Developmental roles for chromatin and chromosomal structure

Developmental Biology

Volumn 173, Issue 1, 1996, Pages 2-13

  Patterton, Danielle ^a   Wolffe, Alan P ^a  

^a EUNICE KENNEDY SHRIVER NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF CHILD HEALTH AND HUMAN DEVELOPMENT   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

HISTONE;

ANIMAL CELL; CHROMATIN; CHROMOSOME STRUCTURE; DEVELOPMENT; DROSOPHILA; GENE ACTIVITY; GENE CONTROL; MAMMAL; MOUSE; NONHUMAN; NUCLEOSOME; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; XENOPUS;

ANIMALIA; CAENORHABDITIS ELEGANS; DROSOPHILA MELANOGASTER; MAMMALIA; MELANOGASTER;

EID: 0030056270     PISSN: 00121606     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1006/dbio.1996.0002     Document Type: Review

References (142)

1. Almouzni, G., Khochbin, S., Dimitrov, S., and Wolffe, A. P. (1994). Histone acetylation influences both gene expression and development of Xenopus laevis. Dev. Biol. 165, 654-669.
2. Almouzni, G., and Wolffe, A. P. (1993). Replication coupled chromatin assembly is required for the repression of basal transcription in vivo. Genes Dev. 7, 2033-2047.
3. Almouzni, G., and Wolffe, A. P. (1995). Constraints on transcriptional activator function contribute to transcriptional quiescence during early Xenopus embryogenesis. EMBO J. 14, 1752-1765.
4. Andrews, M. T., Loo, S., and Wilson, L. R. (1991). Coordinate inactivation of class III genes during the gastrula-neurula transition in Xenopus. Dev. Biol. 146, 250-254.
5. Aparicio, O. M., Billington, B. L., and Gottschling, D. E. (1991). Modifiers of position effect are shared between telomeric and silent mating-type loci in S. cerevisae. Cell 66, 1279-1287.
6. Beachy, P. A., Helfand, S. L., and Hogness, D. S. (1985). Segmental distribution of bithorax complex proteins during Drosophila development. Nature 313, 545-551.
7. Bone, J. R., Lavender, J., Richman, R., Palmer, M. J., Turner, M. B., and Kuroda, M. L. (1994). Acetylated histone H4 on the male X chromosome is associated with dosage compensation in Drosophila. Genes Dev. 8, 96-104.
8. Bouvet, P., and Wolffe, A. P. (1994). A role for transcription and FRGY2 in masking maternal mRNA in Xenopus oocytes. Cell 77, 931-941.
9. Bouvet, P., Dimitrov, S., and Wolffe, A. P. (1994). Specific regulation of chromosomal 5S rRNA gene transcription in vivo by histone H1. Genes Dev. 8, 1147-1159.
10. Boyes, J., and Bird, A. (1991). DNA methylation inhibits transcription indirectly via a methyl-CpG binding protein. Cell 64, 1123-1134.
11. Boyes, J., and Bird, A. (1992). Repression of genes by DNA methylation depends on CpG density and promoter strength: Evidence for involvement of a methyl-CpG binding protein. EMBO J. 11, 327-333.
12. Braunstein, M., Rose, A. B., Holmes, S. G., Allis, C. D., and Broach, J. R. (1993). Transcriptional Silencing in Yeast is Associated with Reduced Histone Acetylation. Genes Dev. 7, 592-604.
13. Cairns, B. R., Kim, Y. J., Sayre, M. H., Laurent, B. C., and Kornberg, R. D. (1994). A multisubunit complex containing the SWI1/ADR6, SWI2/SNF2, SWI3/SNF5 and SNF6 gene products isolated from yeast. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 91, 1950-1954.
14. Callan, H. G., Gall, J. G., and Berg, C. A. (1987). The lampbrush chromosomes of Xenopus laevis: Preparation, identification, and distribution of 5S DNA sequences. Chromosoma 95, 236-250.
