Molecular pathology of dilated cardiomyopathies

Current Problems in Cardiology

Volumn 21, Issue 2, 1996, Pages 103-141

  Pathak, Satish K ^a   Kukreja, Rakesh C ^a   Hess, Michael L ^a  

^a VIRGINIA COMMONWEALTH UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ANTINEOPLASTIC ANTIBIOTIC; BETA ADRENERGIC RECEPTOR; DOXORUBICIN;

ALCOHOLIC CARDIOMYOPATHY; ANIMAL; CHEMICALLY INDUCED DISORDER; CONGESTIVE CARDIOMYOPATHY; HEART MUSCLE; HUMAN; PATHOLOGY; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PHYSIOLOGY; RENIN ANGIOTENSIN ALDOSTERONE SYSTEM; REVIEW;

ANIMALS; ANTIBIOTICS, ANTINEOPLASTIC; CARDIOMYOPATHY, ALCOHOLIC; CARDIOMYOPATHY, DILATED; DOXORUBICIN; HUMANS; MYOCARDIUM; RECEPTORS, ADRENERGIC, BETA; RENIN-ANGIOTENSIN SYSTEM;

EID: 0030075879     PISSN: 01462806     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/s0146-2806(96)80012-0     Document Type: Article

References (238)

1. Wiles HB. Idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy and myocarditis in children. Prim Cardiol 1993:19:26-41.
2. Gillum RF. Idiopathic cardiomyopathy in the United States 1970-1982. Am Heart J 1986:111:752-5.
3. Silver MA. Anatomy of the failing heart in dilated cardiomyopathy. In: Engelmeier RS, O'Connell JB, eds. Drug therapy in dilated cardiomyopathy and myocarditis. New York: Marcel Dekker, 1988:1-12.
4. Roberts WC, Siegel RJ, McManus BM. Idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy: analysis of 152 necropsy patients. Am J Cardiol 1987:60:1340-55.
5. Ferrans VJ. Pathologic anatomy of the dilated cardiomyopathies. Am J Cardiol 1989:64:9C-11C.
6. Rowan R, Maesk MA, Billingham ME. Ultrastructural morphometric analysis of endomyocardial biopsies. Am J Cardiovasc Pathol 1988;2:137-44.
7. Baandrup U, Olsen EG. Critical analysis of ondomyocardial biopsies from patients suspected of having cardiomyopathy. Br Heart J 1981;45:475-86.
8. Arbustini E, Pucci R, Pozzi R, et al. Ultrastructural changes in myocarditis and dilated cardiomyopathy. In: Baroldi G, Camerini F, Goodwin JE, eds. Advances in cardiomyopathies. Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 1990:274-89.
9. Bouhour JB, Helias J, deLajartre AY, et al. Detection of myocarditis during the first year after discovery of a dilated cardiomyopathy by endomyocardial biopsy and gallium-67 myocardial scintigraphy: prospective multicenter French study of 91 patients. Eur Heart J 1988;9:520-8.
10. Maisch B, Bauer E, Hufnagel G, et al. The use of endomyocardial biopsy in heart failure. Eur Heart J 1988;9(suppl H):59-71.
11. Hengstenberg C, Rose M, Olsen E, et al. Immunological parameters in patients with different heart diseases [Abstract]. Eur Heart J 1989;10(suppl):27.
12. Leatherbury L, Chandra RS, Shapiro SR, et al. Value of endomyocardial biopsy in infants, children and adolescents with dilated or hypertrophic cardiomyopathy and myocarditis. J Am Coll Cardiol 1988;12:1547-54.
13. Factor SM. Roles of the extracellular matrix in dilated cardiomyopathy. Heart Failure 1994;9:260-8.
14. Factor SM, Butany J, Sole MJ, et al. Pathologic fibrosis and matrix connective tissue in the subaortic myocardium of patients with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. J Am Coll Cardiol 1991;17:1343-51.
15. Imoto DS, Covell UW, Harper E. Increase in cross-linking of type I and type III collagen associated with volume-overload hypertrophy. Circ Res 1988;63:399-403.
16. Janicki JS. Myocardial collagen remodelling and left ventricular diastolic function. Braz J Med Biol Res 1991;25:975-82.
17. Urie PM, Billingham ME. Ultrastructural features of familial cardiomyopathy. Am J Cardiol 1988;62:325-7.
18. Figulla HR, Kreuzer H. Biopsy findings and prognosis for congestive cardiomyopathy. Cardiol Board Rev 1985;2:71-6.
19. Hein S, Beund T, Munkel B, et al. Contractile and cytoskeleton protein synthesis is disturbed at the receptor level in failing human myocardium [Abstract]. J Mol Cell Cardiol 1992;24(suppl I):228.
20. Schaper J, Frader R, Hein S, et al. Impairment of myocardial ultrastructure and changes of the cytoskeleton in dilated cardiomyopathy. Circulation 1991;83:504-14.
21. Hein S, Scholz D, Finjestani H, et al. Altered expression of titin and contractile proteins in failing human myocardium. J Mol Cell Cardiol 1994:26:1291-306.
22. Maisch B, Hengstenberg C, Bethge C, et al. Immunological factors in dilated cardiomyopathy. Heart Failure 1994:9:246-59.
23. WHO/ISFC (World Health Organization/International Society and Federation of Cardiology}. Report of the Task Force on the definition and classification of cardiomyopathies. Br Heart J 1980:44:672-3.
24. Martino TA, Liu P, Sole MJ. Viral infection and the pathogenesis of dilated cardiomyopathy: time to revisit virus. Heart Failure 1994;9:218-26.
25. Klingel K, Hohenaldl C, Canu A, et al. Ongoing enterovirus-induced myocarditis is associated with persistent heart muscle infection: quantitative analysis of virus replication, tissue damage, and inflammation. Proc Natl Acad Sei USA 1992;89:314-8.
