Sequence-based identification of microbial pathogens: A reconsideration of Koch's postulates

Clinical Microbiology Reviews

Volumn 9, Issue 1, 1996, Pages 18-33

  Fredricks, David N ^a   Relman, David A ^a,b  

^a STANFORD UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

^b VA PALO ALTO HEALTH CARE SYSTEM   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EHRLICHIOSIS; GENOTYPE; HANTAVIRUS PULMONARY SYNDROME; HEPATITIS C; HOST PARASITE INTERACTION; HYPOTHESIS; IN SITU HYBRIDIZATION; INTESTINE LIPODYSTROPHY; KAPOSI SARCOMA; MICROBIAL GENETICS; MICROBIOLOGY; NONHUMAN; POLYMERASE CHAIN REACTION; PRACTICE GUIDELINE; REVIEW;

HANTAVIRUS; HEPATITIS C VIRUS;

EID: 0030060689     PISSN: 08938512     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1128/cmr.9.1.18-33.1996     Document Type: Review

References (119)

1. Amann, R. I., W. Ludwig, and K.-H. Schleifer. 1995. Phylogenetic identification and in situ detection of individual microbial cells without cultivation. Microbiol. Rev. 59:143-169.
2. Anderson, B. E., J. E. Dawson, D. C. Jones, and K. H. Wilson. 1991. Ehrlichia chaffeensis, a new species associated with human ehrlichiosis. J. Clin. Microbiol. 29:2838-2842.
3. Anderson, B. E., J. W. Sumner, J. E. Dawson, T. Tzianabos, C. R. Greene, J. G. Olson, D. B. Fishbein, M. Olsen-Rasmussen, B. P. Holloway, E. H. George, and A. F. Azad. 1992. Detection of the etiologic agent of human ehrlichiosis by polymerase chain reaction. J. Clin Microbiol 30:775-780.
4. Bakken, J. S., J. S. Dumler, S. M. Chen, M. R. Eckman, L. Van Etta, and D. H. Walker. 1994. Human granulocytic ehrlichiosis in the upper Midwest United States. A new species emerging? JAMA 272:212-218.
5. Boddinghaus, B., T. Rogall, T. Flohr, H. Blocker, and E. C. Bottger. 1990 Detection and identification of mycohacteria by amplification of rRNA. J. Clin. Microbiol. 28:1751-1759.
6. Boorstin, D. J. 1983 The discoverers. Vintage Books, New York.
7. Bottger, E. C. 1989. Rapid determination of bacterial ribosomal RNA sequences by direct sequencing of enzymatically amplified DNA FEMS Microbiol. Lett 53:171-176.
8. Bottger, E. C., A. Teske, P. Kirschner, S. Bost, H. R. Chang, V. Beer, and B. Hirschel. 1992. Disseminated "Mycobacterium genavense" infection in patients with AIDS. Lancet 340:76-80.
9. Brown, M. S., and J. L. Goldstein. 1992 Koch's postulates for cholesterol. Cell 71:187-188.
10. Butler, J. C., and C. J. Peters. 1994. Hantavirus and hantavirus pulmonary syndrome. Clin. Infect. Dis. 19:387-395.
11. Carter, K. C. 1985. Koch's postulates in relation to the work of Jacob Henle and Edwin Klebs. Med. Hist. 29:353-374
12. Chang, Y., E. Cesarman, M. S. Pessin, F. Lee, J. Culpepper, D. M. Knowles, and P. S. Moore. 1994. Identification of herpesvirus-like DNA sequences in AIDS-associated Kaposi's sarcoma. Science 266:1865-1869.
13. Chapman, L. E., and R. F. Khabbaz. 1994. Etiology and epidemiology of the Four Corners hantavirus outbreak. Infect. Agents Dis. 3:234-244.
14. Chears, W. C. J., and C. T. Ashworth. 1961. Electron microscopic study of the intestinal mucosa in Whipple's disease: demonstration of encapsulated bacilliform bodies in the lesion Gastroenterology 41:129-138.