15. Candido, E. P. M., Reeves, R., and Davie, J. R. (1978). Sodium butyrate inhibits histone deacetylation in cultured cells. Cell 14, 105-115.
16. Carroll, S. B., Layman, R. A., McCutcheon, M. A., and Riley, P. D. (1986). The localization and regulation of Antennapedia protein expression in Drosophila embryos. Cell 47, 113-122.
17. Celnikev, S. E., Sharma, S., Keelan, D. J., and Lewis, E. (1990). The molecular genetics of the bithorax complex of Drosophila: Cis regulation of the Abdominal-B domain. EMBO J. 9, 4277-4286.
18. Chambers, S. A. M., and Shaw, B. R. (1984). Levels of histone H4 diacetylation decrease dramatically during sea urchin embryonic development and correlate with cell doubling rate. J. Biol. Chem. 259, 13458-13463.
19. Chicoine, L. G., and Allis, C. D. (1986). Regulation of histone acetylation during macronuclear differentiation in Tetrahymena: Evidence for control at the level of acetylation and deacetylation. Dev. Biol. 116, 477-485.
20. Chipev, C. C., and Wolffe, A. P. (1992). Chromosomal organization of Xenopus laevis oocyte and somatic 5S rRNA genes in vivo. Mol. Cell. Biol. 12, 45-55.
21. Cho, H., and Wolffe, A. P. (1994). Characterization of the Xenopus laevis B4 gene: An oocyte specific vertebrate linker histone gene containing introns. Gene 143, 233-238.
22. Christians, E., Campion, E., Thompson, E. M., and Renard, J. P. (1995). Expression of the HSP 70.1 gene, a landmark of early zygotic activity in the mouse embryo is restricted to the first burst of transcription. Development 112, 113-122.
23. Chuang, P. T., Albertson, D. G., and Meyer, B. J. (1994). DPY-27: A chromosome condensation protein homolog that regulates C. elegans dosage compensation through association with the X chromosome. Cell 79, 459-474.
24. Clark-Adams, C. D., Norris, D., Osley, M. A., Fassler, J. S., and Winston, F. (1988). Changes in histone gene dosage alter transcription in yeast. Genes Dev. 2, 150-159.
25. Clarke, H. J., Oblin, C., and Bustin, M. (1992). Developmental regulation of chromatin composition during mouse embryogenesis: somatic histone H1 is first detectable at the 4-cell stage. Development 115, 791-799.
26. DiNardo, S., Voelkel, K., and Sternglanz, R. (1984). DNA topoisomerase II is required for segregation of daughter molecules at the termination of DNA replication. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 81, 2616-2620.
27. Dimitrov, S., Almouzni, G., Dasso, M., and Wolffe, A. P. (1993). Chromatin transitions during early Xenopus embryogenesis: Changes in histone H4 acetylation and in linker histone type. Dev. Biol. 160, 214-227.
28. Dimitrov, S., Dasso, M. C., and Wolffe, A. P. (1994). Remodeling sperm chromatin in Xenopus laevis egg extracts: The role of core histone phosphorylation and linker histone B4 in chromatin assembly. J. Cell Biol. 126, 591-601.
29. Eissenberg, J. C., James, T. C., Foster, H. D. M., Hartnett, T., Ngan, V., and Elgin, S. C. (1990). Mutation in a heterochromatin-specific chromosomal protein is associated with suppression of position effect variegation in Drosophila melanogaster. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 87, 9923-9927.
30. Flynn, J. M., and Woodland, H. R. (1980). The synthesis of histone H1 during early amphibian development. Dev. Biol. 75, 222-230.
31. Franke, A., DeCamillis, M., Zink, D., Cheng, N., Brock, H., and Paro, R. (1992). Polycomb and polyhomeotic are constituents of a mullimeric protein complex in chromatin of Drosophila melanogaster. EMBO J. 11, 2941-2950.
