Neuropathological sequelae of traumatic brain injury: Relationship to neurochemical and biomechanical mechanisms

Laboratory Investigation

Volumn 74, Issue 2, 1996, Pages 315-342

  McIntosh, Tracy K ^a   Smith, Douglas H ^a   Meaney, David F ^b   Kotapka, Mark J ^a   Gennarelli, Thomas A ^a   Graham, David I ^c  

^a UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA   (United States)

^c SOUTHERN GENERAL HOSPITAL   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

CATECHOLAMINE; CYTOKINE; EXCITATORY AMINO ACID; GROWTH FACTOR; MAGNESIUM; NEUROTRANSMITTER; OPIATE PEPTIDE; POTASSIUM;

BIOMECHANICS; BRAIN CONTUSION; BRAIN HEMATOMA; BRAIN INJURY; CELL DAMAGE; CELL DEATH; DEATH; HEAD INJURY; NERVE INJURY; NEUROPATHOLOGY; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW;

ANIMALS; BIOMECHANICS; BRAIN; BRAIN INJURIES; HUMANS;

EID: 0030045798     PISSN: 00236837     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Review

References (286)

1. Adams JH (1992). Head injury. In: Adams JH and Duchen LW, editors. Greenfield's neuropathology. New York: Oxford University Press, 106-152.
2. Adams JH, Doyle D, Ford I, Gennarelli TA, Graham DI, and McClellan DR (1989). Diffuse axonal injury in head injury: Definition, diagnosis, and grading. Histopathology 15:49-59.
3. Adams JH, Doyle D, and Graham DI (1984). Diffuse axonal injury in head injuries caused by a fall. Lancet 2:1420-1422.
4. Adams JH, Doyle D, Graham DI, Lawrence AE, McLellan DR, Gennarelli TA, Pastuszko M, and Sakamoto T (1985). The contusion index: A reappraisal in human and experimental non-missle injury. Neuropathol Appl Neurobiol 11:299-308.
5. Adams JH, Graham DI, Murray LS, and Scott G (1982). Diffuse axonal injury due to nonmissile head injury in humans: An analysis of 45 cases. Ann Neurol 12:557-563.
6. Adams JH, Mitchell DE, Graham DI, and Doyle D (1977). Diffuse brain damage of immediate impact type. Brain 100: 489-502.
7. Aikawa JK (1981). Magnesium: Its biologic significance. Boca Raton: CRC Press.
8. Altura BM, Altura BT, Gebrewold A, Ising H, and Gunter T (1984). Magnesium deficient diets and microcirculatory changes in situ. Science 223:1315-1317.
9. Andrews PJD, Piper IR, and Dearden NM (1990). Secondary insults during intrahospital transport of head-injured patients. Lancet 335:327.
10. Armstead WM, Pourcyrous M, Mirro R, Leffter CW, and Busija DW (1988). Platelet activating factor: A potent constrictor of cerebral arterioles in newborn pigs. Circ Res 62:1-7.
11. Ascher P and Nowak L (1988). The role of divalent cations in the N-methyl-D-aspartate responses of mouse central neurones in cultures. J Physiol 399:247-266.
12. Astrup J, Rehncrona S, and Siesjö BK (1980). The increase in extracellular potassium concentration in the ischemic brain in relation to the preischemic functional activity and cerebral metabolic rate. Brain Res 199:161-174.
13. Baker AJ, Moulton RJ, MacMillan VH, and Shedden PM (1993). Excitatory amino acids in cerebrospinal fluid following traumatic brain injury in humans. J Neurosurg 79:369-372.
14. Bakhit C, Armanini M, Bennett GL, Wong WLT, Hansen SE, and Taylor R (1991). Increase in glia-derived nerve growth factor following destruction of hippocampal neurons. Brain Res 560:76-83.
15. Bakshi R and Faden AI (1990). Blockade of the glycine modulatory site of NMDA receptors modifies dynorphin-induced behavioral effects. Neurosci Lett 110:113-117.
16. Bakshi R, Newman AH, and Faden AI (1990). Dynorphin A-(1-17) induces alterations in free fatty acids, excitatory amino acids and motor function through an opiate receptor-mediated mechanism. J Neurosci 10:3793-3800.
