch der Geschichte der Medizin, ed. Max Neuburger and Julius Pagel, 3 vols. (Jena: Gustav Fischer, 1902-5), 3: 1001-22, dealt with legal status and was presentist in orientation.
    • (1902) Handbuch der Geschichte der Medizin , vol.3 , pp. 1001-1022
    • Becher, W.1
  • 34
    • 27544498211 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • The number and variety, from all countries, are so great that not even examples are cited. Nor do I take up here another category, biography, in which discussions of profession were even more scattered - albeit sometimes very vivid, as in professional quarrels.
  • 36
    • 27544438409 scopus 로고
    • Berlin: August Hirschwald
    • Garrison did include discussions of some professional matters very incidentally. A particularly graphic demonstration of the individual-and-idea approach was J. L. Pagel's construction of a summary table of the history of medicine, similar to what would later be called a timeline. At one point, Pagel even made explicit what the subject of the history of medicine was: authors. And so they appeared in his table. He was so consistent that his table had to omit the usual discussion of prehistoric healers - because there were no authors to be listed! J. L. Pagel, Zeittafeln zur Geschichte der Medizin (Berlin: August Hirschwald, 1908), esp. p. 7.
    • (1908) Zeittafeln zur Geschichte der Medizin , pp. 7
    • Pagel, J.L.1
  • 38
    • 27544492965 scopus 로고
    • trans. and ed. Fielding H. Garrison et al. New York: Medical Life Press
    • See, for example, Karl Sudhoff, Essays in the History of Medicine, trans. and ed. Fielding H. Garrison et al. (New York: Medical Life Press, 1926), pp. 99-120;
    • (1926) Essays in the History of Medicine , pp. 99-120
    • Sudhoff, K.1
  • 43
    • 0041881720 scopus 로고
    • Beiträge zur Geschichte der Medizinalreform von 1848
    • Erwin H. Ackerknecht, "Beiträge zur Geschichte der Medizinalreform von 1848," Sudhoffs Archiv f. Geschichte d. Medizin, 1932, 25: 61-109, 113-83 (this was a doctoral dissertation written in Sigerist's institute);
    • (1932) Sudhoffs Archiv F. Geschichte D. Medizin , vol.25 , pp. 61-109
    • Ackerknecht, E.H.1
  • 46
    • 27544440540 scopus 로고
    • Einleitung
    • Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft
    • Historian of medicine Erna Lesky, in "Einleitung," in Sozialmedizin: Entwicklung und Selbstverständnis (Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1977), pp. 1-4, traces the lineage of social medicine even into her own day and discipline.
    • (1977) Sozialmedizin: Entwicklung und Selbstverständnis , pp. 1-4
    • Lesky, E.1
  • 47
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    • The Evolution of Social Medicine
    • ed. Howard E. Freeman, Sol Levine, and Leo G. Reeder Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall
    • See also George Rosen, "The Evolution of Social Medicine," in Handbook of Medical Sociology, ed. Howard E. Freeman, Sol Levine, and Leo G. Reeder (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1963), pp. 17-61.
    • (1963) Handbook of Medical Sociology , pp. 17-61
    • Rosen, G.1
  • 48
    • 85026202377 scopus 로고
    • Princeton: Princeton University Press, chaps. 2-3
    • There is an enormous literature on the "new history"; it is of interest here only in the most obvious and unsubtle ways. See, for example, Robert Allen Skotheim, American Intellectual Histories and Historians (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1966), chaps. 2-3.
    • (1966) American Intellectual Histories and Historians
    • Skotheim, R.A.1
  • 49
    • 3142577139 scopus 로고
    • Chicago: University of Chicago Press, esp. chap. 7
    • A general context is furnished by Ernst A. Breisach, American Progressive History: An Experiment in Modernization (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993), esp. chap. 7, which suggests how, in the interwar period, sociological ideas (see below) were insufficient and ineffective.
    • (1993) American Progressive History: An Experiment in Modernization
    • Breisach, E.A.1
  • 50
    • 27544445148 scopus 로고
    • The Historian Looks at Medicine
    • Richard H. Shryock, "The Historian Looks at Medicine," Bull. Inst. Hist. Med., 1937, 5: 887-94 (quotation on p. 891); this is a very informative description of the status of the new history in medical history at the time.
    • (1937) Bull. Inst. Hist. Med. , vol.5 , pp. 887-894
    • Shryock, R.H.1
  • 51
    • 80054913543 scopus 로고
    • 1783-1850 New York: Columbia University Press
    • Henry Burnell Shafer, The American Medical Profession, 1783-1850 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1936). In contrast to Hamilton in 1951 (noted above), Shafer's recognition of a professional dynamic was casual: "While the medical profession was developing its professional spirit in schools and literature, it was also organizing medical societies" (p. 200).
