The Polymerase Chain Reaction: Applications for the Detection of Foodborne Pathogens

Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition

Volumn 36, Issue 1-2, 1996, Pages 123-173

  Hill, Walter E ^a  

^a Seafood Products Research Center   (United States)

Author keywords

Bacteria; DNA amplification; Food; Gene probe; Parasites; Sample preparation; Viruses

Indexed keywords

BACTERIAL DNA; VIRUS DNA;

FOOD CONTROL; HUMAN; METHODOLOGY; MOLECULAR GENETICS; NUCLEOTIDE SEQUENCE; POLYMERASE CHAIN REACTION; REVIEW;

BASE SEQUENCE; DNA, BACTERIAL; DNA, VIRAL; FOOD MICROBIOLOGY; FOOD PARASITOLOGY; HUMANS; MOLECULAR SEQUENCE DATA; POLYMERASE CHAIN REACTION;

BACTERIA (MICROORGANISMS);

EID: 0030054939     PISSN: 10408398     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/10408399609527721     Document Type: Article

References (294)

1. Bean, N. H., Griffin, P. M., Golding, J. S., and Ivey, C. B., Foodborne disease outbreaks, 5-year summary, 1983-1987, Morbid. Mortal. Weekly Rep., 39, 15, 1990.
2. Saiki, R. K., Scharf, S., Faloona, F. A., Mullis, K. B., Horn, G. T., Erlich, H. A., and Arnheim, N., Enzymatic amplification of β-globin genomic sequences and restriction site analysis for diagnosis of sickle cell anemia, Science, 230, 1350, 1985.
3. Mullis, K., Faloona, F., Scharf, S., Saiki, R., Horn, G., Erlich, H., Specific enzymic amplification of DNA in vitro: the polymerase chain reaction, Cold Spring Harbor Symp. Quant. Biol., 51(1), 263, 1986.
4. Saiki, R. K., Gelfand, D. H., Stoffel, S., Scharf, S. J., Higuchi, R., Horn, G. T., Mullis, K. B., and Erlich, H. A., Primer-directed enzymatic amplification of DNA with a thermostable DNA polymerase, Science, 239, 487, 1988.
5. Macario, A. J. L. and Conway de Macario, E., Eds., Gene Probes for Bacteria, Academic Press, San Diego, 1990.
6. Kricka, L. J., Ed., Nonisotopic DNA Probe Techniques, Academic Press, San Diego, 1992.
7. Keller, G. H. and Manak, M. M., DNA Probes, Stockton Press, New York, 1989.
8. Hill, W. E., DNA hybridization method for detecting enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli in human isolates and its possible application to food samples, J. Food Safety, 3, 233, 1981.
9. Lampel, K. A., Feng, P., and Hill, W. E., DNA probes for the identification of pathogenic foodborne bacteria and viruses, in Bhatnagar, D. and Cleveland, T. E., Eds., Molecular Approaches to Improving Food Quality and Safety, Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, 1992, 151.
10. Hill, W. E., Datta, A. R., Feng, P., Lampel, K. A., Payne, W. L., and Wentz, B. A., Identification of foodborne bacterial pathogens by gene probes, in Bacteriological Analytical Manual, 7th ed., Association of Official Analytical Chemists, Arlington, VA, 1992, Chap. 24.
11. Hartman, P. A., Swaminathan, B., Curiale, M. S., Firstenberg-Eden, R., Sharpe, A. N., Cox, N. A., Fung, D. Y. C., and Goldschmidt, M., Rapid methods and automation, in Vanderzant, C. and Splittstoesser, D. F., Eds., Compendium of Methods for the Microbiological Examination of Foods, American Public Health Association, Washington, D.C., 1992, 665.
12. Wernars, K. and Notermans, S., Gene probes for the detection of foodborne pathogens, in Macario, A. J. L. and Conway de Macario, E., Eds., Gene Probes for Bacteria, Academic Press, San Diego, 1990, 353.
13. McKee, R. A., Gooding, C. M., Garrett, S. D., Powell, H. A., Lund, B. M., and Knox, M., DNA probes and the detection of food-borne pathogens using the polymerase chain reaction, Biochem. Soc. Trans., 19, 698, 1991.
14. Wachsmuth, I. K., Kiehlbauch, J. A., Bopp, C. A., Cameron, D. N., Strockbine, N. A., Wells, J. G., and Blake, P. A., The use of plasmid profiles and nucleic acid probes in epidemiologic investigations of foodborne, diarrheal diseases, Int. J. Food Microbiol., 12, 77, 1991.
15. Wolcott, M. J., DNA-based rapid methods for detection of foodborne pathogens, J. Food Protect., 387, 1991.
16. Wolcott, M. J., Advances in nucleic acid-based detection methods, Clin. Microbiol. Rev., 5, 370, 1992.
17. Feng, P., Lampel, K. A., and Hill, W. E., Current developments in food technology and applications, present and future: regulatory and economic considerations, in Dangler, C. and Osburn, B., Eds., Diagnostic Nucleic Acid Probe Technology, Hauser, New York, Chapter 13, in press.
18. Archer, D. L. and Kvenberg, J. E., Incidence and cost of foodborne diarrheal disease in the United States, J. Food Protect., 48, 887, 1985.
19. Roberts, T., Human illness costs of foodborne bacteria, Am. J. Agric. Econ., 71, 468, 1989.
20. Todd, E. C. D., Preliminary estimates of costs of foodborne disease in the United States, J. Food Protect., 52, 595, 1989.
21. Hauschild, A. H. W. and Bryan, F. L., Estimate of cases of food- and water-borne illness in Canada and the United States, J. Food Protect., 43, 435, 1980.
22. Snyder, O. P., HACCP - An industry food safety self-control program. IV, Dairy, Food and Environ., 230, 1992.
23. Linnan, J. J., Mascola, L., Lou, X. D., Goulet, V., May, S., Salminen, C., Hird, D. W., Yonekura, L., Hayes, P., Weaver, R., Audurier, A., Plikaytis, B. D., Fannin, S. L., Kleks, A., and Broome, C. V., Epidemic listeriosis associated with Mexican-style cheese, New Engl. J. Med., 319, 823, 1988.
24. Mullis, K. D. and Faloona, F. A., Specific synthesis of DNA in vitro via a polymerase-catalyzed chain reaction, Methods Enzymol., 155, 335, 1987.
25. Oste, C., Polymerase chain reaction, BioTechniques, p. 162, 1988.
26. Erlich, H. A., Ed., PCR Technology, Principles and Applications for DNA Amplification, Stockton Press, New York, 1989.
27. Erlich, H. A., Gibbs, R., and Kazazian, H. H., Jr., Eds., Polymerase Chain Reaction, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor, NY, 1989.
28. Innis, M. A., Gelfand, D. H., Sninsky, J. J., and White, T. J., Eds., PCR Protocols. A Guide to Methods and Applications, Academic Press, San Diego, 1990.
29. Arnheim, N. and Levenson, C. H., Polymerase chain reaction, Chem. Eng. News, Oct. 1, 36, 1990.
30. Erlich, H. A., Gelfand, D., and Sninsky, J. J., Recent advances in the polymerase chain reaction, Science, p. 1643, 1991.
31. Bloch, W., A biochemical perspective of the polymerase chain reaction, Biochemistry, 30, 2735, 1991.
32. Bej, A. K., Mahbubani, M. H., and Atlas, R. M., Amplification of nucleic acids by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and other methods and their applications, Crit. Rev. Biochem. Mol. Biol., 26, 301, 1991.
33. Bej, A. K. and Mahbubani, M. H., Application of the polymerase chain reaction in environmental microbiology, PCR Methods Appl., 1, 151, 1992.
34. Mullis, K. B., The polymerase chain reaction: why it works, in Polymerase Chain Reaction, Erlich, H. A., Gibbs, R., and Kazazian, H. H., Jr., Eds., Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor, NY, 1989, 237.
35. Brock, T. D. and Freeze, H., Thermus uquaticus gen. n. and sp. n., a non-sporulating extreme thermophile, J. Bacteriol., 98, 289, 1969.
36. Hill, W. E., Keasler, S. P., Trucksess, M. W., Feng, P., Kaysner, C. A., and Lampel, K. A., Polymerase chain reaction identification of Vibrio vulnificus in artificially contaminated oysters, Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 57, 707, 1991.