32. Fundele, R. H., and Surani, M. A. (1994). Experimental embryological analysis of genetic imprinting in mouse development. Dev. Genet. 15, 515-522.
33. Ge, H., and Roeder, R. G. (1994). The high mobility protein HMG1 can reversibly inhibit class II gene transcription by interaction with the TATA-binding protein. J. Biol. Chem. 269, 17136.
34. Geyer, P. K., and Corces, V. G. (1992). DNA position-effect repression of transcription by a Drosophila zinc-finger protein. Genes Dev. 6, 1865-1873.
35. Gorovsky, M. A. (1973). Macro- and micronuclei of Tetrahymena pyriform is: A model system for studying the structure and function of eukaryotic nuclei. J. Protozool. 20, 19-25.
36. Gottschling, D. E. (1992). Telomere-proximal DNA in Saccharomyces cerevisiae is refractory to methyltransferase activity in vivo. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 89, 4062-4065.
37. Goustin, A. S., and Wilt, F. H. (1981). Protein synthesis, polyribosomes, and peptide elongation in early development of Strongylocentrotus purpuratus. Dev. Biol. 82, 32-45.
38. Grant, S. G., and Chapman, V. M. (1988). Mechanisms of X-chromosome regulation. Annu. Rev. Genet. 22, 199-233.
39. Grosveld, F., Antoniou, M., Berry, M., de Boer, E., Dillou, N., Ellis, J., Fraser, P., Hurst, J., Iman, A., Meijer, D., Philipsen, S., Pruzina, S., Strouboulis, J., and Whyatt, D. (1993). Regulation of human globin gene switching. Cold Spring Harbor Symp. Quant. Biol. 58, 7-15.
40. Groudine, M., and Conkin, K. F. (1985). Chromatin structure and de novo methylation of sperm DNA: implications for activation of the paternal genome. Science 228, 1061-1068.
41. Gurdon, J. B. (1963). Nuclear transplantation in amphibia and the importance of stable nuclear changes in promoting cellular differentiation. Q. Rev. Biol. 38, 54-78.
42. Gurdon, J. B. (1976). Injected nuclei in frog eggs: Fate, enlargement and chromatin dispersal. J. Embryol. Exp. Morphol. 36, 523-540.
43. Han, M., and Grunstein, M. (1988). Nucleosome loss activates yeast downstream promoters in vivo. Cell 55, 1137-1145.
44. Harding, K., and Levine, M. (1988). Gap genes define the limits of Antennapedia and bithorax gene expression during early development in Drosophila. EMBO J. 7, 205-214.
45. Hartl, P., Gottesfeld, J., and Forbes, D. J. (1993). Mitotic repression of transcription in vitro. J. Cell. Biol. 120, 613-624.
46. Hayes, J. J., Clark, D. J., and Wolffe, A. P. (1991). Histone contributions to the structure of DNA in the nucleosome Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 88, 6829-6833.
47. Hayes, J. J., and Wolffe, A. P. (1992). Histones H2A/H2B inhibit the interactions of transcription factor IIIA with the Xenopus borealis somatic 5S RNA gene in a nucleosome. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 89, 1229-1233.
48. Henikoff, S. (1994). A reconsideration of the mechanisms of position effect. Genetics 138, 1-5.
49. Hershkovitz, M., and Riggs, A. D. (1995). Metaphase chromosome analysis by ligation-mediated PCR: Heritable chromatin structure and a comparison of active and inactive X chromosomes. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 92, 2379-2383.
50. Herskowitz, I., Andrews, B., Kruger, W., Ogas, J., Sil, A., Coburn, C., and Peterson, C. (1992). Integration of multiple regulatory inputs in the control of HO expression in yeast. In "Transcriptional Regulation" (S. McKnight, and K. Yamamoto, eds), Cold Spring Harbor Press, New York, Vol. 2, p. 949-974.
51. Hirano, T., and Michison, T. J. (1994). A heterodimeric coiled-coil protein required for mitotic chromosome condensation in vitro. Cell 79, 449-458.