17. Baskin DS, Kuroda H, and Hosobuchi Y (1985). Treatment of stroke with opiate antagonists: Effects of exogenous antagonists and dynorphin 1-13. Neuropeptides 5:307-310.
18. Biagas KV, Uhl MW, Schiding JK, Nemoto EM, and Kochanek PM (1992). Assessment of posttraumatic polymorphonuclear leukocyte accumulation in rat brain using tissue myeloperoxidase assay and vinblastine treatment. J Neurotrauma 9:363-371.
19. Blumbergs PC, Jones NR, and North JB (1989). Diffuse axonal injury in head trauma. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 52:838-841.
20. Blumbergs PC, Scott G, nd Manavis J (1994). Staining of amyloid percursor protein to study axonal damage in mild head injury. Lancet 344:1055-1056.
21. Bornstein M (1946). Presence and action of acetylcholine in experimental brain trauma. J Neurophysiol 9:349-366.
22. Bouma GJ, Muizelaar JP, Choi SC, Newlon PG, and Young HF (1991). Cerebral circulation and metabolism after severe traumatic brain injury: The elusive role of ischemia. J Neurosurg 75:685-693.
23. Bourgain R, Maes L, Braquet P, Andries R, Touqui L, and Braquet M (1985). The effect of 1-0-alkyl-2-acetyl-snglycero-3-phosphocholine (PAF-acether) on the arterial wall. Prostaglandins 30:185-197.
24. Bourke RS, Kimelberg HK, West CR, and Bremer AM (1975). The effect of HCO3 on the swelling and ion uptake of monkey cerebral cortex under conditions of raised extracellular potassium. J Neurochem 25:323-328.
25. Bourke RS, Kimelberg HK, Daze M, and Church G (1983). Swelling and ion uptake in cat cerebrocortical slices: Control by neurotransmitters and ion transport mechanisms. Neurochem Res 8:5-24.
26. Bourke RS, Waldman JB, Kimelberg HK, Barron K, San Filippo BD, Popp A, and Nelson LR (1981). Adenosine-stimulated astroglial swelling in cat cerebral cortex in vivo with total inhibition by a non-diuretic acylaryloxacid derivative. J Neurosurg 55:364-370.
27. Braquet P, Paubert-Braquet M, Koltai M, Bourgain R, Bussolino F, and Hosford D (1989). Is there a case for PAF antagonists in the treatment of ischemic states? Trends Pharmacol Sci 10:24-30.
28. Braquet P, Touqui L, Shen TS, and Vargaftig BB (1987). Perspectives in platelet-activating factor research. Pharmacol Rev 39:97-145.
29. 2 in head injury. In: McLaurin RL, editor. Head injuries, Second Chicago Symposium on Neural Trauma. New York: Grune & Stratton, 23.
30. Brunello N, Reynolds M, Wrathall JR, and Mocchetti I (1990). Increased nerve growth factor receptor mRNA in contused rat spinal cord. Neurosci Lett 118:238-240.
31. Bullock R, Maxwell WL, Graham DI, Teasdale GM, and Adams JH (1991). Glial swelling following human cerebral contusion: An ultrastructural study. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 54:427.
32. Bullock R and Teasdale G (1990). Surgical management of traumatic intracranial haematomas. In: Braakman R, editor. Handbook of clinical neurology, vol 15. Amsterdam: Elsevier, 249-298.
33. Carron MJ, Hovda DA, and Mazziotta JC (1993). The structural and metabolic anatomy of traumatic brain injury in humans: A computerized tomography and positron emission tomography analysis. J Neurotrauma 10(Suppl 1):S58.
34. 2 opioid receptros inhibit NMDA receptor-mediated synaptic currents in guinea pig CA3 pyramidal cells. J Neurosci 14:5580-5589.
35. Caudle RM and Isaac L (1988). A novel interaction between dynorphin(1-13) and an N-methyl-D-aspartate site. Brain Res 443:329-332.
36. Chan P and Fishman R (1980). Transient formation of superoxide radicals in polyunsaturated fatty acid induced brain swelling. J Neurochem 35:1004-1007.
37. Chan PH and Fishman RA (1985). Oxygen-free radicals: Potential edema mediators in brain injury. In: Iraba Y, Klatzo I, and Spatz M, editors. Brain edema. Berlin: Springer Verlag, 317-323.