37. Van der Plas, J., Wolters, L., van Rijn, J., Huis in 't Veld, J., and Hofstra, J., Detection and enumeration of Campylobacter jejuni on chicken meat using the polymerase chain reaction, Abstr. 14th Int. Symp., International Committee on Food Microbiology and Hygiene, 1990, 29.
38. Wernars, K., Heuvelman, C. J., Chakraborty, T., and Notermans, S. H. W., Use of the polymerase chain reaction for direct detection of Listeria monocytogenes in soft cheese, J. Appl. Bacteriol., 70, 121, 1991.
39. Steffan, R. J. and Atlas, R. M., Polymerase chain reaction: applications in environmental microbiology, Annu. Rev. Microbiol., 45, 137, 1991.
40. Somerville, C. C., Knight, I. T., Straube, W. L., and Colwell, R. R., Simple, rapid method for direct isolation of nucleic acids from aquatic environments, Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 55, 548, 1989.
41. Bej, A. K., Mahbubani, M. H., Dicesare, J. L., and Atlas, R. M., Polymerase chain reaction-gene probe detection of microorganisms by using filter-concentrated samples, Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 57, 3529, 1991.
42. Steffan, R. J. and Atlas, R. M., DNA amplification to enhance detection of genetically engineered bacteria in environmental samples, Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 54, 2185, 1988.
43. Steffan, R. J., Goksoyr, J., Bej, A. K., and Atlas, R. M., Recovery of DNA from soils and sediments, Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 54, 2908, 1988.
44. Tsai, Y.-L. and Olson, B. H., Rapid method for separation of bacterial DNA from humic substances for polymerase chain reaction, Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 58, 2292, 1992.
45. Tsai, Y.-L. and Olson, B. H., Detection of low numbers of bacterial cells in soils and sediments by polymerase chain reaction, Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 58, 754, 1992.
46. Brace, K. D., Hiorns, W. D., Hobman, J. L., Osborn, A. M., Strike, P., and Ritchie, D. A., Amplification of DNA from native populations of soil bacteria by using the polymerase chain reaction, Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 58, 3413, 1992.
47. Tsai, Y.-L., Palmer, C. J., and Sangermano, L. R., Detection of Escherichia coli in sewage and sludge by polymerase chain reaction, Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 59, 353, 1993.
48. Pillai, S., Josephson, K. L., Bailey, R. L., Gerba, C. P., and Pepper, I. L., Rapid method for processing soil samples for polymerase chain reaction amplification of specific gene sequences, Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 57, 2283, 1991.
49. Picard, C., Ponsonnet, C., Paget, E., Nesme, X., and Simonet, P., Detection and enumeration of bacteria in soil by direct DNA extraction and polymerase chain reaction, Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 58, 2717, 1992.
50. Pearson, W. R. and Lipman, D. J., Improved tools for biological sequence comparison, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 85, 2444, 1988.
51. Altschul, S. F., Gish, W., Miller, W., Myers, E. W., and Lipman, D. J., Basic local alignment search tool, J. Mol. Biol., 215, 403, 1990.
52. Rychlik, W. and Rhoads, R. E., A computer program for choosing optimal oligonucleotides for filter hybridization, sequencing, and in vitro amplification of DNA, Nucleic Acids Res., 17, 8543, 1989.
53. Lowe, T., Sharefkin, J., Yang, S. Q., and Dieffenbach, C. W., A computer program for selection of oligonucleotide primers for polymerase chain reactions, Nucleic Acids Res., 18, 1757, 1990.
54. Hillier, L. and Green, P., OSP: a computer program for choosing PCR and DNA sequencing primers, PCR Methods Appl., 1, 124, 1991.
55. Martin, F. H., Castro, M. M., Aboul-ela, R. F., and Tonoco, I., Jr., Base pairing involving deoxyinosine: implications for probe design, Nucleic Acids Res., 13, 8927, 1985.
56. Ohtsuka, E., Matsuki, S., Ikehara, M., Takahashi, Y., and Matsubara, K., An alternative approach to deoxyoligonucleotides as hybridization probes by insertion of deoxyinosine at ambiguous codon positions, J. Biol. Chem., 260, 2605, 1985.
57. Knoth, K., Roberds, S., Poteet, C., and Tamkun, M., Highly degenerate, inosine-containing primers specifically amplify rare cDNA using the polymerase chain reaction, Nucleic Acids Res., 16, 10932, 1988.
58. Candrian, U., Furrer, B., Höfelein, C., and Lüthy, J., Use of inosine-containing oligonucleotide primers for enzymatic amplification of different alleles of the gene coding for heat-stable toxin type I of enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli, Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 57, 955, 1991.
59. Saiki, R. K., The design and optimization of the PCR, in Erlich, H. A., ed., PCR Technology, Principles and Applications for DNA Amplification, Stockton Press, New York, 1989, 7.
60. Saiki, R. K., Optimization of the polymerase chain reaction, in Polymerase Chain Reaction, Erlich, H. A., Gibbs, R., and Kazazian, H. H., Jr., Eds., Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor, NY, 1989, 25.
61. Linz, U., Delling, U., and Rübsamen-Waigmann, H., Systematic studies on parameters influencing the performance of the polymerase chain reaction, J. Clin. Chem. Clin. Biochem., 28, 5, 1990.
62. Hosta, L. and Flick, P., Enhancement of specificity and yield in PCR, editorial comments, U.S. Biochemical, 18, 1, 1991.
63. Ruano, G., Pagliaro, E. M., Schwartz, T. R., Lamy, K., Messia, D., Gaensslen, R. E., and Lee, H. C., Heat-soaked PCR: an efficient method for DNA amplification with applications to forensic analysis, BioTechniques, 13, 266, 1992.
64. Don, R. H., Cox, P. T., Wainwright, B. J., Baker, K., and Mattick, J. A., "Touchdown" PCR to circumvent spurious priming during gene amplification, Nucleic Acids Res., 19, 4008, 1991.
65. D'Aquila, R. T., Bechtel, L. J., Videler, J. A., Eron, J. J., Gorczyca, P., and Kaplan, J. C., Maximizing sensitivity and specificity of PCR by pre-amplification heating, Nucleic Acids Res., 19, 3749, 1991.
66. Yap, E.-P. H. and McGee, J. O'D., Short PCR product yields improved by lower denaturation temperatures, Nucleic Acids Res., 19, 1713, 1991.
67. Rychlik, W., Spencer, W. J., and Rhoads, R. E., Optimization of the annealing temperature for DNA amplification in vitro, Nucleic Acids Res., 18, 6409, 1990.
68. Bell, D. and DeMarini, D. M., Excessive cycling converts PCR products to random-length higher molecular weight fragments, Nucleic Acids Res., 19, 5079, 1991.
69. Krawczak, M., Reiss, J., Schmidtke, J., and Rosier, U., Polymerase chain reaction: replication errors and reliability of gene diagnosis, Nucleic Acids Res., 17, 2197, 1989.
70. Tindall, K. R. and Kunkel, T. A., Fidelity of DNA synthesis by the Thermus aquaticus DNA polymerase, Biochemists, 27, 6008, 1988.
71. Dunning, A. M., Talmud, P., and Humphries, S. E., Errors in the polymerase chain reaction, Nucleic Acids Res., 16, 10393, 1988.
72. Keohavong, P. and Thilly, W. G., Fidelity of DNA polymerases in DNA amplification, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 86, 9253, 1989.
73. Eckert, K. A. and Kunkel, T. A., DNA polymerase fidelity and the polymerase chain reaction, PCR Methods Appl., 1, 17, 1991.
74. Ling, L. L., Keohavong, P., Dias, C., and Thilly, W. G., Optimization of the polymerase chain reaction with regard to fidelity: modified T7, Taq, and Vent DNA polymerases, PCR Methods Appl., 1, 63, 1991.
75. Kwok, S., Procedures to minimize PCR-product carry-over, in PCR Protocols: A Guide to Methods and Applications, Academic Press, San Diego, 1990, 142.
76. Cimino, G. D., Metchette, K. C., Tessman, J. W., Hearst, J. E., and Isaacs, S. T., Post-PCR sterilization: a method to control carryover contamination for the polymerase chain reaction, Nucleic Acids Res., 19, 99, 1991.
77. Longo, M. C., Berninger, M. S., and Hartley, J. L., Use of uracil DNA glycosylase to control carry-over contamination in polymerase chain reactions, Gene, 93, 125, 1990.