15. Chellappan, S., V. B. Kraus, B. Kroger, K. Munger, P. M. Howley, W. C. Phelps, and J. R. Nevins. 1992. Adenovirus E1A, simian virus 40 tumor antigen, and human papillomavirus E7 protein share the capacity to disrupt the interaction between transcription factor E2F and the retinoblastoma gene product. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 89:4549-4553.
16. Chen, K., H. Neimark, P. Rumore, and C. R. Steinman. 1989. Broad range DNA probes for detecting and amplifying eubacterial nucleic acids. FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 48:19-24
17. Chen, S. M, J. S. Dumler, J. S. Bakken, and D. H. Walker. 1994. Identification of a granulocytotropic Ehrlichia species as the etiologic agent of human disease. J. Clin. Microbiol. 32:589-595.
18. Chiodini, R. J. 1989. Crohn's disease and the mycobacterioses: a review and comparison of two disease entities. Clin. Microbiol Rev. 2:90-117.
19. Choo, Q. L., G. Kuo, A. J. Weiner, L. R. Overby, D. W. Bradley, and M. Houghton. 1989 Isolation of a cDNA clone derived from a blood-borne non-A. non-B viral hepatitis genome. Science 244:359-362.
20. Craig, E. A., J. S. Weissman, and A. L. Horwich. 1994. Heat shock proteins and molecular chaperones: mediators of protein conformation and turnover in the cell Cell 78:365-372.
21. Dawson, J. E., B. E. Anderson, D. H. Fishbein, J. L. Sanchez, C. S. Goldsmith, K. H. Wilson, and C. W. Duntley. 1991. Isolation and characterization of an Ehrlichia sp. from a patient diagnosed with human ehrlichiosis. J. Clin. Microbiol. 29:2741-2745.
22. Dell'Isola, B., C. Poyart, O. Goulet, J. F. Mougenot, J. E. Sadoun, N. Brousse, J. Schmitz, C. Ricour, and P. Berche. 1994. Detection of Mycobacterium paratuberculosis by polymerase chain reaction in children with Crohn's disease J. Infect. Dis. 169:449-451.
23. Distel, D. L., E. F. DeLong, and J. B. Waterbury. 1991. Phylogenetic characterization and in situ localization of the bacterial symbiont of shipworms (Teredinidae: Bivalvia) by using 16S rRNA sequence analysis and oligodeoxynucleotide probe hybridization. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 57:2376-2382.
24. Dobbins, W. O., and H. Kawanishi. 1981. Bacillary characteristics in Whippie's disease: an electron microscopic study. Gastroenterology 80:1468-1475.
25. Donham, K. J., and P. S. Thorne. 1994. Agents in organic dust: criteria for a causal relationship. Am J Ind Med 25:33-39
26. Duchin, J. S., F. T. Koster, C. J. Peters, G. L. Simpson, B. Tempest, S. R. Zaki, T. G. Ksiazek, P. E. Rollin, S. Nichol, E. T. Umland, R. L. Moolenaar, S. E. Reef, K. B. Nolte, M. M. Gallaher, J. C. Butler, R. F. Breiman, and the Hantavirus Study Group. 1994. Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome: a clinical description of 17 patients with a newly recognized disease. The Hantavirus Study Group. N. Engl. J. Med. 330:949-955.
27. Edberg, S. C. 1985. Principles of nucleic acid hybridization and comparison with monoclonal antibody technology for the diagnosis of infectious diseases. Yale J. Biol. Med. 58:425-442.
28. Elliott, L. H., T. G. Ksiazek, P. F.. Rollin, C. F. Spiropoulou, S. Morzunov, M. Monroe, C. S. Goldsmith, C. D. Humphrey, S. R. Zaki, J. W. Krebs, et al. 1994. Isolation of the causative agent of hantavirus pulmonary syndrome. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 51:102-108.
29. Evans, A. S. 1976. Causation and disease: the Henle-Koch postulates revisited. Yale J. Biol. Med. 49:175-195.
30. Evans, A. S. 1977. Limitation of Koch's postulates. Lancet ii:1277-1278. (Letter.)
31. Everett, E. D., K. A. Evans, R. B. Henry, and G. McDonald. 1994. Human ehrlichiosis in adults after tick exposure: diagnosis using polymerase chain reaction. Ann. Intern. Med. 120:730-735.