26. Wilson FJ, Miranda QR, Chason JL, et al. Residue pathological changes following murine coxsackie A and B myocarditis. Am J Pathol 1969;55:253-65.
27. Mall G, Klingel K, Albrecht M, et al. Natural history of coxsackievirus B3-induced myocarditis in ACA/Sn mice: viral persistence demonstrated by quantitative in situ hybridization histochemistry. Eur Heart J 1991:12(suppl D):121-3.
28. Kandolf R, Canu A, Hofschneider PH. Coxsackie B3 virus can replicate in cultured human fetal heart cells and is inhibited by Interferon. J Mol Cell Cardiol 1985:17:167-81.
29. Yoneda S, Senda K, Hayashi K. Experimental study of virus myocarditis in culture. Ipn Cire J 1979;43:1048-54.
30. Lodge PA, Herzum M, Olszewski J, et al. Coxsackie virus B-3 myocarditis: acute and chronic forms of the disease caused by different immunopathogenic mechanisms. Am J Pathol 1987;128:455-63.
31. Rager-Zisman B, Allison AC. The role of antibody and host cells in the resistance of mice against infection by coxsackie B-3 virus. J Gen Virol 1973;19:329-38.
32. Robinson JA, O'Connell JB, Roeges LM, et al. Coxsackie B3 myocarditis in athymic mice (41028). Proc Soc Exp Biol Med 1981;166:80-91.
33. Godney EK, Gauntt CJ. Involvement of natural killer cells in coxsackie virus B3-induced murine myocarditis. J Immunol 1986;137:1695-702.
34. Reyes MP, Ho KL, Smith F, et al. A mouse model of dilated-type cardiomyopathy due to coxsackie virus B3. J Infect Dis 1981;144:232-6.
35. Matsumori A, Kawai C. An animal model of congestive (dilated) cardiomyopathy: dilation and hypertrophy of the heart in the chronic stage in DBA/2 mice with myocarditis caused by encephalomyocarditis virus. Circulation 1982;66:355-60.
36. Reyes MP, Lerner AM. Coxsackie virus myocarditis-with special reference to acute and chronic effects. Prog Cardiovasc Dis 1985;27:373-94.
37. Abelmann WH. Virus and the heart. Circulation 1971;44:950-6.
38. McCartney RA, Banatvala JE, Bell EJ. Routine use of antibody-capture ELISA for the serological diagnosis of coxsackie B virus infections. J Med Virol 1986:19:205-12.
39. Muir P, Tilzey AJ, English TAH, et al. Chronic relapsing pericarditis and dilated cardiomyopathy: serological evidence of persistent enterovirus infection. Lancet 1989;l:804-7.
40. Kawai C. Idiopathic cardiomyopathy: a study on the infectious-immune theory as a cause of the disease. Jpn Circ J 1971:35:765-70.
41. El-Hagrassy MMO, Banatvala JE. Coxsackie B-virus specific IgM responses in patients with cardiac and other diseases. Lancet 1980:2:1160-2.
42. Cambridge G. MacArthur CGC, Waterson AH et al. Antibodies to coxsackie B viruses in congestive cardiomyopathy. Br Heart J 1979:41:692-6.
43. Archarcl LC, Bowles NE, Cunningham L, et al. Molecular probes for detection of persisting enterovirus infection of human heart and their prognostic value. Eur Heart J 1991;121(suppl D):56-9.
44. Schwaiger A, Umlauft F, Weyrer K, et al. Detection of enteroviral ribonucleic acid in myocardial biopsies from patients with idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy by polymerase chain reaction. Am Heart J 1993:126:406-10.
45. Miklozekk CL. Come PC, Royal HD, et al. Viral heart disease-a precursor of congestive cardiomyopathy. In: Bolte HD, ed. Viral heart disease. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1984:95.
46. Quigley PJ, Richardson PJ, Meany BT, et al. Long term follow-up in biopsy proven myocarditis: progression to dilated cardiomyopathy [Abstract]. Circulation 1986:74:11.
47. Bowles NE. Rose ML, Taylor R et al. End-stage dilated cardiomyopathy: persistence of enterovirus RNA in myocardium at cardiac transplantation and lack of immune response. Circulation 1989:80:1128-36.
48. Maisch B, Berg PA, Kochsiek K. Immunological parameters in patients with congestive cardiomyopathy. Basic Res Cardiol 1980;75:221-2.
49. Herzum M, Maisch B. Anti-viral and anti-myocyte antibodies in experimental myocarditis. Springer Semin Immunopathol 1989:11:69-76.
50. Maisch B. Immunologie regulator and effector functions in perimyocarditis, postmyocarditic heart muscle disease and dilated cardiomyopathy. Basic Res Cardiol 1986;81(suppl 1):217-41.
51. Obermayer U, Scheidler J, Maisch B. Antibodies against micro- and intermediate filaments in carditis and dilated cardiomyopathy. Eur Heart J 1987;8(suppl J):181-6.
52. Caforio AL, Grazzini M, Mann JM, et al. Identification of alpha- and beta-cardiac myosin heavy chain isoforms as major autoantigens in dilated cardiomyopathy. Circulation 1992;85:1734-42.
53. Klein R, Maisch B, Kochsiek K, et al. Demonstration of organ specific antibodies against heart mitochondria (anti-M7) in sera from patients with some forms of heart diseases. Clin Exp Immunol 1984;58:283-92.
54. Schultheiss HE Disturbance of the myocardial energy metabolism in dilated cardiomyopathy due to autoimmunological mechanisms. Circulation 1983;87(suppl 5):IV43-8.
55. Schulze K, Becker BF, Schauer R, et al. Antibodies to ADP-ATP carrier-an autoantigen in myocarditis and dilated cardiomyopathy-impair cardiac function. Circulation 1990;81:959-69.