78. Bej, A. K., McCarty, S. C., and Atlas, R. M., Detection of coliform bacteria and Escherichia coli by multiplex polymerase chain reaction: comparison with defined substrate and plating methods for water quality monitoring, Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 57, 2429, 1991.
79. Bej, A. K., Mahbubani, M. H., Miller, R., DiCesare, J. L., Haff, L., and Atlas, R. M., Multiplex PCR amplification and immobilized capture probes for detection of bacterial pathogens and indicators in water, Mol. Cell. Probes, 4, 353, 1990.
80. Candrian, U., Höfelein, C., and Lüthy, J., Polymerase chain reaction with additional primers allows identification of amplified DNA and recognition of specific alleles, Mol. Cell. Probes, 6, 13, 1992.
81. Porter-Jordan, K., Rosenberg, E. I., Keiser, J. F., Gross, J. D., Ross, A. M., Nasim, S., and Garrett, C. T., Nested polymerase chain reaction for the detection of cytomegalovirus overcomes false positive caused by contamination with fragmented DNA, J. Med. Virol., 30, 85, 1990.
82. Ochman, H., Gerber, A. S., and Hartl, D. L., Genetic applications of an inverse polymerase chain reaction, Genetics, 120, 621, 1988.
83. Triglia, T., Peterson, M. G., and Kemp, D. J., A procedure for in vitro amplification of DNA segments that lie outside the boundaries of known sequences, Nucleic Acids Res., 16, 8186, 1988.
84. Myers, T. W. and Gelfand, D. H., Reverse transcription and DNA amplification by a Thermits thermophilus DNA polymerase, Biochemistry, 30, 7661, 1991.
85. Myers, T. W. and Gelfand, D. H., Thermostable reverse transcriptase/DNA polymerase, Amplifications, Oct. 5, 1991.
86. Jones, M. D. and Foulkes, N. S., Reverse transcriptase of mRNA by Thermus aquaticus DNA polymerase, Nucleic Acids Res., 17, 8387, 1989.
87. Shaffer, A. L., Wojnar, W., and Nelson, W., Amplification, detection, and automated sequencing of gibbon interleukin-2 mRNA by Thermus aquaticus DNA polymerase reverse transcriptase and polymerase chain reaction, Anal. Biochem., 190, 292, 1990.
88. Tse, W. T. and Forget, B. G., Reverse transcription and direct amplification of cellular RNA transcripts by Taq polymerase, Gene, 88, 293, 1990.
89. Okrend, A. J. G., Rose, B. E., and Lattuada, C. P., Isolation of Escherichia coli O157:H7 using O157 specific antibody coated magnetic beads, J. Food Protect., 55, 214, 1992.
90. Olsvik, Ø., Rimstad, E., Homes, E., Strockbine, N., Wasteson, Y., Lund, A., and Wachsmuth, K., A nested PCR followed by magnetic separation of amplified fragments, Mol. Cell. Probes, 5, 429, 1991.
91. Nickerson, D. A., Kaiser, R., Lappin, S., Stewart, J., Hood, L., and Landegren, U., Automated DNA diagnostics using an ELISA-based oligonucleotide ligation assay, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 87, 8923, 1990.
92. Barany, F., Genetic disease detection and DNA amplification using cloned thermostable ligase, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 88, 189, 1991.
93. Wiedmann, M., Czajka, J., Barany, F., and Batt, C. A., Discrimination of Listeria monocytogenes from other Listeria species by ligase chain reaction, Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 58, 3443, 1992.
94. Barry, T., Colleran, G., Glennon, M., Dunican, L. K., and Gannon, F., The 16S/23S ribosomal spacer region as a target for DNA probes to identify eubacteria, PCR Methods Appl., 1, 51, 1991.
95. Weisburg, W. G., Barns, S. M., Pelletier, D. A., and Lane, D. J., 16S ribosomal DNA amplification for phylogenetic study, J. Bacteriol., 173, 697, 1991.
96. Welsh, J. and McClelland, M., Fingerprinting genomes using PCR with arbitrary primers, Nucleic Acids Res., 18, 7213, 1990.
97. Williams, J. G. K., Kubelik, A. R., Livak, K. J., Rafalski, J. A., and Tingey, S. V., DNA polymorphisms amplified by arbitrary primers are useful as genetic markers, Nucleic Acids Res., 18, 6531, 1990.
98. Welsh, J. and McClelland, M., Genomic fingerprinting using arbitrarily primed PCR and a matrix of pairwise combinations of primers, Nucleic Acids Res., 19, 5275, 1991.
99. Caetano-Anollés, G., Bassam, B. J., and Gresshoff, P. M., High-resolution DNA amplification fingerprinting using very short arbitrary oligonucleotide primers, BioTechnology, 9, 553, 1991.
100. Mazurier, S. I., Audurier, A., Marquet-van der Mee, N., Notermans, S., and Wernars, K., Random amplification of polymorphic DNA is a powerful tool for the epidemiological study of Listeria monocytogenes isolates, Abst. 11th Int. Symp. Problems of Listeriosis, May, 207, 1992.
101. Wernars, K. and Mazurier, S. I., Development of a rapid and powerful DNA fingerprinting technique for typing of Listeria strains, Abst. 11th Int. Symp. Problems of Listeriosis, May, 257, 1992.
102. Czajka, J., Bsat, N., Piani, M., Russ, W., Sultana, K., Wiedmann, M., Whitaker, R., and Batt, C. A., Differentiation of Listeria monocytogenes and Listeria innocua by 16S rRNA genes and intraspecies discrimination of Listeria monocytogenes strains by random amplified polymorphic DNA polymorphisms, Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 59, 304, 1993.
103. Mazurier, A., van de Giessen, A., Heuvelman, K., and Wernars, K., RAPD analysis of Campylobacter isolates: DNA fingerprinting without the need to purify DNA, Lett. Appl. Microbiol., 14, 260, 1992.
104. Brousseau, R., Saint-Onge, A., Préfontaine, G., Masson, L., and Cabana, J., Arbitrary primer polymerase chain reaction, a powerful method to identify Bacillus thuringiensis serovars and strains, Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 59, 114, 1993.
105. McMillin, D. E. and Muldrow, L. L., Typing of toxic strains of Clostridium difficile using DNA fingerprints generated with arbitrary polymerase chain reaction primers, FEMS Microbioi. Lett., 92, 5, 1992.
106. Hedrick, P., Shooting the RAPDs, Nature, 355, 679, 1992.
107. Welch, J. and McClelland, M., Genomic fingerprints produced by PCR with consensus tRNA gene primers, Nucleic Acids Res., 19, 861, 1991.
108. Ellsworth, D. L., Rittenhouse, K. D., and Honeycutt, R. L., Artifactual variation in randomly amplified polymorphic DNA banding patterns, BioTechniques, 14, 214, 1993.
109. Becker-André, M. and Hahlbrock, K., Absolute mRNA quantification using the polymerase chain reaction (PCR). A novel approach by a PCR aided transcript titration assay (PATTY), Nucleic Acids Res., 17, 9437, 1989.
110. Gilliland, G., Perrin, S., Blanchard, K., and Bunn, H. F., Analysis of cytokine mRNA and DNA: detection and quantitation by competitive polymerase chain reaction, Proc. Natl. Acatl. Sci. U.S.A., 87, 2725, 1990.
111. Henco, K. and Heibey, M., Quantitative PCR: the determination of template copy numbers by temperature gradient gel electrophoresis (TGGE), Nucleic Acids Res., 18, 6733, 1990.
112. Bouaboula, M., Legoux, P., Pességué, B., Delpech, B., Dumont, X., Piechaczyk, M., Casellas, P., and Shire, D., Standardization of mRNA titration using a polymerase chain reaction method involving co-amplification with a multispecific internal control, J. Biol. Chem., 267, 21830, 1992.
113. Cone, R. W., Hobson, A. C., and Huang, M.-L. W., Coamplified positive control detects inhibition of polymerase chain reactions, J. Clin. Microbiol., 30, 3185, 1992.
114. Nedelman, J., Heagerty, P., and Lawrence, C., Quantitative PCR with internal controls, Comput. Appl. Biosci., 8, 65, 1992.
115. Sykes, P. J., Neon, S. J., Brisco, M. J., Hughes, E., Condon, J., and Morley, A. A., Quantitation of targets for PCR by use of limiting dilution, BioTechniques, 13, 444, 1992.