32. Falkow, S. 1988. Molecular Koch's postulates applied to microbial pathogenicity. Rev. Infect. Dis. 10:S274-S276.
33. Farci, P., H. J. Alter, D. Wong, R. H. Miller, J. W. Shih, B. Jett, and R. H. Purcell. 1991. A long-term study of hepatitis C virus replication in non-A, non-B hepatitis. N. Engl. J. Med. 325:98-104.
34. Fishbein, D. B., J. E. Dawson, and L. E. Robinson. 1994. Human ehrlichiosis in the United States, 1985 to 1990. Ann. Intern. Med. 120:736-743.
35. Giovannoni, S. J., T. B. Britschgi, C. L. Moyer, and K. G. Field. 1990. Genetic diversity in Sargasso Sea bacterioplankton. Nature (London) 345: 60-63.
36. Giovannoni, S. J., E. F. DeLong, G. J. Olsen, and N. R. Pace. 1988. Phylogenetic group-specific oligodeoxynucleotide probes for identification of single microbial cells. J Bacteriol. 170:720-726. (Erratum, 170:2418, 1988.)
37. Gold, T. 1992. The deep, hot biosphere. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 89: 6045-6049.
38. Gupta, R. S., and G. B. Golding. 1993. Evolution of HSP70 gene and its implications regarding relationships between archaebacteria, eubacteria, and eukaryotes. J. Mol. Evol. 37:573-582.
39. Haase, A. T., E. F. Retzel, and K. A. Staskus. 1990. Amplification and detection of lentiviral DNA inside cells. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 87: 4971-4975.
40. Hackney, J. D., and W. S. Linn. 1979. Koch's postulates updated: a potentially useful application to laboratory research and policy analysis in environmental toxicology. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 119:849-852.
41. Hall, P. A., and N. R. Lemoine. 1991. Koch's postulates revisited J. Pathol. 164:283-284. (Editorial.)
42. Hanson, R. P. 1988. Koch is dead J. Wildl. Dis 24:193-200.
43. Henle, G., W. Henle, and V. Diehl. 1968. Relation of Burkitt's tumorassociated herpes-type virus to infectious mononucleosis Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 59:94-101.
44. Henle, J. 1938. On miasmata and contagie. Johns Hopkins Press, Baltimore.
45. Hill, A. B. 1965. The environment and disease: association or causation? Proc. R. Soc. Med. 58:295-300
46. Hjelle, B., C. F. Spiropoulou, M. N. Torrez, S. Morzunov, C. J. Peters, and S. T. Nichol. 1994. Detection of Muerto Canyon virus RNA in peripheral blood mononuclear cells from patients with hantavirus pulmonary syndrome. J Infect. Dis. 170:1013-1017.
47. Huebner, R. J. 1957. The virologist's dilemma. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 67:430-438.
48. Hughes, M. S., L. A. Beck, and R. A. Skuce. 1994. Identification and elimination of DNA sequences in Taq DNA polymerase. J. Clin. Microbiol. 32:2007-2008.
49. Hume, D. 1896. L. A. Selby-Bigge (ed.), Treatise of human nature (1739) Clarendon Press, Oxford.
50. Johnson, R. T., and C. J. Gibbs. 1974. Koch's postulates and slow infections of the nervous system Arch Neurol. 30:36-38. (Editorial.)
51. Kaneshima, H., L. Su, M. L. Bonyhadi, R. I. Connor, D. D. Ho, and J. M. McCune. 1994. Rapid-high, syncytium-inducing isolates of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 induce cytopathicity in the human thymus of the SCID-hu mouse. J. Virol. 68:8188-8192.
52. Koch, R. 1942 The aetiology of tuberculosis (translation of Die Aetiologie der Tuberculose [1882]), p. 392-406. In D. H. Clark (ed.), Source book of medical history Dover Publications, Inc., New York.