56. Maisch B, Drude L, Hengstenberg C, et al. Are antisarcolemmal (ASAs) and antimyolemmal antibodies (AMLAs) natural antibodies? Basic Res Cardiol 1991;86(suppl 3):101-14.
57. Maisch B, Deeg P, Liebau G, Kochsiek K. Diagnostic relevance of humoral and cytotoxic immune reactions in primary and secondary dilated cardiomyopathy. Am J Cardiol 1983;52:1072-8.
58. Magnusson Y, Marullo S, Hoyer S, et al. Mapping of a functional autoimmune epitope on the beta 1-adrenergic receptor in patients with idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy. J Clin Invest 1990;86:1658-63.
59. Eu LX, Magnusson Y, Bergh CH, et al. Localization of a functional autoimmune epitope on the muscarinic acetylcholine receptor-2 in patients with idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy. J Clin Invest 1993:91:1904-18.
60. Wallukat G, Morwinski M, Kowai K, et al. Autoantibodies against the beta adrenergic receptor in human myocarditis and dilated cardiomyopathy: beta-adrenergic agonism without desensitization. Eur Heart J 1991;12(suppl D):178-81.
61. Kühl U, Noutsias M, Seeberg B, et al. Chronic inflammation in dilated cardiomyopathy. Heart Failure 1994;9:231-45.
62. Caforio AL, Bonifacio E, Stewart JT, et al. Novel organ-specific circulating cardiac auto-antibodies in dilated cardiomyopathy. J Am Coll Cardiol 1990;15:1527-34.
63. Maisch B, Hauck H, Kuniger U, et al. Suppressor cell activity in perimyocarditis and infective endocarditis. Eur Heart J 1987;8(suppl J):147-53.
64. Maisch B, Lotze U, Schneider J, et al. Antibodies to human sinus node in sick sinus syndrome. PACE Pacing Clin Electrophysiol 1986:9:1101-9.
65. Anderson JL, Carlquist JF, Lutz JR, et al. HLA A, B, and DR typing in idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy: a search for immune response function. Am J Cardiol 1984:33:1326-30.
66. Li YY, Zhang JN, Ma WZ. Studies on the genetic susceptibility to dilated cardiomyopathy. Chung Hua Nei Ko Tsa Chih 1993:32:25-7.
67. Kelly DP, Strauss AW. Inherited cardiomyopathies. N Engl J Med 1994:330:913-9.
68. Stevenson LW, Perloff JK. The dilated cardiomyopathies: clinical aspects. Cardiol Clin 1988:6:187-218.
69. Morian AJ, Roberts R. Molecular basis of hypertrophic and dilated cardiomyopathy. Texas Heart Inst J 1994;21:6-15.
70. Codd MB, Sugrue DD, Gersh BJ, et al. Epidemiology of idiopathic dilated and hypertrophic cardiomyopathy: a population-based study in Olmsted County, Minnesota, 1975-1984. Circulation 1989;80:564-72.
71. Shah PM, Adelman AC, Wigle ED, et al. The natural (and unnatural) history of hypertrophic obstructive cardiomyopathy. Circ Res 1973;35(suppl II):II179-95.
72. Maron B, Gottdiener JS, Epstein SE. Patterns and significance of distribution of left ventricular hypertrophy in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. Am J Cardiol 1981;48:418-28.
73. Maron BJ, Fananapazir L. Sudden cardiac death in hypertrophic eardiomyopathy. Circulation 1991;85:(suppl I):157-63.
74. McKenna WJ, Stewart JT, Nihoyannopoulos P, et al. Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy without hypertrophy: two families with myoeardial disarray in the absence of increased myoeardial mass. Br Heart J 1990:63:287-90.
75. Becker AE, Caruso G. Myoeardial disarray: a critical review. Br Heart J 1982:51:361-3.
76. Maron BJ, Woltson JK, Epstein SE, et al. Intramural small vessel coronary artery disease in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. J Am Coll Cardiol 1986:8:545-57.
77. Factor SM, Butany J, Sole MJ, et al. Pathologie fibrosis and matrix connective tissue in the subaortic myocardium of patients with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. J Am Coll Cardiol 1991:17:43-5.
78. Clark CE, Henry WL, Epstein SE. Familiar prevalence and genetic transmission of idiopathic hypertrophic subaortic stenosis. N Engl J Med 1973:289:709-14.
79. Maron BJ, Niehols PE Pickle LW, et al. Patterns of inheritance in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy: assessment by M-mode and two-dimensional echocardiography. Am J Cardiol 1984:53:1087-94.
80. Branzi A, Romeo G, Speechias S. Genetic heterogeneity of hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. Int J Cardiol 1987:7:129-33.
81. Hengstenberg C, Schwartz K. Molecular genetics of familial hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. J Mol Cell Cardiol 1994:26:3-10.
82. Epstein ND, Cohn GM, Cyan F et al. Differences in clinical expression of hypertrophic cardiomyopathy associated with two distinct mutations in the β-myosin heavy chain gene: a 908Leu-Val mutation and a 403Arg-Gln mutation. Circulation 1992:86:345-52.
83. Schwartz K, Beckmann J, Dufour C, et al. Exclusion of myosin heavy chain and cardiac action gene involvement in hypertrophic cardiomyopathies of several French families. Circ Res 1992;71:3-8.
84. Ko YL. Tang TX, Chen JJ, et al. Idiopathic hypertrophic cardiomyopathy in identical twins: morphological heterogeneity of the left ventricle. Chest 1992;102:783-5.
85. Jarcho JA, McKenna W, Pare JA, et al. Mapping a gene for familial hypertrophic cardiomyopathy to chromosome 14q1. N Engl J Med 1989;321:1372-8.