52. Hock, R., Moorman, A., Fischer, D., and Scheer, U. (1993). Absence of somatic histone H1 in oocytes and preblastula embryos of Xenopus laevis. Dev. Biol. 158, 510-522.
53. Hewlett, S. K., Barton, S. C., and Surani, M. A. (1987). Nuclear cytoplasmic interactions following nuclear transplantation in mouse embryos. Development 101, 915-923.
54. Ikegami, S., Ooe, Y., Shimizu, T., Kasahara, T., Tsuruta, T., Kijima, M., Yoshida, M., and Beppu, T. (1993). Accumulation of multi-acetylated forms of histones by trichostatin A and its developmental consequences in early starfish embryos. Roux's Arch. Dev. Biol. 202, 144-151.
55. Irish, V. F., Martinez-Arias, A., and Akam, M. (1989). Spatial regulation of the Antennapedia and Ultrabithorax homeotic genes during Drosophila early development. EMBO J. 8, 1527-1537.
56. James, T. C., and Elgin, S. C. (1986). Identification of a non histone chromosomal protein associated with heterochromatin in Drosophila melanogaster in its gene. Mol. Cell. Biol. 6, 3862-3872.
57. Jenuwein, T., Forrester, W. C., Qui, R.-G., and Grosschedl, R. (1993). The immunoglobulin μ enhancer core establishes local factor access in nuclear chromatin independent of transcriptional stimulation. Genes Dev. 7, 2016-2032.
58. Jeppesen, P., and Turner, B. M. (1993). The inactive X chromosome in female mammals is distinguished by a lack of histone H4 acetylation, a cytogenetic marker for gene expression. Cell 74, 281-291.
59. Kandolf, H. (1994). The H1A histone variant is the in vivo repressor of oocyte-type 5S gene transcription in Xenopus laevis embryos. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 91, 7257-7260.
60. Kass, S. V., Goddard, J. P., and Adams, R. L. P. (1993). Inactive chromatin spreads from a focus of methylation. Mol. Cell Biol. 13, 7372-7379.
61. Kauffmann, S. A. (1980). Heterotopic transplantation in the syncytial blastoderm of Drosophila: Evidence for anterior and posterior nuclear commitments. Roux's Arch. Dev. Biol. 189, 135-145.
62. Kaufmann, P. D., and Botchan, M. R. (1994). Assembly of nucleosomes: do multiple assembly factors mean multiple mechanisms? Curr. Opin. Genet. Dev. 4, 229-235.
63. Kellum, R., and Schedl, P. (1991). A position-effect assay for boundaries of higher order chromosomal domains. Cell 64, 941-950.
64. Kennison, J. A., and Tamkun, J. W. (1988). Dosage-dependent modifiers of Polycomb and Antennapedia mutations in Drosophila. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 85, 8136-8140.
65. Kennison, J. A. (1993). Transcriptional activation of Drosophila homeotic genes from distant regulatory elements. Trends Genet. 9, 75-79.
66. Khochbin, S., and Wolffe, A. P. (1993). Developmental regulation and butyrate inducible transcription of the Xenopus histone H1° promoter. Gene 128, 173-180.
67. Khochbin, S., and Wolffe, A. P. (1994). Developmentally regulated expression of linker-histone variants in vertebrates. Eur. J. Biochem. 225, 501-510.
68. Kingsley, P. D., Angerer, L. M., and Angerer, R. C. (1993). Major temporal and spatial patterns of gene expression during differentiation of the sea urchin embryo. Dev. Biol. 155, 216-234.
69. Klar, A. J. S., and Bonaduce, M. J. (1991). swi6, a gene required for mating-type switching, prohibits meiotic recombination in the mat2-mat3 'cold spot' of fission yeast. Genetics 129, 1033-1042.