116. Fahy, E., Kwoh, D. Y., and Gingeras, T. R., Self-sustained sequence replication (3SR): an isothermal transcription-based amplification system alternative to PCR, PCK Methods Appl., 1, 25, 1991.
117. Guatelli, J. C., Whitfield, K. M., Kwoh, D. Y., Barringer, K. J., Richman, D. D., and Gingeras, T. R., Isothermal, in vitro, amplification of nucleic acids by a multienzyme reaction modeled after retroviral replication, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 87, 874, 1990.
118. Meile, E. A., Mills, D. R., and Kramer, F. R., Autocatalytic replication of a recombinant DNA, J. Mol. Biol., 171, 281, 1983.
119. Cahill, P., Foster, K., and Mahan, D. E., Polymerase chain reaction and Qβ replicase amplification, J. Virol., 37, 1482, 1991.
120. Kramer, F. R. and Lizardi, P. M., Replicatable RNA reporters, Nature (London), 339, 401, 1989.
121. Gyllensten, U. B. and Erlich, H. A., Generation of single-stranded DNA by the polymerase chain reaction and its application to direct sequencing of the HLA-DQA locus, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 85, 7652, 1988.
122. Jung, M., Dritschilo, A., and Kasid, U., Reliable and efficient direct sequencing of PCR-amplified double-stranded genomic DNA template, PCR Methods Appl., 1, 171, 1992.
123. Olson, M., Hood, L., Cantor, C., and Botstein, D., A common language for physical mapping of the human genome, Science, 245, 1434, 1989.
124. Adams, M. D., Kelley, J. M., Gocayne, J. D., Dubnick, M., Polymeropoulos, M. H., Xioa, H., Merril, C. R., Wu, A., Olde, B., Moreno, R. F., Kerlavage, A. R., McCombie, VV. R., and Venter, J. C., Complementary DNA sequencing: expressed sequence tags and human genome project, Science, 252, 1651, 1991.
125. Green, E. D. and Green, P., Sequence-tagged sites (STS) content mapping of human chromosomes: theoretical considerations and early experiences, PCR Methods Appl., 1, 77, 1991.
126. Emanuel, J. R., Simple and efficient system for synthesis of non-radioactive nucleic acid hybridization probes using PCR, Nucleic Acids Res., 19, 2790, 1991.
127. Sensabaugh, G. F. and von Beroldingen, C., Application of the polymerase chain reaction in forensic science, in Polymerase Chain Reaction, Erlich, H. A., Gibbs, R., and Kazazian, H. H., Jr., Eds., Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor, NY, 1989, 147.
128. von Beroldingen, C. H., Blake, E. T., Higuchi, R., Sensabaugh, G. F., and Erlich, H., Applications of PCR to the analysis of biological evidence, in PCR Technology, Principles and Applications for DNA Amplification, Erlich, H. A., Ed., Stockton Press, New York, 1989, 209.
129. Pääbo, S., Higuchi, R. G., and Wilson, A. C., Ancient DNA and the polymerase chain reaction. The emerging field of molecular archaeology, J. Biol. Chem., 264, 9709, 1989.
130. Kazazian, H. H., Jr., Diagnosis of monogenic disease based on polymerase chain reactions, in Polymerase Chain Reaction, Erlich, H. A., Gibbs, R., and Kazazian, H. H., Jr., Eds., Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor, NY, 1989, 47.
131. Orrego, C. and King, M. C., Determination of familial relationships, in PCR Protocols, A Guide to Methods and Applications, Innis, M. A., Gelfund, D. H., Sninsky, J. J., and White, T. J., Eds., Academic Press, New York, 1990, 416.
132. Datta, A. R., Wentz, B. A., and Hill, W. E., Identification and enumeration of beta-hemolytic Listeria monocytogenes in naturally contaminated dairy products, J. Assoc. Off. Anal. Chem., 71, 673, 1988.
133. Jagow, J. A. and Hill, W. E., Enumeration by DNA colony hybridization of virulent Yersinia enterocolitica, colonies in artificially contaminated food, Appl. Environ. Microbiol, 51, 441, 1986.
134. Zink, D. L., Feely, J. C., Wells, J. G., and Vanderzant, C., Plasmid-mediated tissue invasiveness in Yersinia enterocolitica, Nature (London), 283, 224, 1980.
135. Karch, H., Meyer, T., Rüssman, H., and Heesemann, J., Frequent loss of Shiga-like toxin genes in clinical isolates of Escherichia coli upon subcultivation, Infect. Immun., 60, 3464, 1992.
136. Hill, W. E. and Carlisle, C. L., Loss of plasmids during enrichment for Escherichia coli, Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 41, 1046, 1981.
137. Hill, W. E., Ferreira, J. L., Payne, W. L., and Jones, V. M., Probability of recovering pathogenic Escherichia coli from foods, Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 49, 1374, 1985.
138. Mahbubani, M. H., Bej, A. K., DiCesare, J. L., Miller, R. D., Haff, L. A., and Atlas, R. M., Detection of bacterial mRNA using PCR, BioTechniques, 10, 48, 1991.
139. Wadström, T. and Ljungh, Å., Aeromonas and Pleisiomonas as food- and waterborne pathogens, Int. J. Food Microbiol., 12, 303, 1991.
140. Palumbo, S. A., Bencivengo, M. M., Del Corral, F., Williams, A. C., and Buchanan, R. L., Characterization of the Aeromonas hydrophila group isolated from retail foods of animal origin, J. Clin. Microbiol., 27, 854, 1989.
141. Stelma, G. N., Johnson, C. H., and Spaulding, P., Evidence for the direct involvement of beta-hemolysin in Aeromonas hydrophila enteropathogenicity, Curr. Microbiol., 14, 71, 1986.
142. Pollard, D. R., Johnson, W. M., Lior, H., Tyler, S. D., and Rozee, K. R., Detection of the aerolysin gene in Aeromonas hydrophila by the polymerase chain reaction, J. Clin. Microbiol., 28, 2477, 1990.
143. Herman, L. and de Ridden H., Identification of Brucella spp. by using the polymerase chain reaction, Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 58, 2099, 1992.
144. Fekete, A., Bantle, J. A., Hulling, S. M., and Sanborn, M. R., Preliminary development of a diagnostic test for Brucella using polymerase chain reaction, J. Appl. Bacteriol., 60, 216, 1990.
145. Hood, A. M., Pearson, A. D., and Shahamat, M., The extent of surface contamination of retailed chickens with Campylobacter jejuni serogroups, Epidemiol. Infect., 100, 17, 1988.
146. Shanker, S., Lee, A., and Sorrell, T. C., Horizontal transmission of Campylobacter jejuni among broiler chicks: experimental studies, Epidemiol. Infect., 104, 101, 1990.
147. Giesendorf, B. A. J., Quint, W. G. V., Henkens, M. H. C., Stegeman, H., Huf, F. A., and Niesters, H. G. M., Rapid and sensitive detection of Campylobacter spp. in chicken products by using the polymerase chain reaction, Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 58, 3804, 1992.
148. Oyofo, B. A., Thornton, S. A., Burr, D. H., Trust, T. J., Pavlovskis, O. R., and Guerry, P., Specific detection of Campylobacter jejuni and Campylobacter coli by using polymerase chain reaction, J. Clin. Microbiol., 30, 2613, 1992.
149. Frankel, G., Giron, J. A., Valmassoi, J., and Schoolnik, G. K., Multigene amplification: simultaneous detection of three virulence genes in diarrheic stool, Mol. Microbiol., 3, 1729, 1989.
150. Szabo, E. A., Pemberton, J. M., and Desmarchelier, P. M., Specific detection of Clostridium botulinum Type B by using the polymerase chain reaction, Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 58, 418, 1992.
151. Ferreira, J. L., Hamdy, M. K., McCay, S. G., and Baumstark, B. R., An improved assay for identification of type A Clostridium botulinum using the polymerase chain reaction, J. Rapid Methods Automation in Microbiol., 1, 29, 1992.
152. Ferreira, J. L., Characterization of the Clostridium botulinum Neurotoxin Gene Family, Dissertation, Georgia State University, 1993.
153. Binz, T., Kurazono, H., Willie, M., Frevert, J., Wernars, K., and Niemann, H., The complete sequence of botulinum neurotoxin type A and comparison with other clostridial neurotoxins, J. Biol. Chem., 265, 9153, 1990.