38. Chen H, Chopp M, Schultz L, Bodzin G, and Garcia JH (1993). Sequential neuronal and astrocytic changes after transient middle cerebral artery occlusion in the rat. J Neurol Sci 118:109-116.
39. Chesnut RM, Marshall LF, Klauber MR, Blunt BA, Baldwin N, Eisenberg HM, Jane JA, Marmarou A, and Foulkes MA (1993). The role of secondary brain injury in determining outcome from severe head injury. J Trauma 34:216-222.
40. Choi D (1987). Ionic dependence of glutamate neurotoxicity. J Neurosci 7:369-379.
41. Choi D (1989). Calcium-mediated neurotoxicity: Relationship to specific channel types and its role in ischemic damage. Trends Neurosci 11:21-26.
42. Choi D (1990). Methods for antagonizing glutamate neurotoxicity. Cerebrovasc Brain Metab Rev 2:105-147.
43. Choi D, Maulucci-Gedde M, and Kriegstein AR (1987). Glutamate neurotoxicity in cortical cell culture. J Neurosci 7:357-368.
44. Choi D and Rothman SM (1990). The role of glutamate neurotoxicity in hypoxic-ischemic neuronal death. Annu Rev Neurosci 13:171-182.
45. Christman CW, Grady MS, Walter SA, Holloway KL, and Polvishock JT (1994). Ultrastructural studies of diffuse axonal injury in humans. J Neurotrauma 11:173-186.
46. Clark JM (1974). Distribution of microglial clusters in the brain after head injury. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 37:463.
47. Clifton G, Robertson C, Kyper K, Taylor AA, Dhenkne RD, and Grossman R (1983). Cardiovascular response to severe head injury. J Neurosurg 59:447-454.
48. Conner JM, Fass-Holmes B, and Varon S (1994). Changes in verve growth factor immunoreactivity following entorhinal cortex lesions: Possible molecular mechanism regulating cholinergic sprouting. J Comp Neurol 345:409-418.
49. Cortez SC, McIntosh TK, and Noble L (1989). Experimental fluid percussion brain injury: Vascular disruption and neuronal and glial alterations. Brain Res 482:271-282.
50. Coyle J and Schwarz R (1976). Lesion of striatal neurones with kainic acid provides a model for Huntington's chorea. Nature 263:244-246.
51. Denny-Brown D and Russell WR (1941). Experimental cerebral concussion. Brain 65:93-164.
52. DeSalles AF, Jenkins LW, Young M, Becker DP, and Hayes RL (1987). Intra-and extracellular pH and extracellular potassium following mechanical brain injury in the cat. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 7:S627.
53. DeWitt DS, Kong DL, Lyeth BG, Jenkins LW, Hayes RL, Wooten ED, and Prough D (1988). Experimental traumatic brain injury elevates brain prostaglandin E2 and thromboxane B2 levels in rats. J Neurotrauma 5:303-313.
54. Dixon CE, Clifton GL, Lighthall JW, Yaghamai AA, and Hayes RL (1991). A controlled cortical impact model of traumatic brain injury in the rat. J Neurosci Methods 39:1-10.
55. Dixon CE, Hamm RJ, Taft WC, and Hayes RL (1994). Increased anticholinergic sensitivity following closed skull impact and controlled cortical impact traumatic brain injury in the rat. J Neurotrauma 11:275-287.
56. Dixon CE, Lyeth BG, Povlishock JT, Findling R, Hamm R, Marmarou A, Young HF, and Hayes RL (1987). A fluid percussion model of experimental brain injury in the rat: Neurological, physiological, and histopathological characteristics. J Neurosurg 67:110-119.
57. Dykens J, Stern A, and Trenkner E (1987). Mechanism of kainate toxicity to cerebellar neurons in vitro is anatogous to reperfusion tissue injury. J Neurochem 49:1222-1228.
58. Eckenstein FP, Shipley GD, and Nishi R (1991). Acidic and basic fibroblast growth factors in the nervous system: distribution and differential alteration of levels after injury of central versus peripheral nerve. J Neurosci 11:412-419.