53. Koch, R. 1891. Uber bakteriologische Forschung Verhandlung des X Internationalen Medichinischen Congresses, Berlin, 1890, 1, 35. August Hirschwald. Berlin. (In German.) Xth International Congress of Medicine, Berlin.
54. Koehler, J. E., F. D. Quinn, T. G. Berger, P. E. LeBoit, and J. W. Tappero. 1992. Isolation of Rochalimaea species from cutaneous and osseous lesions of bacillary angiomatosis. N. Engl. J. Med. 327:1625-1631.
55. Krawczynski, K., M. J. Beach, D. W. Bradley, G. Kuo, A. M. di Bisceglie, M. Houghton, G. R. Reyes, J. P. Kim, Q. L. Choo, and M. J. Alter. 1992. Hepatitis C virus antigen in hepatocytes: immunomorphologic detection and identification. Gastroenterology 103:622-629.
56. Kreider, J. W., M. K. Kowett, S. A. Wolfe, G. L. Bartlett, R. J. Zaino, T. Sedlacek, and R. Mortel. 1985. Morphological transformation in vivo of human uterine cervix with papillomavirus from condylomata acuminata. Nature (London) 317:639-641.
57. Ksiazek. T. G., C. J. Peters, P. E. Rollin, S. Zaki, S. Nichol, C. Spiropoulou, S. Morzunov, H. Feldmann, A. Sanchez, A. S. Khan, et al. 1995. Identification of a new North American hantavirus that causes acute pulmonary iosufficiency. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 52:117-123.
58. Kuo, G., Q.-L. Choo, H. J. Alter, G. L. Gitnick, A. G. Redeker, R. H. Purcell, T. Miyamura, J. L. Dienstag, M. J. Alter, C. E. Stevens, G. E. Tegtmeier, F. Bonino, M. Colombo, W.-S. Lee, C. Kuo, K. Berger, J. R. Shuster, L. R. Overby, D. W. Bradley, and M. Houghton. 1989. An assay for circulating antibodies to a major etiologic virus of human non-A, non-B hepatitis. Science 244:362-364.
59. Kwok, S., and R. Higuchi. 1989. Avoiding false positives with PCR. Nature (London) 339:237-238. [Erratum, Nature (London) 339:490, 1989.]
60. Lakhani, S. R. 1993. Early clinical pathologists: Robert Koch (1843-1910). J. Clin. Palhol. 46:596-598.
61. Lane, D. J., B. Pace, G. J. Olsen, D. A. Stahl, M. L. Sogin, and N. R. Pace. 1985. Rapid determination of 16S ribosomal RNA sequences for phylogenetic analyses. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 82:6955-6959.
62. Liesack, W., and E. Stackebrandt. 1992. Occurrence of novel groups of the domain Bacteria as revealed by analysis of genetic material isolated from an Australian terrestrial environment J. Bacteriol. 174:5072-5078.
63. Lisitsyn, N., N. Lisitsyn, and M. Wigler. 1993. Cloning the differences between two complex genomes. Science 259:946-951.
64. Lucey, D., M. J. Dolan, C. W. Moss, M. Garcia, D. G. Hollis, S. Wegner, G. Morgan, R. Almeida, D. Leong, K. S. Greisen, et al. 1992. Relapsing illness due to Rochalimaea henselae in immunocompetent hosts: implication for therapy and new epidemiological associations. Clin. Infect Dis. 14:683-688.
65. Maeda, K., N. Markowitz, R. C. Hawley, M. Ristic, D. Cox, and J. E. McDade. 1987. Human infection with Ehrlichia cams, a leukocytic rickettsia. N. Engl. J Med. 316:853-856.
66. Maiwald, M., H. J. Meier-Willersen, M. Hartmann, and A. von Herbay. 1995 Detection of Tropheryma whippelu DNA in a patient with AIDS. J. Clin. Microbiol. 33:1354-1356.
67. Malawista, S. E., S. W. Barthold, and D. H. Persing. 1994. Fate of Borrelia burgdorferi DNA in tissues of infected mice after antibiotic treatment. J. Infect. Dis. 170:1312-1316
68. Marley, J. E., and A. J. McMichael. 1991. Principles behind practice. 6. Disease causation. The role of epidemiological evidence. Med. J. Aust. 155:95-101.