    • (1936) The American Medical Profession
    • Shafer, H.B.1
  • 52
    • 0004179218 scopus 로고
    • Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall
    • Most of the classic papers were collected in Howard M. Vollmer and Donald L. Mills, eds., Professionalization (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1966).
    • (1966) Professionalization
    • Vollmer, H.M.1    Mills, D.L.2
  • 53
    • 0003585766 scopus 로고
    • Chicago: University of Chicago Press
    • See, for example, the discussion in Eliot Freidson, Professionalism Reborn: Theory, Prophecy, and Policy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994), pp. 16-19, in a broadly contextualizing section on the definition and use of the idea of profession (pp. 13-45).
    • (1994) Professionalism Reborn: Theory, Prophecy, and Policy , pp. 16-19
    • Freidson, E.1
  • 54
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    • The Politics of Medical Professionalization in France 1845-1848
    • George Weisz, "The Politics of Medical Professionalization in France 1845-1848," J. Soc. Hist., 1978, 12: 3-30, contrasts the meaning of the history of the medical profession in France with that in America.
    • (1978) J. Soc. Hist. , vol.12 , pp. 3-30
    • Weisz, G.1
  • 56
    • 0002359064 scopus 로고
    • Professionalisation
    • ed. R. C. Olby et al. London: Routledge
    • J. B. Morrell, "Professionalisation," in Companion to the History of Modern Science, ed. R. C. Olby et al. (London: Routledge, 1990), pp. 980-89, for example, traced to Carr-Saunders and Wilson the idea of historical change in which "various occupations gained the characteristics of a profession.... an aspect of occupational development and strategy, in which the desire for higher status, autonomous control of conditions of work and control of the market in the interest of higher rewards (financial and honorary) were all prominent" (p. 981). Yet in the 1930s, this developmental model inherent in Carr-Saunders and Wilson's book did not immediately emerge into the understanding of readers. The authors did not use the term "professionalization" (although it had been used in English occasionally, albeit casually, since the turn of the century). Critics complained, and with good reason, of a lack of general viewpoint in the work.
    • (1990) Companion to the History of Modern Science , pp. 980-989
    • Morrell, J.B.1
  • 57
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    • Encroachment, Charlatanism, and the Emerging Profession: Psychology, Sociology, and Medicine
    • William J. Goode, "Encroachment, Charlatanism, and the Emerging Profession: Psychology, Sociology, and Medicine," Amer. Sociol. Rev., 1960, 25: 902.
    • (1960) Amer. Sociol. Rev. , vol.25 , pp. 902
    • Goode, W.J.1
  • 58
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    • Springfield, Ill.: Charles C. Thomas
    • "Professions," wrote pioneer medical sociologist Norman G. Hawkins in 1958, "are characteristic of advanced societies, i.e., those in which specialization and formal relations are dominant and laws tend to replace mores and folkways as the framework of the culture" (Medical Sociology: Theory, Scope and Method [Springfield, Ill.: Charles C. Thomas, 1958], p. 227).
    • (1958) Medical Sociology: Theory, Scope and Method , pp. 227
  • 60
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    • (n. 33)
    • Freidson, Professionalism Reborn (n. 33), pp. 2-6, gives a brief overview of the postwar decades.
    • Professionalism Reborn , pp. 2-6
    • Freidson1
  • 61
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    • The Professionalization of Everyone?
    • An important contemporary analysis was Harold L. Wilensky, "The Professionalization of Everyone?" Amer. J. Social., 1964, 70: 137-58.
    • (1964) Amer. J. Social. , vol.70 , pp. 137-158
    • Wilensky, H.L.1
  • 64
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    • Le rayonnement des Ecoles de Salerne et de Montpellier: Sur l'exercise de la profession médicale par les maitres de Salerne vers 1200
    • Brussels: Le Scalpel
    • M. E.-H. Guitard, "Le rayonnement des Ecoles de Salerne et de Montpellier: Sur l'exercise de la profession médicale par les maitres de Salerne vers 1200," Comptes Rendus du XIIIème Congrès international d'histoire de la médicine [1952] (Brussels: Le Scalpel, 1954), pp. 217-20.