59. Ellis EF, Heizer M, Hambrecht G, Holt S, Stewart J, and Vavrek R (1987). Inhibition of bradykinin- and kallikrein-induced cerebral arteriolar dilation by a specific bradykinin antagonist. Stroke 18:792-795.
60. Ellis EF, Polia RJ, Rice LY, Brabeel M, and Holt S (1989). Increased plasma PGE2, 6-keto-PGF1a and 12-HETE levels following experimental concussive brain injury. J Neurotrauma 6:31-37.
61. Erb DE and Polvishock JT (1988). Axonal damage in severe traumatic brain injury: An experimental study in the cat. Acta Neuropathol (Berl) 76:347-358.
62. Enevoldsen E and Jensen F (1977). Compartmental analysis of regional cerebral blood flow in patients with severe head injuries. J Neurosurg 47:699.
63. Faden AI (1992). Dynorphin increases extracellular levels of excitatory amino acids in the brain through a nonopioid mechanism. J Neurosci 12:425-429.
64. Faden AI, Demediuk P, Panter SS, and Vink R (1989a). The role of excitatory amino acids and NMDA receptors in traumatic brain injury. Science 244:798-800.
65. Faden AI, Tzendzalian P, Lemke M, and Valone F (1989b). Role of platelet-activating factor in pathophysiology of traumatic brain injury. Soc Neurosci Abstr 15:1112.
66. Fan L, Young PR, Barone FC, Feuerstein GZ, Gennarelli TA, Smith DH, and McIntosh TK (1995). Experimental brain injury induces expression of interleukin-1 β mRNA in the rat brain. Mol Brain Res 30:125-130.
67. Feeney DM, Boyeson MG, Linn RT, Murray HM, and Dail WG (1981). Responses to cortical injury. I. Methodology and local effects of contusions in the rat. Brain Res 211:67-77.
68. Flamm ES, Demopoulos HB, and Seligman ML (1978). Free radicals in cerebral ischemia. Stroke 9:445-447.
69. Frerichs KU and Feuerstein G (1990). Platelet-activating factor: Key mediator in neuroinjury? Cerebrovasc Brain Metab Rev 2:148-160.
70. Garfinkel L and Garfinkel D (1985). Magnesium regulation of the glycolytic pathway and the enzymes involved. Magnesium 14:60-72.
71. Gennarelli TA (1993a). Mechanisms of brain injury. J Emerg Med 11(Suppl 1):5-11.
72. Gennarelli TA (1993b). Cerebral concussion and diffuse brain injuries. In: Cooper PR, editor. Head injury. Batimore: Williams and Wilkins, 137-158.
73. Gennarelli TA (1994). Animate models of human head injury. J Neurotrauma 11:357-368.
74. Gennarelli TA, Thibault LE, Adams JH, Graham DI, Thompson C, and Marcincin RP (1982). Diffuse axonal injury and traumatic coma in the primate. Ann Neurol 12:564-574.
75. Gentleman SM and Jennett B (1990). Audit of transfer of unconscious head-injured patients to a neurosurgical unit. Lancet 335:330.
76. Gentleman SM, Nash MJ, and Sweeting CJ (1993). β-amyloid precursor protein (β-APP) as a marker for axonal injury after head injury. Neurosci Lett 160:134-144.
77. Gentleman SM, Roberts GW, Gennarelli TA, Maxwell WL, Adams JH, Kerr S, and Graham DI (1995). Axonal injury: A universal consequence of fatal closed head injury? Acta Neuropathol 89:537-543.
78. NGFR mRNA by cells in the medial septum and diagonal band of Broca: Correlations with cell survival, synaptic reorganization and sprouting. Mol Brain Res 11:207-219.
79. Ginsberg M, Watson BD, and Busto R (1988). Peroxidative damage to cell membranes following cerebral ischemia: A cause of ischemic brain injury? Neurochem Pathol 9:171-193.
80. Giulian D, Chen J, Ingeman JE, George JK, and Noponen M (1989). The role of mononuclear phagocytes in wound healing after traumatic injury to adult mammalian brain. J Neurosci 9:4416-4429.
81. Gomez-Pinilla FG, Lee JW-K, and Cotman CW (1992). Basic FGF in adult rat brain: Cellular distribution and response to entorhinal lesion and fimbria-fornix transection. J Neurosci 12:345-355.