154. Thompson, D. E., Brehm, J. K., Oultram, J. D., Swinfield, T.-J., Shone, C. C., Atkinson, T., Melling, J., and Minton, N. P., The complete amino acid sequence of Clostridium botulinum type A neurotoxin, deduced by nucleotide sequence analysis of the encoding gene, Eur. J. Biochem., 189, 73, 1990.
155. Ferreira, J. L., Baumstark, B. R., Hamdy, M. K., and McCay, S. G., Polymerase chain reaction for detection of type A Clostridium botulinum in foods, J. Fond Protect., in press.
156. Whelan, S. M., Elmore, M. J., Bodsworth, N. J., Brehrn, J. K., Atkinson, T., and Minton, N. P., Molecular cloning of the Clostridium botulinum structural gene encoding the Type B neurotoxin and determination of its entire nucleotide sequence, Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 58, 2345, 1992.
157. Gurtler, V., Wilson, V. A., and Mayall, B. C., Classification of medically important clostridia using restriction endonuclease site differences of PCR-amplified 16S rRNA, J. Gen. Microbiol., 137, 2673, 1991.
158. Van Damme-Jongsten, M., Rodhouse, J., Gilbert, R. J., and Notermans, S., Synthetic DNA probes for detection of enterotoxigenic Clostridium perfringens strains isolated from outbreaks of food poisoning, J. Clin. Microbiol., 28, 131, 1990.
159. Moseley, S. L., Huq, I., Alim, A. R. M. A., So, M., Samadpour-Motalebi, M., and Falkow, S., Detection of enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli by DNA colony hybridization, J. Infect. Dis., 142, 892, 1980.
160. Moseley, S. L., Echeverria, P., Seriwatana, J., Tirapat, C., Chaicumpa, W., Sakulaipaera, T., and Falkow, S., Identification of enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli by colony hybridization using three enterotoxin gene probes, J. Infect. Dis., 145, 863, 1982.
161. Hill, W. E., Madden, J. M., McCardell, B. A., Shah, D. B., Jagow, J. A., Payne, W. L., and Boutin, B. K., Foodborne enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli: detection and enumeration by DNA colony hybridization, Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 45, 1324, 1983.
162. Olive, D. M., Atta, A. I., and Sethi, S. K., Detection of toxigenic Escherichia coli using biotin-labeled DNA probes following enzymatic amplification of heat labile toxin gene, Mol. Cell. Probes, 2, 47, 1988.
163. Olive, D. M., Detection of enteropathogenic Escherichia coli after polymerase chain reaction amplification with a thermostable DNA polymerase, J. Clin. Microbiol., 27, 261, 1989.
164. Lampel, K. A., Jagow, J. A., Trucksess, M., and Hill, W. E., Polymerase chain reaction for detection of invasive Shigella flexneri in food, Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 56, 1536, 1990.
165. Davis, J., Taylor, J. P., Perdue, J. N., Stelma, G. N., Jr., Humphreys, J. M., Jr., Rowntree III, R., and Greene, K. D., A shigellosis outbreak traced to commercially distributed shredded lettuce, Am. J. Epidemiol., 128, 1312, 1988.
166. Anderson, M. R. and Omiecinski, C. J., Direct extraction of bacterial plasmids from food for polymerase chain reaction amplification, Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 58, 4080, 1992.
167. Keasler, S. P. and Hill, W. E., Polymerase chain reaction identification of enteroinvasive Escherichia coli seeded into raw milk, J. Food Protect., 55, 382, 1992.
168. Toyosato, M., Kosaka, T., Mizuno, K., Ito, K., and Watanabe, H., DNA Primers for Detection of Shigella and Invasive Escherichia coli by Polymerase Chain, Jpn Kokai Tokyo, Koho Patent No. 91262500, 1991.
169. Candrian, U., Furrer, B., Höefelein, Ch., Meyer, R., Jermini, M., and Lüthy, J., Detection of Excherichia coli and identification of enterotoxigenic strains by primer-directed enzymatic amplification of specific DNA sequences, Int. J. Food Microbiol., 12, 339, 1991.
170. Meyer, R., Lüthy, J., and Candrian, U., Direct detection by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) of Excherichia coli in water and soft cheese and identification of enterotoxigenic strains, Lett. Appl. Microbiol., 13, 268, 1991.
171. Furrer, B., Candrian, U., and Lüthy, J., Detection and identification of E. coli producing heat-labile enterotoxin type 1 by enzymatic amplification of a specific DNA fragment, Lett. Appl. Microbiol., 10, 31, 1990.
172. Doyle, M. P., E. coli O157:H7 and its significance in foods, Int. J. Food Microbiol., 12, 289, 1991.
173. Brian, M. J., Frosolono, M., Murray, B. E., Miranda, A., Lopez, E. L., Gomez, H. F., and Clearly, T. G., Polymerase chain reaction for diagnosis of enterohemorrhagic Excherichia coli infection and hemolytic-uremic syndrome, J. Clin. Microbiol., 30, 1801, 1992.
174. Karch, H. and Meyer, T., Single primer pair for amplifying segments of distinct Shiga-like toxin genes by polymerase chain reaction, J. Clin. Microbiol., 27, 2751, 1989.
175. Gannon, V. P. J., King, R. K., Kim, J. Y., and Golsteyn Thomas, E. J., Rapid and sensitive method for detection of Shiga-like toxin-producing Escherichia coli in ground beef using the polymerase chain reaction, Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 58, 3809, 1992.
176. Golsteyn Thomas, E. J., King, R. K., Burchak, J., and Gannon, V. P. J., Sensitive and specific detection of Listeria monocytogenes in milk and ground beef with the polymerase chain reaction, Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 57, 2576, 1991.
177. Pollard, D. R., Johnson, W. M., Lior, H., Tyler, S. D., and Rozee, K. R., Rapid and specific detection of verotoxin genes in Escherichia coli by the
178. Johnson, W. M., Pollard, D. R., Lior, H., Tyler, S. D., and Rozee, K. R., Differentiation of genes coding for Excherichia coli verotoxin 2 and the verotoxin associated with porcine edema disease (VTe) by the polymerase chain reaction, J. Clin. Microbiol., 28, 2351, 1990.
179. Johnson, W. M., Tyler, S. D., Wang, G., and Lior, H., Amplification by the polymerase chain reaction of a specific target sequence in the gene coding for Escherichia coli verotoxin (VTe) variant, FEMS Microbiol. Lett., 84, 227, 1991.
180. Tyler, S. D., Johnson, W. M., Lior, H., Wang, G., and Rozee, K. R., Identification of verotoxin type 2 variant B subunit genes in Escherichia coli by the polymerase chain reaction and restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis, J. Clin. Microbiol., 29, 1339, 1991.
181. Jackson, M. P., Detection of Shiga toxin-producing Shigella dysenteriae type 1 and Escherichia coli by using polymerase chain reaction with incorporation of digoxigenin-11-dUTP, J. Clin. Microbiol., 29, 1910, 1991.
182. Islam, M. S., Hasan, M. K., Miah, M. A., Sur, G. C., Felsenstein, A., Venkatesan, M., Sack, R. B., and Albert, M. J., Use of the polymerase chain reaction and fluorescent-antibody methods for detecting viable but nonculturable Shigella dysenteriae type 1 in laboratory microcosms, Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 59, 536, 1993.
183. Donnenberg, M. S. and Kaper, J. B., Enteropathogenic Escherichia coli, Infect. Immun., 60, 3953, 1992.
184. Yu, J. and Kaper, J. B., Cloning and characterization of the eae gene of enterohaemorrhagic Escherichia coli O157:H7, Mol. Microbiol, 6, 411, 1992.
185. Victor, T., du Toit, R., van Zyl, Bester, A. J., and van Helden, P. D., Improved method for the routine identification of toxigenic Escherichia coli by DNA amplification, J. Clin. Microbiol., 29, 158, 1991.
186. Wernars, K., Delfgou, E., Soentoro, P. S., and Notermans, S., Successful approach for detection of low numbers of enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli in minced meat by using the polymerase chain reaction, Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 57, 1914, 1991.
187. Frankel, G., Riley, L., Giron, J. A., Valmonoi, J., Friedmann, A., Strockbine, N., Falkow, S., and Schoolnik, G. K., Detection of Shigella in faeces using DNA amplification, J. Infect. Dis., 161, 1252, 1990.
188. Homes, E., Wasteson, Y., and Olsvik, Ø., Detection of Escherichia coli heat-stable enterotoxin genes in pig stool specimens by an immobilized, colorimetric nested polymerase chain reaction, J. Clin. Microbiol., 29, 2375, 1991.