    • (1952) Comptes Rendus du XIIIème Congrès International d'Histoire de la Médicine , pp. 217-220
    • Guitard, M.E.-H.1
  • 65
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    • The Interplay of Social and Internal Factors in Modern Medicine, an Historical Analysis
    • See, for example, Richard H. Shryock, "The Interplay of Social and Internal Factors in Modern Medicine, an Historical Analysis," Centaurus, 1953, 3: 107-25.
    • (1953) Centaurus , vol.3 , pp. 107-125
    • Shryock, R.H.1
  • 73
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    • The Development of Medicine
    • by Vern Bullough
    • C. H. Talbot, review of The Development of Medicine, by Vern Bullough, Med. Hist., 1968, 12: 106. As Bullough recalled, "several of my colleagues have told me that if I had entitled my book Medicine in the Medieval University: The Development of Medicine as a Profession instead of The Development of Medicine as a Profession: Medicine in the Medieval University, it would have sold better" - that is, had more impact (letter from Vern Bullough, 22 May 1994).
    • (1968) Med. Hist. , vol.12 , pp. 106
    • Talbot, C.H.1
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    • Compare the more appreciative reviews by E. A. Hammond, Bull. Hist. Med., 1968, 42: 579-80;
    • (1968) Bull. Hist. Med. , vol.42 , pp. 579-580
    • Hammond, E.A.1
  • 75
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    • and Eduard Seidler, Sudhoffs Archiv, 1967, 51: 373-74. Hammond's 1968 review includes the first use of the term "professionalization" that I found in the Bulletin of the History of Medicine.
    • (1967) Sudhoffs Archiv , vol.51 , pp. 373-374
    • Seidler, E.1
  • 77
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    • Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press
    • Shryock pointed out that there was a "profession" category in the work edited by Genevieve Miller, Bibliography of the History of Medicine of the United States and Canada, 1939-1960 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1964), pp. 343-19; Miller's category was very broad, including not only licensure and organizations but sects and women physicians.
    • (1964) Bibliography of the History of Medicine of the United States and Canada, 1939-1960 , pp. 343-419
    • Miller, G.1
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    • The Medical Profession, Medical Practice and the History of Medicine
    • ed. Edwin Clarke London: Athlone Press
    • Charles E. Rosenberg, "The Medical Profession, Medical Practice and the History of Medicine," in Modern Methods in the History of Medicine, ed. Edwin Clarke (London: Athlone Press, 1971), pp. 22-35. Even as a beginning medical historian, Rosenberg had been interested in the subject, and I have no doubt that he was well aware of the sociological literature;
    • (1971) Modern Methods in the History of Medicine , pp. 22-35
    • Rosenberg, C.E.1
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    • The American Medical Profession: Mid-Nineteenth Century
    • see Charles Rosenberg, "The American Medical Profession: Mid-Nineteenth Century," Mid-America, 1962, 44: 163-71;
    • (1962) Mid-America , vol.44 , pp. 163-171
    • Rosenberg, C.1
  • 82
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    • Medicine and the Roman Army: A Further Reconsideration
    • Vivian Nutton, "Medicine and the Roman Army: A Further Reconsideration," Med. Hist., 1969, 13: 260-70. Nutton as a graduate student had spent a term studying sociology.
    • (1969) Med. Hist. , vol.13 , pp. 260-270
    • Nutton, V.1
  • 83
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    • Theoretical Trends in the Sociology of Occupations
    • Richard H. Hall, "Theoretical Trends in the Sociology of Occupations," Sociol. Quart., 1983, 24: 11.
    • (1983) Sociol. Quart. , vol.24 , pp. 11
    • Hall, R.H.1
  • 84
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    • The Study of Medical Institutions: Eliot Freidson's Legacy
    • The author noted that the concept had been as much absorbed, however, as deconstructed and abandoned. An account emphasizing the functionalism and deviance orientations of sociologists of the professions is Sydney Halpern and Renee R. Anspach, "The Study of Medical Institutions: Eliot Freidson's Legacy," Work Occup., 1993, 20: 279-95.
    • (1993) Work Occup. , vol.20 , pp. 279-295
    • Halpern, S.1    Anspach, R.R.2
  • 85
    • 0008435929 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The Historiography of Medicine
    • Bynum and Porter, (n. 3)
    • Gert Brieger, "The Historiography of Medicine," in Bynum and Porter, Companion Encyclopedia of the History of Medicine (n. 3), 1: 24-44, emphasizes recent developments;
    • Companion Encyclopedia of the History of Medicine , vol.1 , pp. 24-44
    • Brieger, G.1
  • 86
    • 0003710456 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • n. 1
    • and there are incisive retrospective passages throughout Burrage and Torstendahl, Professions in Theory and History (n. 1 ). In medical sociology proper, the profession was totally obscured by the sociologists' interest in issues of socioclinical medicine and power, and many historians of medicine followed this trend of the sociologists by focusing on the history of disease in its social aspects.