70. Kleinschmidt, J. A., Fortkamp, E., Krohne, G., Zentgraf, H., and Franke, W. W. (1985). Coexistence of two different types of soluble histone complexes in nuclei of Xenopus laevis oocytes. J. Biol. Chem. 260, 1166-1176.
71. Knowles, J. A., and Childs, G. J. (1984). Temporal expression of late histone messenger RNA in the sea urchin Lytechinus pictus. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 81, 2411-2415.
72. Kuziora, M. A., and McGinnis, W. (1988). Different transcripts of the Drosophila Abd-B gene correlate with distinct genetic subfunctions. EMBO J. 7, 3233-3244.
73. Laemmli, U. K., Cheng, S. M., Adolph, K. W., Paulson, J. R., Brown, J. A., and Brumbach, W. R. (1978). Metaphase chromosome structure: The role of non histone proteins. Cold Spring Harbor Symp. Quant. Biol. 42, 351-360.
74. Landsberger, N., Ranjan, M., Almouzni, G., Stump, D., and Wolffe, A. P. (1995). The heat shock response in Xenopus oocytes, embryos and somatic cells: an essential regulatory role for chromatin. Dev. Biol. 170, 62-74.
75. Latham, K. E., Solter, D., and Schultz, R. M. (1992). Acquisition of a transcriptionally permissive state during the 1-cell stage of mouse embryogenesis. Dev. Biol. 149, 457-462.
76. Lee, D. Y., Hayes, J. J., Pruss, D., and Wolffe, A. P. (1993). A positive role for histone acetylation in transcription factor binding to nucleosomal DNA. Cell 72, 73-84.
77. Lewis, E. B. (1978). A gene complex controlling segmentation. Nature 276, 565-570.
78. Li, E., Beard, C., and Jaenisch, R. (1993). Role of DNA methylation in genomic imprinting. Nature 366, 362-365.
79. Lin, R., Cook, R. G., and Allis, C. D. (1991). Proteolytic removal of core histone amino termini and dephosphorylation of histone H1 correlate with the formation of condensed chromatin and transcriptional silencing during Tetrahymena macronuclear development. Genes Dev. 5, 1601-1610.
80. Lock, L. F., Takagi, N., and Martin, G. R. (1987). Methylation of the hprt gene on the inactive X occurs after chromosome inactivation. Cell 48, 36-46.
81. Locke, J., Kotarski, M. A., and Tartof, K. D. (1988). Dosage dependent modifiers of position effect variegation in Drosophila and a mass action model that explains their effect. Genetics 120, 181-188.
82. Lorentz, A., Ostermann, K., Fleck, O., and Schmidt, H. (1994). Switching gene swi6 involved in the repression of silent mating-type loci in fission yeast, encodes a homolog of chromatin associated proteins from Drosophila and mammals. Gene 143, 1-8.
83. Louters, L., and Chalkley, R. (1985). Exchange of histones H1, H2A and H2B in vivo. Biochemistry 24, 3080-3085.
84. Lund, E., and Dahlberg, J. E. (1992). Control of 4-8S RNA transcription at the midblastula transition in Xenopus laevis embryos. Genes Dev. 6, 1097-1106.
85. McGrath, J. D., and Solter, D. (1984). Inability of mouse blastomere nuclei transferred to enucleated zygotes to support development in vitro. Science 226, 1317-1319.
86. Martinez-Salas, E., Linney, E., Hassell, J., and De Pamphilis, M. L. (1989). The need for enhancers in gene expression first appears during mouse development with formation of the zygotic nucleus. Genes Dev. 3, 1493-1506.
87. Matsumoto, K., Anzai, M., Nakagata, N., Takahashi, A., Takahashi, Y., and Miyata, K. (1994). Onset of paternal gene activation in early mouse embryos fertilized with transgenic mouse sperm. Mol. Reprod. Dev. 39, 136-140.
88. Maxson, R., Mohun, T., Gormezano, G., Childs, G., and Kedes, L. (1983). Distinct organization and patterns of expression of early and late histone sets in the sea urchin. Nature (London) 301, 120-127.