69. McCune, J. M., R. Namikawa, H. Kaneshima, L. D. Shultz, M. Lieberman, and I. L. Weissman. 1988. The SCID-hu mouse mouse model for the analysis of human hematolymphoid differentiation and function. Science 241:1632-1639.
70. Meier-Willersen, H. J., M. Maiwald, and A. von Herbay. 1993. Whipple's disease associated with opportunistic infections. Dtsch Med. Wochenschr 118:854-860. (In German)
71. Moore, P. S., and Y. Chang. 1995. Detection of herpesvirus-like DNA sequences in Kaposi's sarcoma in patients with and without HIV infection. N. Engl. J Med. 332:1181-1185.
72. Muller, C., C. Stain, and O. Burghuber. 1993. Tropheryma whippeliz in peripheral blood mononuclear cells and cells of pleural effusion. Lancet 341:701. (Letter.)
73. Munoz, N. 1994 Is Helicobacter pylori a cause of gastric cancer? An appraisal of the seroepidemiological evidence. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev. 3:445-451.
74. Murray, R. G., and K. H. Schleifer. 1994. Taxonomic notes: a proposal tor recording the properties of putative taxa of procaryotes. Int. J. Syst. Bacteriol. 44:174-176.
75. Nakatsuji, Y., A. Matsumoto, E. Tanaka, H. Ogata, and K. Kiyosawa. 1992. Detection of chronic hepatitis C virus infection by four diagnostic systems: first-generation and second-generation enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, second-generation recombinant immunoblot assay and nested polymerase chain reaction analysis. Hepatology 16:300-305
76. Negro, F., D. Pacchioni, Y. Shimizu, R. H. Miller, G. Bussolati, R. H. Purcell, and F. Bonino. 1992. Detection of intrahepatic replication of hepatitis C virus RNA by in situ hybridization and comparison with histopathology Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 89:2247-2251.
77. Nichol, S. T., C. F. Spiropoulou, S. Morzunov, P. E. Rollin, T. G. Ksiazek, H. Feldmann, A. Sanchez, J. Childs, S. Zaki, and C. J. Peters. 1993 Genetic identification of a hantavirus associated with an outbreak of acute respiratory illness. Science 262:914-917.
78. Nocton, J. J., F. Dressier, B. J. Rutledge, P. N. Rys, D. H. Persing, and A. C. Steere. 1994 Detection of Borrelia burgdorferi DNA by polymerase chain reaction in synovial fluid from patients with Lyme arthritis. N. Engl. J. Med. 330:229-234.
79. Olsen, G. J., and C. R. Woese. 1993. Ribosomal RNA a key to phylogeny. FASEB J. 7:113-123.
80. Parsonnet, J. 1993. Helicobacter pylon and gastric cancer. Gastroenterol Clin. North Am. 22:89-104.
81. Parsonnet, J., G. D. Friedman, D. P. Vandersteen, Y. Chang, J. H. Vogelman, N. Orentreich, and R. K. Sibley. 1991. Helicobacter pylori infection and the risk of gastric carcinoma N. Engl. J. Med. 325:1127-1131.
82. Persing, D. H., B. J. Rutledge, P. N. Rys, D. S. Podzorski, P. D. Mitchell. K. D. Reed, B. Liu, E. Fikrig, and S. E. Malawista. 1994. Target imbalance: disparity of Borrelia burgdorferi genetic material in synovial fluid from Lyme arthritis patients. J. Infect. Dis. 169:668-672.
83. Rady, P. L., A. Yen, J. L. Rollefson, I. Orengo, S. Bruce, T. K. Hughes, and S. K. Tyring. 1995. Herpesvirus-like DNA sequences in non-Kaposi's sarcoma skin lesions of transplant patients. Lancet 345:1339-1340.
84. Rand, K. H., and H. Houck. 1990. Taq polymerase contains bacterial DNA of unknown origin. Mol. Cell. Probes 4:445-450.