    • Professions in Theory and History
    • Burrage1    Torstendahl2
  • 87
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    • Foucault among the Sociologists: The 'Disciplines' and the History of the Professions
    • Jan Goldstein, "Foucault among the Sociologists: The 'Disciplines' and the History of the Professions," Hist. Theory, 1984, 23: 170-92, very lucidly explores the impact of Foucauldian thinking on the idea of profession in both sociology and history.
    • (1984) Hist. Theory , vol.23 , pp. 170-192
    • Goldstein, J.1
  • 88
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    • New Haven: Yale University Press
    • Most of the work on specialization was in one way or another localized, but not without a keen awareness of general implications; one early example was Rosemary Stevens, American Medicine and the Public Interest (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1971).
    • (1971) American Medicine and the Public Interest
    • Stevens, R.1
  • 89
    • 27544466531 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • From Expert to Spécialiste: The Conception of Specialization in Eighteenth- And Nineteenth-Century French Surgery
    • The History of Ideas in Surgery, (forthcoming)
    • The relationship of specialization to professionalization is extremely complex; one sophisticated exploration is Matthew Ramsey, "From Expert to Spécialiste: The Conception of Specialization in Eighteenth- and Nineteenth-Century French Surgery," in The History of Ideas in Surgery, Proceedings of the 17th International Symposium for the Comparative History of Medicine - East and West (forthcoming).
    • Proceedings of the 17th International Symposium for the Comparative History of Medicine - East and West
    • Ramsey, M.1
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    • Review Essay: History of a Profession, Annales Style: the Work of Jacques Leonard
    • Matthew Ramsey, "Review Essay: History of a Profession, Annales Style: The Work of Jacques Leonard," J. Soc. Hist., 1983, 17: 319-38.
    • (1983) J. Soc. Hist. , vol.17 , pp. 319-338
    • Ramsey, M.1
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    • Medical Professionalization: Pitfalls and Promise in the Historiography
    • Another eyewitness who commented on the upsurge in historical interest, and particularly in medical history, was S. E. D. Shortt, "Medical Professionalization: Pitfalls and Promise in the Historiography," HSTC Bull., 1981, 5: 210-19.
    • (1981) HSTC Bull. , vol.5 , pp. 210-219
    • Shortt, S.E.D.1
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    • The Professionalization of Boston Medicine, 1760-1803
    • ed. Philip Cash, Eric H. Christianson, and J. Worth Estes Boston: Colonial Society of Massachusetts
    • Philip Cash, "The Professionalization of Boston Medicine, 1760-1803," in Medicine in Colonial Massachusetts, 1620-1820, ed. Philip Cash, Eric H. Christianson, and J. Worth Estes (Boston: Colonial Society of Massachusetts, 1980), p. 69n. It is striking that when Gelfand wrote "The History of the Medical Profession" in 1993 (n. 3), he obviously found very few works to cite from before 1978.
    • (1980) Medicine in Colonial Massachusetts, 1620-1820
    • Cash, P.1
  • 98
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    • Medical Profession
    • ed. Warren T. Reich New York: Free Press
    • see Martin S. Pernick, "Medical Profession," in Encyclopedia of Bioethics, ed. Warren T. Reich (New York: Free Press, 1978), 3: 1028-34.
    • (1978) Encyclopedia of Bioethics , vol.3 , pp. 1028-1034
    • Pernick, M.S.1
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    • 27544493726 scopus 로고
    • Introduction, from Art to Science: Women Physicians in American Medicine, 1600-1980
    • ed. Regina Markell Morantz, Cynthia Stodola Pomerleau, and Carol Hansen Fenichel Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press
    • It is curious that women's historians and feminists who began enriching the history of medicine in the 1970s did not - until some time later, as in Morantz-Sanchez's book - contribute significantly to the history and understanding of the medical profession. Indeed, it is instructive to contrast her 1985 book with an earlier essay, Regina Markell Morantz, "Introduction, From Art to Science: Women Physicians in American Medicine, 1600-1980," in In Her Own Words: Oral Histories of Women Physicians, ed. Regina Markell Morantz, Cynthia Stodola Pomerleau, and Carol Hansen Fenichel (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1982), esp. pp. 23-24.