89. Morata, G., Botas, J., Kerridge, S., and Struhl, G. (1983). Homeotic transformations of the abdominal segments of Drosophila caused by breaking or deleting a central portion of the bithorax complex. J. Embryol. Exp. Morphol. 78, 319-341.
90. Ner, S. S., and Travers, A. A. (1994). HMG-D, the Drosophila melanogaster homologue of HMG1 protein, is associated with early embryonic chromatin in the place of histone H1. EMBO J. 13, 1817-1822.
91. Newport, J. W., and Kirschner, M. W. (1982a). A major developmental transition in early Xenopus embryos. 1. Characterization and timing of cellular changes at the mid blastula stage. Cell 30, 675-686.
92. Newport, J. W., and Kirschner, M. W. (1982b). A major developmental transition in early Xenopus embryos. II. Control of the onset of transcription. Cell 30, 687-696.
93. Newrock, K. M. Alfageme, C. R., Nardi, C. V., and Cohen, L. H. (1977). Histone changes during chromatin remodeling in embryogenesis. Cold Spring Harbor Symp. Quant. Biol. 42, 421-431.
94. Nightingale, K., Dimitrov, S., Reeves, R., and Wolffe, A. P. (1996). Evidence for a shared structural role for HMG1, and linker histones B4 and H1 in organizing chromatin. EMBO J., in press.
95. Orlando, V., and Paro, R. (1993). Mapping Polycomb-repressed domains in the bithorax complex using in vivo formaldehyde cross-linked chromatin. Cell 75, 1187-1198.
96. Parkhurst, S. M., Harrison, D. A., Remington, M. P., Spana, C., Kelley, R. L., Coyne, R. S., and Corces, V. G. (1988). The Drosophila su(Hw) gene, which controls the phenotypic effect of the gypsy transposable element, encodes a putative DNA binding protein. Genes Dev. 2, 1205-1215.
97. Perry, C. A., Allis, C. D., and Annunziato, A. T. (1993). Parental nucleosomes segregated to newly replicated chromatin are under-acetylated relative to those assembled de novo. Biochem istry 32, 13615-13623.
98. Perry, M., Thomson, G. H., and Roeder, R. G. (1986). Major transitions in histone gene expression do not occur during development in Xenopus laevis. Dev. Biol. 116, 532-538.
99. Pfeifer, K., and Tilghman, S. M. (1994). Allele-specific gene expression in mammals: the curious case of the imprinted RNAs. Genes Dev. 8, 1867-1874.
100. Pirotta, V., and Rastelli, L. (1994). White gene expression, repressive chromatin domains and homeotic gene regulation in Drosophila. BioEssays 16, 549-556.
101. Poccia, D., Salik, J., and Krystal, G. (1981). Transitions in histone variants of the male pronucleus following fertilization and evidence for a maternal store of cleavage stage histones in the sea urchin egg. Dev. Biol. 82, 287-299.
102. Poccia, D., Wolff, R., Kragh, S., and Williamson, P. (1985). RNA synthesis in male pronuclei of the sea urchin. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 824, 349-359.
103. Prioleau, M.-N., Huet, J., Sentenac, A., and Méchali, M. (1994). Competition between chromatin and transcription complex assembly regulates gene expression during early development. Cell 77, 439.
104. Ram, P. T., and Schultz, R. M. (1993). Reporter gene expression in G2 of the 1 cell mouse embryo. Dev. Biol. 156, 552-556.
105. Riggs, A. P., and Pfeifer, G. P. (1992). X-chromosome inactivation and cell memory. Trends Genet. 8, 169-174.
106. Robl, J. M., Gilligan, B., Critser, E. S., and First, N. L. (1986). Nuclear transplantation in mouse embryos: assessment of recipient cell stage. Biol. Reprod. 34, 733-739.