85. Reed, J. A, D. J. Brigati, S. D. Flynn, N. S. McNutt, K. W. Min, D. F. Welch, and L. N. Slater. 1992. Immunocytochemical identification of Rochalimaea henselae in bacillary (epithelioid) angiomatosis, parenchymal bacillary peliosis, and persistent fever with bacteremia. Am. J. Surg. Pathol 16:650-657
86. Relman, D. A. Unpublished data
87. Relman, D. A. 1993. The identification of uncultured microbial pathogens. J. Infect Dis 168:1-8.
88. Relman, D. A. 1994. The phylogenetic diversity of microbial pathogens, p. 507-517. In V. L. Miller, J B Kaper, D A. Portnoy, and R. R Isberg (ed.), Molecular genetics of bacterial pathogenesis. American Society for Microbiology, Washington, D.C
89. Relman, D. A., and S. Falkow. 1995. A molecular perspective of microbial pathogenicity, p. 19-29. In G. L. Mandell, R. G Douglas, and J. E. Bennett (ed ), Principles and practice of infectious diseases. Churchill Livmgstone, New York.
90. Relman, D. A., S. Falkow, P. E. LeBoit, L. A. Perkocha, K. W. Min, D. F. Welch, and L. N. Slater. 1991. The organism causing bacillary angiomatosis, peliosis hepatis, and fever and bacteremia in immunocompromised patients. N. Engl. J. Med. 324:1514. (Letter.)
91. Relman, D. A., J. S. Loutit, T. M. Schmidt, S. Falkow, and L. S. Tompkins. 1990. The agent of bacillary angiomatosis. An approach to the identification of uncultured pathogens. N. Engl. J. Med. 323:1573-1580.
92. Relman, D. A., and D. Regula. Unpublished data
93. Relman, D. A., T. M. Schmidt, R. P. MacDermott, and S. Falkow. 1992. Identification of the uncultured bacillus of Whipple's disease. N. Engl. J. Med. 327:293-301.
94. Rickman, L. S., W. R. Freeman, W. R. Green, S. T. Feldman, J. Sullivan, V. Russack, and D. A. Relman. 1995. Uveitis caused by Tropheryma whippelii (Whipple's bacillus). N. Engl. J. Med. 332:363-366.
95. Rivers, T. M. 1937. Viruses and Koch's postulates. J. Bacteriol. 33:1-12.
96. Rowley, A. H., S. M. Wolinsky, D. A. Relman, S. P. Sambol, J. Sullivan, M. Terai, and S. T. Shulman. 1994. Search for highly conserved viral and bacterial nucleic acid sequences corresponding to an etiologic agent of Kawasaki disease. Pediatr Res. 36:567-571.
97. Rys, P. N., and D. H. Persing. 1993. Preventing false positives: quantitative evaluation of three protocols for inactivation of polymerase chain reaction amplification products. J. Clin. Microbiol. 31:2356-2360
98. Saiki, R. K., D. H. Gelfand, S. Stoffel, S. J. Scharf, R. Higuchi, G. T. Horn, K. B. Mullis, and H. A. Erlich. 1988. Primer-directed enzymatic amplification of DNA with a thermostable DNA polymerase. Science 239:487-491.
99. Saiki, R. K., S. Scharf, F. Faloona, K. B. Mullis, G. T. Horn, H. A. Erlich, and N. Arnheim. 1985. Enzymatic amplification of beta-globin genomic sequences and restriction site analysis for diagnosis of sickle cell anemia. Science 230:1350-1354.
100. Scheffner, M., H. Romanczuk, K. Munger, J. M. Huibregtse, J. A. Mietz, and P. M. Howley. 1994. Functions of human papillomavirus proteins. Curr. Top. Microbiol. Immunol. 186:83-99.
101. Scheffner, M., B. A. Werness, J. M. Huibregtse, A. J. Levine, and P. M. Howley. 1990. The E6 oncoprotein encoded by human papillomavirus types 16 and 18 promotes the degradation of p53. Cell 63:1129-1136.