189. Uhlén, M., Lundeberg, J., and Wahlberg, J., DNA diagnostics using the polymerase chain reaction, in Application of Molecular Biology in Diagnosis of Infectious Diseases, Olsvik, Ø. and Bukholm, G., Eds., Norwegian College of Veterinary Medicine, Oslo, 1990, 86.
190. Wahlberg, J., Lundeberg, J., Hultman, T., and Uhlén, M., General colorimetric method for DNA diagnostics allowing direct solid phase genomic sequencing of the positive samples, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 87, 6569, 1990.
191. Lundeberg, J., Wahlberg, J., Holmberg, M., Pettersson, U., and Uhlén, M., Rapid colorimetric detection of in vitro amplified DNA sequences, DNA Cell Biol., 9, 287, 1990.
192. Islam, D. and Lindberg, A. A., Detection of Shigella dysenteriae type 1 and Shigella flexneri in feces by immunomagnetic isolation and polymerase chain reaction, J. Clin. Microbiol., 30, 2801, 1992.
193. Le Bouguenec, C., Archambaud, M., and Labigne, A., Rapid and specific detection of the pap, afa, and sfa adhesion-encoding operons in uropathogenic Escherichia coli strains by polymerase chain reaction, J. Clin. Microbiol., 30, 1189, 1992.
194. Homes, E., Magnetic separation of DNA, in Application of Molecular Biology in Diagnosis of Infectious Diseases, Olsvik, Ø. and Bukholm, G., Eds., Norwegian College of Veterinary Medicine, Oslo, 1990, 91.
195. Bej, A. K., Steffan, R. J., DiCesare, J., Haff, L., and Atlas, R. M., Detection of coliform bacteria in water by polymerase chain reaction and gene probes, Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 56, 307, 1990.
196. Bej, A. K., DiCesare, J. L., Haff, L., and Atlas, R. M., Detection of Escherichia coli and Shigella spp. in water by using the polymerase chain reaction and gene probes for uid, Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 57, 1013, 1991.
197. Goodwin, C. S., Armstrong, J. A., Chilvers, T., Peters, M., Collins, M. D., Sly, L., McConnell, W., and Harper, W. E. S., Transfer of Campylobacter pylori and Campylobacter mustelae to Helicobacter gen. nov. as Helicobacter pylori comb. nov. and Helicobacter mustelae comb, nov., respectively, Int. J. Syst. Bacteriol., 39, 1449, 1989.
198. Labigne, A., Cussac, V., and Courcoux, P., Shuttle cloning and nucleotide sequences of Helicobacter pylori genes responsible for urease activity, J. Bacteriol., 173, 1920, 1991.
199. Foxall, P. A., Hu, L.-T., and Mobley, H. L. T., Use of polymerase chain reaction-amplified Helicobacter pylori urease structural genes for differentiation of isolates, J. Clin. Microbiol. 30, 739, 1992.
200. Clayton, C., Kleanthous, K., and Tabaqchali, S., Detection and identification of Helicobacter pylori by the polymerase chain reaction, J. Clin. Pathol. 44, 515, 1991.
201. Woese, C. R., Bacterial evolution, Microbiol. Rev., 51, 221, 1987.
202. Hoshina, S., Kahn, S. M., Jiang, W., Green, P. H. R., Neu, H. C., Chin, N., Morotomi, M., LoGerfo, P., and Weinstein, I. B., Direct detection and amplifica tion of Helicobacter pylori ribosomal 16S gene segments from gastric endoscopie biopsies, Diagn. Microbiol. Infect. Dis., 13, 473, 1990.
203. Engstrand, L., Nguyen, A.-M. H., Graham, D. Y., and El-Zaatari, F. A. K., Reverse transcriptase and polymerase chain reaction amplification of rRNA for detection of Helicobacter species, J. Clin. Microbiol., 30, 2995, 1992.
204. Schlech, W. F., Lavigne, P. M., Bortolussi, R. A., Allen, A. C., Haldane, E. V., Wort, A. J., Hightower, A. W., Johnson, S. E., King, S. H., Nicholls, E. S., and Broome, C. V., Epidemic listeriosis - evidence for transmission by food, N. Engl. J. Med., 308, 203, 1983.
205. Farber, J. and Peterkin, P., Listeria monocytogenes, a food-borne pathogen, Microbiol. Rev., 55, 476, 1991.
206. Schuchat, A., Swaminathan, B., and Broome, C. V., Epidemiology of human listeriosis, Clin. Microbiol. Rev., 4, 169, 1991.
207. Cossart, P., Vincente, M. F., Megaud, J., Baquero, F., Perez-Diaz, J. C., and Berche, P., Listeriolysin O is essential for virulence of Listeria monocytogenes: direct evidence obtained by gene complementation, Infect. Immun., 57, 3629, 1989.
208. Mengaud, J., Vincente, M. F., Chenevert, J., Pereira, J. M., Geoffroy, C., Gicquel-Sanzey, B., Baquero, F., Perez-Diaz, J. C., and Cossart, P., Expression in Escherichia coli and sequence analysis of the listeriolysin O determinant of Listeria monocytogenes. Infect. Immun., 56, 766, 1988.
209. Border, P. M., Howard, J. J., Plastow, G. S., and Siggens, K. W., Detection of Listeria species and Listeria monocytogenes using polymerase chain reaction, Lett. Appl. Microbiol., 11, 158, 1990.
210. Bessesen, M. T., Luo, Q. A., Rotbart, H. A., Blaser, M. J., and Ellison, R. T., III, Detection of Listeria monocytogenes by using the polymerase chain reaction, Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 56, 2930, 1990.
211. Deneer, H. G. and Boychuk, I., Species-specific detection of Listeria monocytogenes by DNA amplification, Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 57, 606, 1991.
212. Fitter, S., Heuzenroeder, M., and Thomas, C. J., A combined PCR and selective enrichment method for rapid detection of Listeria monocytogenes, J. Appl. Bacteriol., 73, 53, 1991.
213. Johnson, W. M., Tyler, S. D., Ewan, E. P., Ashton, F. E., Wang, G., and Rozee, R. R., Detection of genes coding for listeriolysin and Listeria monocytogenes antigen A (lmaA) in Listeria spp. by the polymerase chain reaction, Microbial. Pathogenesis, 12, 79, 1992.
214. Rossen, L., Holmstrøm, K., Olsen, J. E., and Rasmussen, O. F., A rapid polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-based assay for the identification of Listeria monocytogenes in food samples, Int. J. Food Microbiol., 14, 145, 1991.
215. Herman, L. and De Ridder, H., DNA hybridization and amplification techniques to accelerate the identification of Listeria monocytogenes, Milchwissenschaft - Milk Sci. Int., 47, 354, 1992.
216. Bubert, A., Köhler, A., and Goebel, W., The homologous and heterologous regions within the tup gene allow genus- and species-specific identification of Listeria spp. by polymerase chain reaction, Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 58, 2625, 1992.
217. Jaton, K., Sahli, R., and Bille, J., Development of polymerase chain reaction assays for detection of Listeria monocytogenes in clinical cerebrospinal fluid samples, J. Cin. Microbiol., 30, 1931, 1992.
218. Furrer, B., Candrian, U., Höfelein, Ch., and Lüthy, J., Detection and identification of Listeria monocytogenes in cooked sausage products and in milk by in vitro amplification of haemolysin gene fragments, J. Appl. Bacteriol., 70, 372, 1991.
219. Göhmann, S., Leimeister-Wächter, M., Schlitz, E., Goebel, W., and Chakraborty, T., Characterization of a Listeria monocytogenes -specific protein capable of inducing delayed type hypersensitivity in Listeria-immune mice, Mol. Microbiol., 4, 1091, 1990.
220. Collins, M. D., Wallbanks, S., Lane, D. J., Shah, J., Nietupski, R., Smida, J., Dorsch, M., and Stackebrandt, E., Phylogenetic analysis of the genus Listeria based on reverse transcriptase sequencing of 16S rRNA, Int. J. Syst. Bacteriol., 41, 240, 1991.
221. Wang, R.-F., Cao, W.-W., and Johnson, M. G., 16S rRNA-based probes and polymerase chain reaction method to detect Listeria monocytogenes cells added to foods, Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 58, 2827, 1992.