86. Geisterfer-Lowranee AA, Kass S, et al. A molecular basis for familial hypertrophic cardiomyopathy: a β cardiac myosin heavy chain gene missense mutation. Cell 1990:62:999-1006.
87. Liew CC, Soin MJ, Yamauehi-Takihara K, et al. Complete sequence and organization of the human cardiac beta-myosin heavy chain gene. Nucleic Acids Res 1990:18:3647-51.
88. Jaenicke T, Diederieh KW, Haas W, et al. The complete sequence of the human beta-myosin heavy chain gene and a comparative analysis of its product. Genomics 1990;8:194-206.
89. Vikstrom K, Leinwand LA. The molecular genetic basis of familial hypertrophie cardiomyopathy. Heart Failure 1995;11:5-14.
90. Watkins H, MacRae C, Thierfelder L, et al. A disease locus for familial hypertrophie cardiomyopathy maps to chromosome 1q3. Nature Genet 1993;3:333-7.
91. Carrier L, Hengstenberg C, Beckmann JS, et al. Mapping of a novel gene for familial hypertrophie cardiomyopathy to chromosome 11. Nature Genet 1993;4:311-3.
92. Thierfelder L, MacRae C, Watkins H, et al. A familial hypertrophie cardiomyopathy locus maps to chromosome 15q2. Proc Natl Acad Sei USA 1993;90:6270-4.
93. Thierfelder L, Watkins H, MacRae G, et al. β-Tropomyosin and cardiac troponin T mutations cause familial hypertrophie cardiomyopathy: a disease of the sarcomere. Cell 1994;77:701-12.
94. Watkins H, McKenna WJ, Thierfelder L, et al. Mutations in the genes for cardiac troponin T and β-tropomyosin in hypertrophie cardiomyopathy. N Engl J Med 1995;332:1058-64.
95. Geisterfer-Lowrance AAT, Kass S, Tanigawa G, et al. A molecular basis for familial hypertrophie cardiomyopathy: a β cardiac myosin heavy chain gene missense mutation. Cell 1990:62:999-1006.
96. Epstein ND, Cohn GM, Cyan F et al. Differences in clinical expression of hypertrophie cardiomyopathy associated with two distinct mutations in the β-myosin heavy chain gene: a 908Leu-Val mutation and a 403Arg-Gln. Circulation 1991;86:345-52.
97. Marian AJ, Kelly D, Mares A, et al. The missense mutation in exon 13 of the beta-myosin heavy chain gene, a genetic marker for sudden cardiac death in patients with familial hypertrophie cardiomyopathy [Abstract]. Circulation 1992;86(suppl I):l-16.
98. Fananapazir L, Epstein ND. Genotype-phenotype correlations in hypertrophie cardiomyopathy. Circulation 1994;89:22-32.
99. Raymet I, Rypniewski WR, Schmidt-Base K, et al. Three-dimensional structure of myosin subfragment-1: a molecular motor. Science 1993;261:508.
100. Rayniet I, Holden HM, Whittaker M, et al. Structure of the actin-myosin complex and its implications for muscle contraction. Science 1993;261:5865.
101. Cuda G, Fanananpazir I, Shu WS, et al. Skeletal muscle expression and abnormal function of β-myosin in hypertrophie cardiomyopathy. J Clin Invest 1991:87:2861-5.
102. Elstein E, Liew C, Sole MJ. The genetic basis of hypertrophie cardiomyopathy. J Mol Cell Cardiol 1992:24:1471-7.
103. Elliott PM, Saumarez RC, McKenna WJ. Recent clinical advances in hypertrophie cardiomyopathy. Heart Failure 1995;! 1:15-25.
104. Hengstenberg C, Maisch B. Increased nuclear protooncogene expression in hypertrophie cardiomyopathy. Cardioscience 1993;6:15-20.
105. Carter LF Rubin SA. The molecular and cellular biology of heart failure. Curr Opin Cardiol 1994:9:264-71.
106. Marian AJ, Yo 0, Workman R, et al. Angiotensin-converting enzyme polymorphism in hypertrophie cardiomyopathy and sudden cardiac death. Lancet 1993:342:1085-6.
107. Lechin M, Yu O, Prather A, et al. Angiotensin converting enzyme genotype DD is associated with increased left ventricular mass in patients with hypertrophie cardiomyopathy [Abstract]. Circulation 1994;90(suppl I):I174.
108. Dansky HM, Buttrick PM. Unraveling the genetic basis of dilated cardiomyopathy. Heart Failure 1994;10:5-10.
109. Michels W, Moll PP, Miller PA, et al. The frequency of familial dilated cardiomyopathy in a series of patients with idiopathic cardiomyopathy. N Engl J Med 1992;326:77-82.
110. Valantine HA, Hunt SA, Fowler MB, et al. Frequency of familial nature of dilated cardiomyopathy and usefulness of cardiac transplantation in this subset. Am J Cardiol 1989;63:959-63.
111. Berko BA, Swift M. X-linked dilated cardiomyopathy. N Engl J Med 1987:316:1186-91.
112. Perloff JK, de Leon AC Jr, O'Doherty D. The cardiomyopathy progressive muscular dystrophy. Circulation 1966:33:625-48.
113. Nigro G, Comi LI, Politano L, et al. The incidence and evolution of cardiomyopathy in Duchenne muscular dystrophy. Int J Cardiol 1990:26:271-7.
114. Emery AEH. Oxford monographs on medical genetics No. 24. Duchenne muscular dystrophy, 2nd ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993:156.
115. Koenig M, Huffman EP, Bertelson CJ, et al. Complete cloning of the Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) cDNA and preliminary genomic organization of the DMD gene in normal and affected individuals. Cell 1987:50:509-17.