102. Schmidt, T. M., E. F. DeLong, and N. R. Pace. 1991. Analysis of a marine picoplankton community by 16S rRNA gene cloning and sequencing. J. Bacteriol 173:4371-4378.
103. Schmidt, T. M., B. Pace, and N. R. Pace. 1991 Detection of DNA contamination in Tag polymerase. BioTechniques 11:176-177.
104. Schmidt, T. M., and D. A. Relman. 1994. Phylogenetic identification of uncultured pathogens using ribosomal RNA sequences. Methods Enzymol 235:205-222.
105. Silva, M. T., P. M. Macedo, and J. F. M. Nunes. 1985. Ultrastructure of bacilli and the bacillary origin of the macrophagic inclusions in Whipple's disease. J. Gen. Microbiol 131:1001-1013.
106. Slater, L. N., D. F. Welch, D. Hensel, and D. W. Coody. 1990. A newly recognized fastidious gram-negative pathogen as a cause of fever and bacteremia. N. Engl. J Med. 323:1587-1593.
107. Spencer, M. 1982. Fundamentals of light microscopy. Cambridge University Press, New York.
108. Stoler, M. H. 1990. In situ hybridization. Clin. Lab. Med. 10:215-236.
109. Stoler, M. H., and T. R. Broker. 1986. In situ hybridization detection of human papillomavirus DNAs and messenger RNAs in genital condylomas and a cervical carcinoma. Hum. Pathol. 17:1250-1258.
110. Trier, J. S., P. C. Phelps, S. Eidelman, and C. E. Rubin. 1965. Whipple's disease: light and electron microscope correlation of jejunal mucosal histology with antibiotic treatment and clinical status. Gastroenterology 48: 684-707.
111. Ward, D. M., M. M. Bateson, R. Weller, and A. L. Ruff-Roberts. 1992. Ribosomal RNA analysis of microorganisms as they occur in nature. Adv. Microb. Ecol. 12:219-286
112. Ward, D. M., R. Weller, and M. M. Bateson. 1990. 16S rRNA sequences reveal numerous uncultured microorganisms in a natural community. Nature (London) 345:63-65.
113. Wilson, K. H., R. Blitchington, R. Frothingham, and J. A. Wilson. 1991. Phylogeny of the Whipple's-disease-associated bacterium. Lancet 338:474-475.
114. Wilson, K. H., R. B. Blitchington, and R. C. Greene. 1990. Amplification of bacterial 16S ribosomal DNA with polymerase chain reaction. J. Clin. Microbiol. 28:1942-1946. (Erratum, J. Clin. Microbiol. 29:666, 1991.)
115. Woese, C. R. 1987. Bacterial evolution. Microbiol. Rev. 51:221-271.
116. Yardley, J. H., and T. R. Hendrix. 1961. Combined electron and light microscopy in Whipple's disease: demonstration of "bacillary bodies" in the intestine. Bull. Johns Hopkins Hosp. 109:80-98.
117. Zaki, S. R. Hantavirus-associated diseases. In D. Schwartz, D. H. Connor, and F. Chandler (ed.), Diagnostic pathology of infectious diseases, in press Paramount Appleton Lange, New York
118. Zaki, S. R., P. W. Greer, L. M. Coffield, C. S. Goldsmith, K. B. Nolte, K. Foucar, R. M. Feddersen, R. E. Zumwalt, G. L. Miller, A. S. Khan, et al. 1995. Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome. Pathogenesis of an emerging infectious disease. Am. J. Pathol. 146:552-579.
119. Zeitz, P. S., J. C. Butler, J. E. Cheek, M. C. Samuel, J. E. Childs, L. A. Shands, R. E. Turner, R. E. Voorhees, J. Sarisky, P. E. Rollin, T. G. Ksiazek, L. Chapman, S. E. Reef, K. K. Komatsu, C. Dalton, J. W. Krebs, G. O. Maupin, K. Gage, C. M. Sewell, R. F. Breiman, and C. J. Peters. 1995. A case-control study of hantavirus pulmonary syndrome during an outbreak in the Southwestern United States. J. Infect. Dis 171:864-870.