107. Roseman, R. R., Pirrotta, V., and Geyer, P. K. (1993). The su(Hw) protein insulates expression of the Drosophila melanogaster white gene from chromosomal position-effects. EMBO J. 12, 435-442.
108. Roth, S. Y., Schulman, I. G., Richman, R., Cook, R. G., and Allis, C. D. (1988). Characterization of phosphorylation sites in histones H1 in the amitotic macronucleus of Tetrahymena during different physiological states. J. Cell Biol. 107, 2473-2482.
109. Rupp, R. A. W., and Weintraub, H. (1991). Ubiquitous Myo D transcription at the mid-blastula transition precedes induction-dependent Myo D expression in presumptive mesoderm of X. laevis. Cell 65, 927-937.
110. Saitoh, N., Goldberg, I., Wood, W. R., and Earnshaw, W. C. (1994). Sc II, an abundant chromosome scaffold protein is a member of a family of putative ATPases with an unusual predicted tertiary structure. J. Cell Biol. 127, 303-318.
111. Saitoh, Y., and Laemmli, U. K. (1994). Metaphase chromosome structure: bands arise from a differential folding path of the high AT-rich scaffold. Cell 76, 609-622.
112. Schulman, I. G., Wang, T., Stargell, L. A., Gorovsky, M., and Allis, C. D. (1991). Cell-cell interactions trigger the rapid induction of a specific high mobility group-like protein during early stages of conjugation in Tetrahymena. Dev. Biol. 143, 248-257.
113. Schultz, R. M. (1993). Regulation of zygotic gene activation in the mouse. BioEssays 15, 531-538.
114. Shen, X., Yu, L., Weir, J. W., and Gorovsky, M. A. (1995). Linker histones are not essential and affect chromatin condensation in vivo. Cell 82, 47-56.
115. Shiokawa, K., Fu, Y., Nakakura, N., Tashiro, K., Sameshima, M., and Hosokawa, K. (1989). Effects of the injection of exogenous DNAs on gene expression in early embryos and coenocytic egg cells of Xenopus laevis. Roux's Arch Dev. Biol. 198, 78-84.
116. Shykind, B. M., Kim, J., and Sharp, P. A. (1995). Activation of the TFIID-TFIIA complex with HMG-2. Genes Dev. 9, 1354-1365.
117. Singh, P. B. (1994). Molecular mechanisms of cellular determination: Their relation to chromatin structure and paternal imprinting. J. Cell Sci. 107, 2653-2668.
118. Smith, R. C., Dworkin-Rastl, E., and Dworkin, M. D. (1988). Expression of a histone H1-like protein is restricted to early Xenopus development. Genes Dev. 2, 1284-1295.
119. Stargell, L. A., Bowen, J., Dadd, C. A., Dedon, P. A., Davis, M., Cook, R. G., Allis, C. D., and Gorovsky, M. A. (1993). Temporal and spatial association of histone H2A variant hv1 with transcriptionally competent chromatin during nuclear development in Tetrahymena thermophila. Genes Dev. 7, 2641-2651.
120. Strunnikov, A. V., Lavionoc, V. L., and Koshland, D. (1993). SMC1: An essential yeast gene encoding a putative head-rod-tail protein is required for nuclear division and defines a new ubiquitous protein family. J. Cell. Biol. 123, 1635-1648.
121. Tafuri, S. R., and Wolffe, A. P. (1993). Selective recruitment of masked maternal mRNA from messenger ribonucleoprotein particles containing FRGY2 (mRNP4). J. Biol. Chem. 257, 24255-24261.
122. Takeichi, T., Satoh, S., Tashiro, K., and Shiokawa, K. (1985). Temporal control of rRNA synthesis in cleavage-arrested embryos of Xenopus laevis. Dev. Biol. 112, 443-450.
123. Tamkun, J. W., Deuring, R., Scott, M. P., Kissinger, M., Patlatucci, A. M., Kaufman, T. C., and Kennison, J. A. (1992). Brahma: A regulator of Drosophila homeotic genes structurally related to the yeast transcriptional activator SNF2/SWI2. Cell 68, 561-572.