116. Towbin JA, Hejsrnancik JK, Brink R et al. X-linked dilated cardiomyopathy: molecular genetic evidence of linkage to the Duchenne muscular dystrophy (Dystrophin) gene at the Xp21 Locus. Circulation 1993;87:1854-65.
117. Hoffman ER Fischbeck KH, Brown RH, et al. Characterization of dystrophin in muscle-biopsy specimens from patients with Duchenne's or Seeker's muscular dystrophy. N Engl J Med 1988:318:1363-8.
118. Muntoni F, Cau M, Ganau A, et al. Deletion of the dystrophin musclepromoter region associated with X-linked dilated cardiomyopathy. N Engl J Med 1993:329:921-5.
119. Malhotra SB. Hart KA, Klamut HJ, et al. Frame-shift deletions in patients with Duchenne and Becker muscular dystrophy. Science 1988:242:755-9.
120. Monaco AR Bertelson CJ, Liechti-Gallati S, et al. An explanation for the phenotype differences between patients bearing partial deletions of the DMD locus. Genomics 1988:2:90-5.
121. Chelly f, Gilgenkrantz H, Lambert M, et al. Effect of dystrophin gene deletions on mRNA levels and processing in Duchenne and Becker muscular dystrophies. Cell 1990:63:1239-48.
122. Petrof BJ, Shrager JB, Seedman, HH, et al. Dystrophin protects the sarcolemma from stresses developed during muscle contraction. Proc Natl Acad Sei USA 1993:90:3710-14.
123. Yoshida K, Ikeda S, Nakamura A, et al. Molecular analysis of the Duchenne muscular dystrophy gene in patients with Becker muscular dystrophy presenting with dilated canliomyopalhy. Muscle Nerve 1993:16:1161-6.
124. Palmucci L, Donguzzi C, Mongini T, et al. Dilating cardiomyopathy as the expression of Xp21 Becker type muscular dystrophy. J Neurol Sei 1992:111:218-21.
125. Berko BA, Swift M. X-linked dilated eardiomyopathy. N Engl J Med 1987:316:1186-91.
126. Brook JD, McCurrach ME, Harley HG, et al. Molecular basis of myotonic dystrophy: expansion of a trinucleotide (CTG) repeat at the 3 ' end of a transcript encoding a protein kinase family member (published erratum appears in Cell 1991;69:385). Cell 1992;68:799-808.
127. Fu YH, Pizzuti A, Fenwick RG, Jr, et al. An unstable triplet repeat in a gene related to myotonic muscular dystrophy. Science 1992;255:1256-8.
128. Mahadevan M, Tsilfidis C, Sabourin L, et al. Myotonic dystrophy mutation: an unstable CTG repeat in the 3 ' untranslated region of the gene. Science 1992;255:1253-5.
129. Redman JB, Fenwick RG Jr, Fu YH, et al. Relationship between parental trinucleotide GCT repeat length and severity of myotonic dystrophy in offspring. JAMA 1993;269:1960-5.
130. SweeneyMG, Brockington M, WestonMJ, et al. Mitochondrial DMA transfer RNA mutation Leu (IUR)A G3260: a second family with myopathy and cardiomyopathy. Q J Med 1993;86:135-8.
131. Orstavik KH, Skjonen F Hellebostad M, et al. Possible X-linked congenital mitochondrial cardiomyopathy in three families. J Med Genet 1993;30:269-72.
132. Muller-Hocker J, Selbel P Schneiderbanger K, et al. In situ hybridization of mitochondrial DNA in the heart of a patient with Kearns-Sayre syndrome and dilatative cardiomyopathy. Hum Pathol 1992;23:1431-7.
133. Suomalainen A, Paetau A, Leinonen II, et al. Inherited idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy with multiple deletions of mitochondrial DNA. Lancet 1992;340:1319-20.
134. Raynolds MV, Bristow MR, Bush EW, et al. Angiotensin-converting enzyme DD genotype in patients with ischémie or dilated cardiomyopathy. Lancet 1993;342:1073-5.
135. Kaul S, Fishbein MC, Siegel RJ. Cardiac manifestations of acquired immune deficiency syndrome: 1991 update. Am Heart J 1991:122:535-44.
136. Ancierno LJ. Cardiac complications in acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). J Am Coll Cardiol 1989;13:1144.
137. Cohen IS, Anderson DW, Virmani R, et al. Congestive cardiomyopathy in association with the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. N Engl J Med 1986:315:628-30.
138. Cho S, Matano S, Factor SM. Cardiac lesions in 188 autopsied acquired immune deficiency syndrome patients: intravenous drug abusers vs homosexuals [Abstract]. Lab Invest 1989;60:17.
139. Nielson TL, Vidabaek R, Lindvig K, et al. Echocardiography in AIDS patients: a prospective study in 24 patients. V International Conference on AIDS. Montreal, 1989; B:265 [Abstract].
140. Factor S, Flomenbaum N, Vdem S, et al. Proliferative membranopathy and human immunodeficiency virus in AIDS hearts [Abstract]. Circulation 1989;80(suppl II):II535.
141. Grody W, Cheng L, Pang M, et al. Direct infection of the heart by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) [Abstract]. Circulation 1989;80(suppl II):II665.
142. Coplan NL, Bruno MS. Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome and heart disease: the present and the future. Am Heart J 1989;117:1175-7.
143. Fisher LL, Fisher EA. Myocarditis associated with human immunodeficiency virus infection. Prim Cardiol 1990;16:49-60.
144. Ho DD, Pomerantz PJ, Kaplan JC. Pathogenesis of infection with human immunodeficiency virus. N Engl J Med 1987;317:278-86.
145. Kawai C, Takatsu T. Clinical and experimental studies on cardiomyopathy. N Engl J Med 1975:293:592-7.
146. Maisch B, Trostel-Soeder R, Stechemesser E, et al. Diagnostic relevance of humoral and coil-mediated immune reactions in patients with acute viral myocarditis. Clin Exp Immunol 1982:48:533-45.