222. Jensen, M. A., Webster, J. A., and Strauss, N., Rapid identification of bacteria on the basis of polymerase chain reaction-amplified ribosomal DNA spacer polymorphisms, Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 59, 945, 1993.
223. Centers for Disease Control, Summary of notifiable diseases, United States, 1991, Morbid. Mortal. Weekly Rep., 40, 3, 1992.
224. Gopo, J. M., Metis, R., Filipska, E., Meneveri, R., and Filipska, J., Development of a Salmonella specific biotinylated DNA probe for rapid routine identification of Salmonella, Mol. Cell. Probes, 2, 271, 1988.
225. Fitts, R., Diamond, M., Hamilton, C., and Neri, M., DNA-DNA hybridization assay for detection of Salmonella in foods, Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 46, 1146, 1983.
226. Curiale, M. S., Klatt, M. J., and Mozola, M. A., Colorimetric deoxyribonucleic acid hybridization assay tor rapid screening of Salmonella in foods: collaborative study, J. Assoc. Off. Anal. Chem., 73, 248, 1990.
227. St. Louis, M. E., Morse, D. L., Potter, M. E., DeMelfi, T. M., Guzewich, J. J., Tauxe, R. V., and Blake, P. A., The emergence of grade A eggs as a major source of Salmonella enteritidis infection. New implications for the control of salmonellosis, JAMA, 259, 2103, 1988.
228. Widjojoatmodjo, M. N., Fluit, A. C., Torensma, R., Keller, B. H. I., and Vechoef, J., Evaluation of the magnetic immuno PCR assay for rapid detection of Salmonella, Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol., 10, 935, 1991.
229. See, R. H. and Chow, A. W., Microbiology of toxic shock syndrome: overview, Rev. Infect. Dis., 11, S55, 1989.
230. Johnson, W. M., Tyler, S. D., Ewan, E. P., Ashton, F. E., Pollard, D. R., and Rozee, K. R., Detection of genes for enterotoxins, exfoliative toxins, and toxic shock syndrome toxin 1 in Staphylococcus aureus by the polymerase chain reaction, J. Clin. Microbiol., 29, 426, 1991.
231. Jaulhac, B., Prevost, G., and Piemont, Y., Specific detection of the toxic shock syndrome toxin-1 gene using the polymerase chain reaction, Mol. Cell. Probes, 5, 281, 1991.
232. 1 gene and relatedness to other pyrogenic toxins, Mol. Gen. Genet., 209, 15, 1987.
233. 1 and the thermonuclease gene nuc, Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 57, 1793, 1991.
234. Tauxe, R. V. and Blake, P. A., Epidemic cholera in Latin America, JAMA, 267, 1388, 1992.
235. Centers for Disease Control, Update: cholera: western hemisphere, Morbid. Mortal. Weekly Rep., 40, 562, 1991.
236. Dorsch, M., Lane, D., and Stackebrandt, E., Towards a phylogeny of the genus Vibrio based on 16S rRNA sequences, Int. J. Syst. Bacteriol., 42, 58, 1992.
237. Wachsmuth, I. K., Bopp, C. A., Fields, P. I., and Carrillo, C., Differences between toxigenic Vibrio cholerae O1 from South American and U.S. gulf coast, Lancet, 337, 1097, 1991.
238. Shirai, J., Nishibuchi, M., Ramamurthy, T., Bhattacharya, S. K., Pal, S. C., and Takeda, Y., Polymerase chain reaction for detection of the cholera enterotoxin operon of Vibrio cholerae, J. Clin. Microbiol., 29, 2517, 1991.
239. Koch, W. H., Payne, W. L., Wentz, B. A., and Cebula, T. A., Rapid polymerase chain reaction method for detection of Vibrio cholerae in foods, Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 59, 556, 1993.
240. Fields, P. I., Popovic, T., Wachsmuth, K., and Olsvik, Ø., Use of polymerase chain reaction for detection of toxigenic Vibrio cholerae O1 strains from the Latin American cholera epidemic, J. Clin. Microbiol., 30, 2118, 1992.
241. Palmer, L. M. and Colwell, R. R., Detection of luciferase gene sequence in nonluminescent Vibrio cholerae by colony hybridization and polymerase chain reaction, Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 51, 1286, 1991.
242. Tackett, C. O., Brenner, F., and Blake, P. A., Clinical features and an epidemiological study of Vibrio vulnificus infections, J. Infect. Dis., 149, 558, 1984.
243. Yamamoto, K., Wright, A. C., Kaper, J. B., and Morris, J. G., Jr., The cytolysin gene of Vibrio vulnificus: sequence and relationship to the Vibrio cholerae E1 Tor hemolysin gene, Infect. Immun., 58, 2706, 1990.
244. Roszak, D. B. and Colwell, R. R., Survival strategies of bacteria in the natural environment, Microbial. Rev., 51, 365, 1987.
245. Colwell, R. R., Brayton, P. R., Grimes, D. J., Roszak, D. B., Huq, S. A., and Palmer, L. M., Viable but nonculturable Vibrio cholerae and related pathogens in the environment: implications for release of genetically engineered microorganisms, Biotechnology, 3, 817, 1985.
246. Oliver, J. D., Nilsson, L., and Kjellberg, S., Formation of nonculturable Vibrio vulniflcus cells and its relationship to the starvation state, Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 57, 2640, 1991.
247. Nilsson, L., Oliver, J. D., and Kjellberg, S., Resuscitation of Vibrio vulniflcus from the viable but nonculturable state, J. Bacteriol., 173, 5054, 1991.
248. Brauns, L. A., Hudson, M. C., and Oliver, J. D., Use of the polymerase chain reaction in detection of culturable and nonculturable Vibrio vulnificus cells, Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 57, 2651, 1991.
249. Miyamoto, Y., Kato, T., Obara, Y., Akigama, S., Takizawa, K., and Yamai, S., In vitro hemolytic characteristic of Vibrio parahaemolyticus: its close correlation with human pathogenicity, J. Bacteriol., 100, 1147, 1969.
250. Nishibuchi, M. and Kaper, J. B., Duplication and variation of the thermostable direct haemolysin (tdh) gene in Vibrio parahaemolyticus, Mol. Microbiol., 4, 87, 1990.
251. Kishishita, M., Matsuoka, N., Kumagai, K., Yamasaki, S., Takeda, Y., and Nishibuchi, M., Sequence variation in the thermostable direct hemolysin-related hemolysin (trh) gene of Vibrio parahaemolyticus, Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 58, 2449, 1992.
252. Tada, J., Ohashi, T., Nishimura, N., Shirasaki, Y., Ozaki, H., Fukushima, S., Takano, J., Nishibuchi, M., and Takeda, Y., Detection of the thermostable direct hemolysin gene (tdh) and the thermostable direct hemolysin-related hemolysin gene (trh) of Vibrio parahaemolyticus by polymerase chain reaction, Mol. Cell. Probes, 6, 477, 1992.
253. Trost, P. A., Hill, W. E., Kaysner, C. A., and Wekell, M. M., Detection of three pathogenic Vibrio species by using the polymerase chain reaction, FDA Laboratory Information Bull., #3733, Jan., 1993.
254. Hill, W. E., Payne, W. L., and Aulisio, C. C. G., Detection and enumeration of virulent Yersinia enterocolitica in food by DNA colony hybridization, Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 46, 636, 1983.
255. Miller, V. L., Farmer, J. J., III, Hill, W. E., and Falkow, S., The ail locus is found uniquely in Yersinia enterocolitica serotypes commonly associated with disease, Infect. Immun., 57, 121, 1989.
256. Pierson, D. E. and Falkow, S., Nonpathogenic isolates of Yersinia enterocolitica do not contain functional inv-homologous sequences, Infect. Immun., 58, 1059, 1990.
257. Wilde, J., Eiden, J., and Yolken, R., Removal of inhibitory substances from human fecal specimens for detection of group A rotaviruses by reverse transcriptase and polymerase chain reactions, J. Clin. Microbiol., 28, 1300, 1990.
258. Centers for Disease Control, Update: Yersinia enterocolitica bacteremic and endotoxic shock associated with red blood cell transfusions - United States, Morbid. Mortal. Weekly Rep., 40, 176, 1991.
259. Feng, P., Keasler, S., and Hill, W. E., Direct identification of Yersinia enterocolitica in blood by using polymerase chain reaction amplification, Transfusion, 32, 850, 1992.