124. Telford, N. A., Watson, A. J., and Schultz, G. A. (1990). Transition from maternal to embryonic control in early memmalian development: A comparison of several species. Mol. Reprod. Dev. 26, 90-100.
125. Turner, B. M., Birley, A. J., and Lavender, J. (1992). Histone H4 isoforms acetylated at specific lysine residues define individual chromosomes and chromatin domains in Drosophila polytene nuclei. Cell 69, 375-384.
126. Turner, B. M. (1993). Decoding the nucleosome. Cell 75, 5-8.
127. Ura, K., Hayes, J. J., and Wolffe, A. P. (1995). A positive role for nucleosome mobility in the transcriptional activity of chromatin templates: Resitriction by linker histones. EMBO J. 14, 3752-3765.
128. van Daal, A., and Elgin, S. C. R. (1992). A histone variant, H2AvD, is essential in Drosophila melanogaster. Mol. Biol. Cell. 3, 593-602.
129. Wang, T., and Allis, C. D. (1992). Replication-dependent and independent regulation of HMG expression during the cell cycle and conjugation in Tetrahymena. Nucl. Acids Res. 20, 6525-6533.
130. Wiekowski, M., Miranda, M., and De Pamphilis, M. L. (1991). Regulation of gene expression in preimplantation mouse embryos: Effects of zygotic gene expression and the first mitosis on promoter and enhancer activities. Dev. Biol. 147, 403-414.
131. Wiekowski, M., Miranda, M., and De Pamphilis, M. L. (1993). Requirements for promoter activity in mouse oocytes and embryos distinguish paternal pronuclei from maternal and zygotic nuclei. Dev. Biol. 159, 366-378.
132. Wilt, F. (1964). Ribonucleic acid synthesis during sea urchin embryogenesis. Dev. Biol. 9, 299-315.
133. Winston, F., and Carlson, M. (1992). Yeast SNF/SWI transcriptional activators and the SPT/SIN chromatin connection. Trends Genet. 8, 387-391.
134. Wolffe, A. P. (1989). Dominant and specific repression of Xenopus oocyte 5S RNA gene and satellite I DNA by histone H1. EMBO J. 8, 527-537.
135. Wolffe, A. P. (1995). "Chromatin: Structure and Function," 2nd ed. Academic Press, London.
136. Wolffe, A. P., and Brown, D. D. (1986). DNA replication in vitro erases a Xenopus 5S RNA gene transcription complex. Cell 47, 217-227.
137. Wolffe, A. P., and Brown, D. D. (1988). Developmental regulation of two 5S ribosomal RNA genes. Science 241, 1626-1632.
138. Wormington, W. M., and Brown, D. D. (1983). On set of 5S RNA gene regulation during Xenopus embryogenesis. Dev. Biol. 99, 248-257.
139. Worrad, D. M., Turner, B. M., and Schultz, R. M. (1995). Temporally restricted spatial localization of acetylated isoforms of histone H4 and RNA polymerase II in the 2-cell mouse embryo. Development 121, 2949-2959.
140. Wu, M., Allis, C. D., Sweet, M. T., Cook, R. G., and Gorovsky, M. A. (1994). Four distinct and unusual linker histones in a mitotically dividing nucleus are derived from a 71Kd polyprotein lack p34 cdc2 sites and contain protien A kinase sites. Mol. Cell. Biol. 14, 10-20.
141. Yoshida, M., Horinouoshi, S., and Beppu, T. (1995). Trichostatin A and trapoxin: Novel chemical probes for the role of histone acetylation in chromatin structure and function. BioEssays 17, 423-430.
142. Zhao, K., Hart, C. M., and Laemmli, U. K. (1995). Visualization of chromosomal domains with boundary element-associated factor BEAF-32. Cell 81, 879-889.