147. Woodruff JF. Viral myocarditis. Am ) Pathol 1980:101:427-78.
148. De Wit R, Schattenkerk JKME, Boucher CAB. et al. Clinical and virological effects of high dose recombinant interferon-a in disseminated AIDS-related Kaposi's sarcoma. Lancet 1988:2:1214-7.
149. Lane HF. Kovacs )A, Feinberg J, et al. Anti-retroviral effects of interferon-a in AIDS-associated Kaposi's sarcoma. Lancet 1988:2:1218-22.
150. Deyton LR. Walder RE, Kovacs et al. Reversible cardiac dysfunction associated with Interferon alpha therapy in AIDS patients with Kaposi's sarcoma. N Engl ) Med 1989:321:1246-9.
151. Siveski-lhshovic N, Kach N, Singal PK. Probacol promotes endogenous antioxidants and provides protection against adriamycin-induced cardiomyopathy in rats. Circulation 1994:89:2829-35.
152. Kukreja RC, Hess ML. The oxygen free radical system: from equations through membrane-protein interactions to cardiovascular injury and protection. Cardiovasc Res 1992:26:641-55.
153. Kellogg EW, Fridovich I. Liposome oxidation and erythrocyte lysis by enzymaticallv generated Superoxide and hydrogen peroxide. J Biol Chem 1977:252:6721-8.
154. Peacock WF IV. Cardiac disease in the alcoholic patient. Emerg Med Clin North Am 1990:8:775-91.
155. Fernandez-Sola J, Estrnch R, Crau JM. et al. The relation of alcoholic mvopathy to cardiomyopathy. Ann Intern Med 1994:120:529-36.
156. Dancy M, Bland fM, Leech C, et al. Preclinical left ventricular abnormalities in alcoholics are independent of nutritional status, cirrhosis, and cigarette smoking. Lancet 1985:1:1122-5.
157. Santilli S, Antidormi C, Can N, et al. Therapeutic experiences in alcoholic cardiomyopathies. Minerva Med 1982:73:1509-10.
158. Kupari J. Reversibility of alcoholic cardiomyopathy. Postgrad Med J 1984:60:151-4.
159. Urbano-Marque/ A, Estruch R. Navarro-Lopez F, et al. The effects of alcoholism on skeletal and cardiac muscle. N Engl J Med 1989:320:409-15.
160. Diamond I. Alcoholic myopathy and cardiomyopathy. N Engl J Med 1989:320:458-60.
161. Van Thiel DH. Cavaler JS. Lehotay DC. Biochemical mechanisms responsible for alcohol-associated myocardiopathy. Recent Dev Alcohol 1985:3:189-200.
162. Unverferth DV. Fetters JK, Unverferth BJ, et al. Human myocardial histologie characteristics in congestive heart failure. Circulation 1983:68:1194-200.
163. Tsiplenkova VG, Vikhert AM, Cherpachenko NM. Ultrastructural and histochemical observations in human and experimental alcoholic cardiomyopathy. I Am Coll Cardiol 1986:8:22A-32A.
164. Ahmed SS, Howard M, ten Hove W, et al. Cardiac function in alcoholics with cirrhosis: absence of overt cardiomyopathy-myth or fact? J Am Coll Cardiol 1984:3:696-702.
165. Lowenstein SR. Cabow PA, Cramer [. et al. The role of alcohol in new onset atrial fibrillation. Arch Intern Med 1983:143:1882-5.
166. U'Bryan RM. Luce JK, Tally RW, et al. Phase II evaluation of adriamycin in human neoplasia. Cancer 1973:32:1-8.
167. Benjamin RS. Wiemik PH, Bachur HR. Adriamycin chemotherapy: efficacy, safety, and pharmacologie basis on intermittent single high dose schedule. Cancer 1974:33:19-27.
168. Alexander ]. Dainiak N, Berger HJ, et al. Serial assessment of doxorubicin cardiotoxicity with quantitative radionuclide angiocardiography. N Engl J Med 1979;300:278-83.
169. Minow RA, Benjamin RS, Gotilieb JA. Adriamycin (NSC-123127) cardiomyopathy: an overview with determination of risk factors. Cancer Chemother Rep 1975:6:195-201.
170. Bristow MR, Billingham ME, Mason JW, et al. Clinical spectrum of anthracycline antibiotic cardiotoxicity. Cancer Treat Rep 1978:62:873-9.
171. Buzdar AU, Marcus C, Smith TL, et al. Early and delayed clinical cardiotoxicity of doxorubicin. Cancer 1985:55:2761-5.
172. Unverferth DV, Magorien RD, Leier CV, et al. Doxorubicin cardiotoxicity. Cancer Treat Rev 1982;9:149-64.
173. Von Hoff DD, Layard MW, Basa P. Risk factors for doxorubicin-induced congestive heart failure. Ann Intern Med 1979;91:710-17.
174. Kantrowitz NE, Bristow MR. Cardiotoxicity of antitumor agents. Prog Cardiovasc Dis 1984:25:195-200.
175. Bristow MR, Mason JW, Billingham ME, et al. Doxorubicin cardiomyopathy: evaluation of phonocardiography, endomyocardial biopsy and cardiac catheterization. Ann Intern Med 1978;88:168-75.
176. Billingham ME. Some recent advances in cardiac pathology. Hum Pathol 1979;10:367-86.
177. Ferrans VJ. Overview of cardiac pathology in relation to anthracycline cardiotoxicity. Cancer Treat Rep 1978:62:955-61.
178. Brodde O, Hillemann S, Kunde K, et al. Receptor systems affecting force of contraction in the human heart and their alterations in chronic heart failure. J Heart Lung Transplant 1992;ll:Sl64-74.