260. Ibrahim, A., Liesack, W., Pike, S., and Stakebrandt, E., The polymerase chain reaction: an epidemiological tool to differentiate between two clusters of Yersinia enterocolitica strains, FEMS Microbiol. Lett., 97, 63, 1992.
261. Delor, I., Kaeckenbeeck, A., Wauters, G., and Cornelis, G. R., Nucleotide sequence of yst, the Yersinia enterocolitica gene encoding the heat-stable enterotoxin, and prevalence of the gene among pathogenic and nonpathogenic yersiniae, Infect. Immun., 58, 2983, 1990.
262. Kwaga, J., Iversen, J. O., and Misra, V., Detection of pathogenic Yersinia enterocolitica by polymerase chain reaction and digoxigenin-labeled polynucleotide probes, J. Clin. Microbiol., 30, 2668, 1992.
263. Feng, P., Identification of invasive Yersinia species using oligonucleotide probes, Mol. Cell. Probes, 6, 291, 1992.
264. Wren, B. W. and Tabaqchali, S., Detection of pathogenic Yersinia enterocolitica by the polymerase chain reaction, Lancet, 336, 693, 1990.
265. Nakajima, H., Inoue, M., Mori, T., Iton, K.-I., Arakawa, E., and Watanabe, H., Detection and identification of Yersinia pseudotuberculosis and pathogenic Yersinia enterocolitica by an improved polymerase chain reaction method, J. Clin. Microbiol., 30, 2484, 1992.
266. Fenwick, S. G. and Murray, A., Detection of pathogenic Yersinia enterocolitica by polymerase chain reaction, Lancet, 337, 496, 1991.
267. Ward, R. L., Bernstein, D. J., Young, E. C., Sherwood, J. R., Knowlton, D. R., and Schiff, G. M., Human rotavirus studies in volunteers: determination of infectious dose and serological response to infection, J. Infect. Dis., 154, 871, 1986.
268. Kaplan, J. E., Feldman, R., Campbell, D. S., Lookabaugh, C., and Gary, G. W., The frequency of a Norwalk-like pattern of illness in outbreaks of acute gastroenteritis, Am. J. Public Health, 72, 1329, 1982.
269. Jiang, X., Wang, J., Graham, D. Y., and Estes, M. K., Detection of Norwalk virus in stool by polymerase chain reaction, J. Clin. Microbiol., 30, 2529, 1992.
270. Zhou, Y.-J., Estes, M. K., Jiang, X., and Metcalf, T. G., Concentration and detection of hepatitis A virus and rotavirus from shellfish by hybridization tests, Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 57, 2963, 1991.
271. Jiang, X., Estes, M. K., and Metcalf, T. G., Detection of hepatitis A virus by hybridization with single-stranded RNA probes, Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 53, 2487, 1987.
272. Atmar, R. L., Metcalf, T. G., Neill, F. H., and Estes, M. K., Detection of enteric viruses in oysters by using the polymerase chain reaction, Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 59, 631, 1993.
273. Rosen, B. I., Parwani, A. V., Gorziglia, M., Larralde, G., and Saif, L. J., Characterization of full-length and polymerase chain reaction-derived partial-length Gottfried and OSU gene 4 probes for serotypic differentiation of porcine rotaviruses, J. Clin. Microbiol., 30, 2644, 1992.
274. Gouvea, V., Glass, R. I., Woods, P., Taniguchi, K., Clark, J. F., Forrester, B., and Fang, Z.-Y., Polymerase chain reaction amplification and typing of rotavirus nucleic acid from stool specimens, J. Clin. Microbiol., 28, 276, 1990.
275. De Leon, R., Matsui, S. M., Baric, R. S., Herrmann, J. E., Blacklow, N. R., Greenberg, H. B., and Sobsey, M. D., Detection of Norwalk virus in stool specimens by reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction and nonradioactive oligoprobes, J. Clin. Microbiol., 30, 3151, 1992.
276. Desenclos, J.-C. A., Klontz, K. C., Wilder, M. H., Nainan, O. V., Margolis, H. S., and Gunn, R. A., A multistate outbreak of hepatitis A caused by the consumption of raw oysters, Am. J. Public Health, 81, 1268, 1991.
277. Jansen, R. W., Siegl, G., and Lemon, S. M., Molecular epidemiology of human hepatitis A virus defined by an antigen-capture polymerase chain reaction method, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 87, 2867, 1990.
278. Rotbart, H. A., Enzymatic RNA amplification of the enteroviruses, J. Clin. Microbiol., 28, 438, 1990.
279. Guatelli, J. C., Gingeras, T. R., and Richman, D. D., Nucleic acid amplification in vitro: detection of sequences with low copy numbers and application to diagnosis of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection, Clin. Microbiol. Rev., 2, 217, 1989.
280. Whetsell, A. J., Drew, J. B., Milman, G., Hoff, R., Dragon, E. A., Adler, K., Hui, J., Otto, P., Gupta, P., Farzadegan, H., and Wolinsky, S. M., Comparison of three nonisotopic polymerase chain reaction-bused methods tor detection of human immunodeficiency virus type 1, J. Clin. Microbiol., 30, 845, 1991.
281. Ou, C.-Y., McDonough, S. H., and Cabonas, D., Rapid and quantitative detection of enzymatically amplified HIV-1 DNA using chemiluminescent oligonucleotide probes, AIDS Res. Hum. Retroviruses, 6, 1323, 1990.
282. Baker, R. B., Jr., DNA probe diagnosis of parasitic infections, Exp. Parasitol., 70, 494, 1990.
283. Butcher, P. D. and Farthing, M. J. G., DNA probes for the faecal diagnosis of Giardia lamblia infections in man, Biochem. Soc. Trans., 17, 363, 1988.
284. Mahbubani, M. H., Bej, A. K., Perlin, M., Schaefer, F. W., III, Jakubowski, W., and Atlas, R. M., Detection of Giardia cysts by using the polymerase chain reaction and distinguishing live from dead cysts, Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 57, 3456, 1991.
285. Mahbubani, M. H., Bej, A. K., Perlin, M. H., Schaefer, F. W., III, Jakubowski, W., and Atlas, R. M., Differentiation of Giardia duodenalis from other Giardia spp. by using polymerase chain reaction and gene probes, J. Clin. Microbiol., 30, 74, 1992.
286. Garfinkel, L. I., Giladi, M., Huber, M., Gitlier, C., Mirelman, D., Revel, M., and Rozenblatt, S., DNA probes specific for Entamoeba histolytica possessing pathogenic and nonpathogenic zymodemes, Infect. Immun., 57, 926, 1989.
287. Strachan, W. E., Spice, W. M., Chiodini, P. L., Moody, A. H., and Ackers, J. P., Immunological differentiation of pathogenic and nonpathogenic isolates of Entamoeba histolytica, Lancet, ii, 561, 1988.
288. Tannich, E. and Burchard, G. D., Differentiation of pathogenic from nonpathogenic Entamoeba histolytica by restriction fragment analysis of a single gene amplified in vitro, J. Clin. Microbiol., 29, 250, 1991.
289. Tannich, E., Horstmann, R. D., Knobloch, J., and Arnold, H. H., Genomic DNA differences between pathogenic and nonpathogenic Entamoeba histolytica, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 86, 5118, 1989.
290. Pollard, D. R., Johnson, W. M., Lior, H., and Tyler, S. D., Differentiation of Shiga toxin and Vero cytotoxin type 1 genes by polymerase chain reaction, J. Infect. Dis., 162, 1195, 1990.
291. Ho, S.-A., Hoyle, J. A., Lewis, F. A., Seeker, A. D., Cross, D., Mapstone, N. P., Dixon, M. F., Wyatt, J. I., Tompkins, D. S., Taylor, G. R., and Quirke, P., Direct polymerase chain reaction test for detection of Helicobacter pylori in humans and animals, J. Clin. Microbiol., 29, 2543, 1991.
292. Brakstad, O., Aasback, K., and Maeland, J. A., Detection of Staphylococcus aureus by polymerase chain reaction amplification of the nuc gene, J. Clin. Microbiol., 30, 1654, 1992.
293. Gotoh, O. and Tagashira, Y., Stabilities of nearest neighbor doublets in double-helical DNA determined by fitting calculated melting profiles to observed profiles, Biopolymers, 20, 1033, 1981.
294. McGraw, R. A., Steffe, E. K., and Baxter, S. M., Sequence dependent oligonucleotide-target duplex stabilities: rules from empirical studies with a set of twenty-mers, BioTechniques, 8, 674, 1990.