    • (1982) In Her Own Words: Oral Histories of Women Physicians , pp. 23-24
    • Morantz, R.M.1
  • 101
    • 0013930561 scopus 로고
    • The American Midwife Controversy: A Crisis of Professionalization
    • Frances E. Kobrin, "The American Midwife Controversy: A Crisis of Professionalization," Bull. Hist. Med., 1966, 40: 350-63, did not make systematic use of the word that appeared in the title. Mostly, like other historians, such scholars did not make the term and concept of profession central but used it casually, as a collective term.
    • (1966) Bull. Hist. Med. , vol.40 , pp. 350-363
    • Kobrin, F.E.1
  • 102
    • 0003674035 scopus 로고
    • Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press
    • Feminists tended, when appropriate, to identify men, regardless of status or organization, as the unsympathetic actors, not professionals; some early examples of careful scholarship were Judy Barrett Litoff, American Midwives, 1860 to the Present (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1978),
    • (1978) American Midwives, 1860 to the Present
    • Litoff, J.B.1
  • 105
    • 0003825497 scopus 로고
    • New York: Tavistock Publications
    • At best, professions appeared as an arena within which - as sociologist Judith Lorber, Women Physicians: Careers, Status, and Power (New York: Tavistock Publications, 1984), p. 28, suggested - women struggled with men for professional recognition. (I am of course not dealing with the history of nursing, which embodies a special narrative of the struggle for professional recognition.)
    • (1984) Women Physicians: Careers, Status, and Power , pp. 28
    • Lorber, J.1
  • 107
    • 0017298701 scopus 로고
    • Deprofessionalizing the Profession
    • F. J. Ingelfinger, "Deprofessionalizing the Profession," New England J. Med., 1976, 294: 334-35.
    • (1976) New England J. Med. , vol.294 , pp. 334-335
    • Ingelfinger, F.J.1
  • 108
    • 84996163186 scopus 로고
    • The Deprofessionalization of Everyone?
    • One major paper was Marie R. Haug, "The Deprofessionalization of Everyone?" Sociol. Focus, 1975, 8: 197-213, which suggested that "societal trends, both technological and ideological, are rendering the concept of profession obsolete" (p. 211).
    • (1975) Sociol. Focus , vol.8 , pp. 197-213
    • Haug, M.R.1
  • 109
    • 84970302348 scopus 로고
    • Deprofessionalization: The Case of Law in America
    • Other examples include Robert A. Rothman, "Deprofessionalization: The Case of Law in America," Work Occup., 1984, 11: 183-206;
    • (1984) Work Occup. , vol.11 , pp. 183-206
    • Rothman, R.A.1
  • 110
    • 0010087760 scopus 로고
    • Managing Professionals: Ideological Proletarianization and Mental Labor
    • ed. idem Boston: G. K. Hall
    • and Charles Derber, "Managing Professionals: Ideological Proletarianization and Mental Labor," in Professionals as Workers: Mental Labor in Advanced Capitalism, ed. idem (Boston: G. K. Hall, 1982), pp. 168-90 (and other essays in the same volume).
    • (1982) Professionals As Workers: Mental Labor in Advanced Capitalism , pp. 168-190
    • Derber, C.1
  • 112
    • 0020540757 scopus 로고
    • Physicians, Science, and Status: Issues in the Professionalization of Anglo-American Medicine in the Nineteenth Century
    • S. E. D. Shortt, "Physicians, Science, and Status: Issues in the Professionalization of Anglo-American Medicine in the Nineteenth Century," Med. Hist., 1983, 27: 51-68, for example, uses literature from the 1970s to make the connection in specific historical terms - and also defines "profession" for historical, not sociological, use.
    • (1983) Med. Hist. , vol.27 , pp. 51-68
    • Shortt, S.E.D.1
  • 114
    • 27544497914 scopus 로고
    • A Future for Philosophy
    • trans. Franklin Philip, Fall
    • and Luc Ferry, "A Future for Philosophy," trans. Franklin Philip, Common Knowl., Fall 1994, pp. 163-81.
    • (1994) Common Knowl. , pp. 163-181
    • Ferry, L.1
  • 115
    • 84928443792 scopus 로고
    • Professional Language: Words That Succeed
    • An example of a historian who featured the medical profession in exploring the application to the professions of one set of late-twentieth-century ideas is JoAnne Brown, "Professional Language: Words That Succeed," Radical Hist. Rev., 1986, 34: 33-51.
    • (1986) Radical Hist. Rev. , vol.34 , pp. 33-51
    • Brown, J.1


* 이 정보는 Elsevier사의 SCOPUS DB에서 KISTI가 분석하여 추출한 것입니다.