179. Gilbert EM, Olsen SL, Renlund DG, et al. Beta-adrenergic receptor regulator and left ventricular function in idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy. Am J Cardiol 1993;71:23C-9C.
180. Hershberger RE, Bristow MR. Receptor alterations in the failing human heart. Heart Failure 1988;3:230-8.
181. Bristow MR. Myocardial cell surface membrane receptors in heart failure. Heart Failure 1989;5:47-50.
182. Kessler PD, VanDrop C, Feldman AM. G proteins: transmembrane signal processors in the heart. Heart Failure 1988:3:239-47.
183. Bristow MR, Ginsburg R, Umans V, et al. βl- and β2-adrenergic receptor subpopulations in nonfailing and failing human ventricular myocardium: coupling of both receptor subtypes to muscle contraction and selective βl-receptor down-regulation in heart failure. Circ Res 1986;59:297-309.
184. Bristow MR, Minobe W, Fasmussen R, et al. Alpha-1 adrenergic receptors in the nonfailing and failing human heart. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 1988:247:1039-45.
185. Aurback GD, Fedak SA, Woodard CJ, et al. β-Adrenergic receptor: stereospecific interaction of iodinated β-blocking agent with high affinity site. Science 1974;186:1223-4.
186. Fowler MB, Laser JA, Hopkins GO, et al. Assessment of the β-adrenergic receptor pathway in the intact failing human heart: progressive receptor down-regulation and subsensitivity to agonist response. Circulation 1986:74:1290-1302.
187. Bristow MR, Hershberger RE, Port JD, et al. β1 and β2 adrenergic receptor mediated adenylate cyclase stimulation in nonfailing and failing human ventricular myocardium. Mol Pharmacol 1989:35:293-303.
188. Feldman AM, Gates AE, Veazey WB, et al. Increase of the 40,000 mol wt pertussis toxin substrate (G protein) in the failing human heart. J Clin Invest 1988;82:189-97.
189. Neumann J, Schmitz W, Scholz H, et al. Increase in myocardial Gi-proteins in heart failure. Lancet 1988:2:1373-9.
190. Hershberger RE, Anderson FL, Bristow MR. Vasoactive intestinal peptide receptor in failing and nonfailing human ventricular myocardium: supersensitivity of failing heart due to increased receptor affinity; diminished maximal inotropic response from decreased receptor density [Abstract]. J Am Coll Cardiol 1988;11:143A.
191. Colucci WS, Denniss AR, Leatheran GR, et al. Intracoronary infusion of dobutamine to patients with and without severe congestive heart failure. J Clin Invest 1988:81:1103-10.
192. Bristow MR, Anderson FL, Port JD, et al. Differences in β-adrenergic neuroeffector mechanisms in ischémie versus idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy. Circulation 1991:84:1024-39.
193. Cohn JN, Levine TB, Olivari MT, et al. Plasma norepinephrine as a guide in prognosis in patients with chronic congestive heart failure. N Engl }Med 1984:311:819-23.
194. Rector TS, Olivari MI, Levine TB, et al. Predicting survival for an individual with congestive heart failure using the plasma norepinephrine concentration. Am Heart J 1987:114:148-52.
195. Bristow MR, Sandoval AB, Gilbert EM, et al. Myocardial a- and β-adrenergic receptors in heart failure: is cardiac-derived norepinephrine the regulatory signal? Eur Heart J 1988:9(suppl H):35-40.
196. HaskingGJ, EslerMD, Jennings GO, et al. Norepinephrine spillover to plasma in patients with congestive heart failure: evidence of increased overall and cardiorenal sympathetic nervous activity. Circulation 1986:73:615-21.
197. Heilbrunn SM, Shah R Bristow MR, et al. Increased β-receptor density and improved hemodynamic response to catecholamine stimulation during chronic metoprolol therapy. Circulation 1989:79:483-90.
198. Franciosa JA, Ziesche S, Wilen M. Functional capacity of patients with chronic left ventricular failure. Am J Med 1979:67:460-6.
199. Packer M, Lee WH, Kessler PD, et al. Role of neurohormonal mechanisms in determining survival in patients with severe chronic heart failure. Circulation 1987;75(suppl IV): 80-92.
200. Parmley WW. Congestive heart failure. In: Messerli FH, ed. Cardiovascular drug therapy. Philadelphia: WB Saunders, 1990:12-15.
201. Benedict CR. Neurohumoral aspects of heart failure. Cardiol Clin 1994;12:923.
202. Francis GS, Benedict CR, Johnstone DE, étal. Comparison of neuroendocrine activation in patients with left ventricular dysfunction with and without congestive heart failure. Circulation 1990:82:1724-9.
203. Eckberg DL, Drabinsky M, Braunwald E. Defective cardiac parasympathetic control in patients with heart disease. N Engl J Med 1971:285:877-83.
204. Binkley PF Nunziata E, Haas GJ, et al. Parasympathetic withdrawal is an integral component of autonomie imbalance in congestive heart failure: demonstration in human subjects and verification in a paced canine model of ventricular failure. J Am Cardiol 1991; 18:464-72.
205. Watkins IJ, Burton JA, Haber E, et al. The renin-aldosterone system in congestive heart failure in conscious dogs. J Clin Invest 1976:57:1606-17.
206. Urata H, Healy B, Stewart RW, et al. Angiotensin II receptors in normal and failing human hearts. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1989:69:54-66.
207. Nattilan AJ, Pratl RJ. Eldridge CS, et al. Angiotensin II induces c-fos expression in smooth muscle via transcriptional control. Hypertension 1989;13:706-11.
208. Konstam MA, Rousseau MF, Kronenberg MW, et al. Effects of the angiotensin converting-enzyme inhibitor, enalapril, on the long-term progression of left ventricular dysfunction in patients with heart failure. Circulation 1992:86:431-8.
209. Linz W, Scholkens BA, Han YE Beneficial effects of the converting enzyme inhibitor, ramipril, in ischémie rat hearts. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol 1986;8(suppl 10):591-9.
210. Cohn JN, Johnson G, Ziesche S, et al. A comparison of enalapril with hydralazine-isosorbide dinitrate in the treatment of chronic congestive heart failure. V-HeFT II. N Engl J Med 1991;325:303-10.
211. Yamane Y. Plasma ADH level in patients with chronic congestive heart failure. Jpn Cire J 1968:32:745-59.
212. Nicod P, Waeber B, Bussien JP et al. Acute hemodynamic effect of a vascular antagonist of vasopressin in patients with congestive heart failure. Am J Cardiol 1985:55:1043-7.
213. Creager MA, Faxon DR Cutler SS, et al. Contribution of vasopressin to vasoconstriction in patients with congestive heart failure: comparison to the renin-angiotensin system and the sympathetic nervous system. J Am Coll Cardiol 1986;7:758-65.
214. Packer M, Median N, Yushak M. Correlation of dilutional hyponatremia in severe chronic heart failure by concerting-enzyme inhibition. Ann Intern Med 1984:100:782-9.
215. Lee WH, Packer M. Prognostic importance of serum sodium concentration and its modification by concerting-enzyme inhibition in patients with severe chronic heart failure. Circulation 1986;73:257-67.
216. Dzau VJ, Packer M, Lilly LS, et al. Prostaglandins in severe heart failure: relation to activation of the renin-angiotensin system and hyponatremia. N Engl J Med 1984;310:347-52.
217. Oliver JA, Sciacca R, Pinto J, et al. Participation of the prostaglandins in the control of renal blood flow during acute reduction of cardiac output in the dog. J Clin Invest 1981;67:229-37.
218. Needleman P, Bronson SD, Wyche A, et al. Cardiac and renal prostaglandin 12: biosynthesis and biological effects in isolated perfused rabbit tissue. J Clin Invest 1978:61:839-49.
219. Nakaoka H, Imataka K, Amano M, et al. Plasma levels of atrial natriuretic factor in patients with congestive heart failure [Letter]. N Engl J Med 1985:313:892-93.
220. Shenker Y, Sider RS, Ostafin EA, et al. Plasma levels of immunoreactive atrial natriuretic factor in healthy subjects and in patients with edema. J Clin Invest 1985:76:1684-7.
221. Zusman RM, Keiser HR. Prostaglandin biosynthesis by rabbit renomedullary interstitial cells in culture: stimulation by angiotensin II, bradykinin and arginine vasopressin. J Clin Invest 1977;60:215-23.
222. Laragh JH. Atrial natriuretic hormone, the renin-aldosterone axis, and blood pressure-electrolyte homeostasis. N Engl J Med 1985;313:1330-40.
223. Levine B, Kulman J, Mayer L, et al. Elevated circulating levels at tumor necrosis factor in severe chronic heart failure. N Engl J Med 1990:323:236-41.
224. Matsuri A, Shioi T, Yamada T, et al. Vesnarinone, a new inotropic agent, inhibits cytokine production by stimulated human blood from patients with heart failure. Circulation 1994;89(suppl 3):955-8.
225. Hiroe M, Hirata Y, Fujita N, et al. Plasma endothelin-1 levels in idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy. Am J Cardiol 1991:68:1114-15.
226. Packer R. Bergler-Klein J. Globits S, et al. Plasma big endothelin-1 concentrations in congestive heart failure patients with or without systemic hypertension. Am J Cardiol 1993:71:1293-9.
227. Wei C, Lerman A, Rodehel'fer RJ, et al. Endothelin in human congestive heart failure. Circulation 1994:89:1580-6.
228. Stewart DJ, Cernacek V, Coslello KB, et al. Elevated endothelin-1 in heart failure and loss of normal response to postural change. Circulation 1992:85:510-17.
229. Cavero PC, Miller WL, Heublein DM, et al. Endothelium in experimental congestive heart failure in the anesthetized dog. Am I Physiol 1990;259:F312-17.
230. Ito H, Hirata Y. Hiroe M. et al. Endothelin induces hypertrophy with enhanced expression of muscle specific genes in cultured neonatal rat cardiomyocytes. Circ Res 1991:69:209-15.
231. Miller W, Redfield M, Burnett JC Jr. Integrated cardiac, renal and endocrine actions of endothelin. ) Clin Invest 1989:83:317-20.
232. Vloraves CS. Reynolds EE, Stewart RW, et al. Endothelin is a positive inolropic agent in human and rat heart in vitro. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 1989:159:14-18.
233. Luscher TF, Diederich D, Siebennan R, et al. Difference between endothelium-dependent relaxation in arterial and in venous coronary jypass grafts. N Engl ) Med 1986:315:1046-51.
234. Forstermann U, Mugge A, Alheid U, et al. Selective attenuation of indothelium-modiated vasodilation in atherosclerotic human coronary arteries. Circ Res 1988:62:185-90.
235. Luscher TE Cooke JP Houston DS, et al. Endothelium-dependent relaxation in human arteries. Mayo Clin Proc 1987:62:601-6.
236. Greenberg B, Roden K, Bernes PJ. Endothelium-dependent relaxation of human pulmonary arteries. Am J Physiol 1987:252:H434-8.
237. Kubo SH, Rector TS, Bank AJ, et al. Endothelium-dependent vasodilation is attenuated in patients with heart failure. Circulation 1991:84:1589-96.
238. Zelis R, Mason DT, Braunwald L. A comparison of the effects of vasodilator stimuli on peripheral vascular resistance vessels in normal subjects and in patients with congestive heart failure. ) Clin Invest 1968:47:960-70.