82. Goodman JC, Robertson CS, Grossman RG, and Narayan RK (1990). Elevation of tumor necrosis factor in head injury. J Neuroimmunol 30:213-217.
83. Got C, Guillon F, Patel A, Mack P, Brun-Cassan F, Faxon A, Tarriere C, and Hureau J (1983). Morphological and biomechanical study of 146 human skulls used in experimental impacts, in relation with the observed injuries. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers Press.
84. Grady SM, McLaughlin MR, Christman CW, Valadka AB, Fligner CL, and Povlishock JT (1993). The use of antibodies targeted against the neurofilament subunits for the detection of diffuse axonal injury in humans. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 52:143-152.
85. Graham DI, Adams JH, and Doyle D (1978). Ischaemic brain damage in fatal non-missle head injuries. J Neurol Sci 39:213-234.
86. Graham DI, Clark JC, Adams JH, and Gennarelli TA (1992). Diffuse axonal injury caused by assault. J Clin Pathol 45:840-841.
87. Graham DI, Ford I, Adams JH, Doyle D, Teasdale G, Lawrence A, and McLellan DR (1989). Ischaemic brain damage is still common in fatal nonmissile head injury. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 52:346-350.
88. Graham DI, Lawrence AE, and Adams JH (1987). Brain damage in non-missile head injury secondary to high intracranial pressure. Neuropathol Appl Neurobiol 13:209-217.
89. Graham DI, Lawrence AE, and Adams JH (1988). Brain damage in fatal non-missile head injury without high intracranial pressure. J Clin Pathol 41:34-37.
90. Gualtieri T and Cox DR (1991). The delayed neurobehavioral sequelae of traumatic brain injury. Brain Inj 5:219-232.
91. Gupta RK, Gupta P, Yushok WD, and Rose ZB (1983). Measurement of the dissociation constant of MgATP at physiological nucleotide levels by a combination of 31P-NMR and optical absorbance spectroscopy. Physiol Chem Phys Med NMR 15:265-280.
92. Gurdjian ES (1975). Impact head injury: Mechanistic, clinical, and preventive correlations. Springfield: Charles C Thomas.
93. Gurdjian ES and Lissner HR (1944). Mechanism of head injury as studied by the cathode ray oscilloscope: Preliminary report. J Neurosurg 1:393-399.
94. Gurdjian ES and Lissner HR (1961). Photoelectric confirmation of the presence of shear strains at the craniospinal junction in closed head injury. J Neurosurg 18:58-60.
95. Gurdjian ES, Lissner HR, Webster JE, Latimer FR, and Haddad BF (1953). Studies in experimental concussion: Relation of physiologic effect to time duration of intracranial pressure increase at impact. Neurology 3:417-423.
96. Gurdjian ES, Webster JE, and Lissner HR (1949). Studies on skull fracture with particular reference to engineering factors. Am J Surg 78:736-742.
97. Hagberg H, Andersson P, Butcher S, Sandberg M, Lehmann A, and Namberger A (1986). Blockade of N-methyl-D-aspartate-sensitive acidic amino acid receptors inhibits ischemia-induced accumulation of purine catabolites in the rat striatum. Neurosci Lett 68:311-316.
98. Hagg T, Louis J-C, Longo FM, and Varan S (1994). Neurotrophic factors, growth factors, and central nervous system trauma. In: Faden AI and Salzman SK, editors. The neurobiology of central nervous system trauma. New York: Oxford University Press, 245-265.
99. Hall E (1985). Beneficial effects of acute intravenous ibuprofen on neurologic recovery of head-injured mice: Comparison of cyclooxygenase inhibition with inhibition of thromboxane A2 synthetase or 5-lipoxygenase. J Neurotrauma 2:75-83.
100. Hall ED and Wolf DL (1986). A pharmacological analysis of the pathophysiological mechanisms of posttraumatic spinal cord ischemia. J Neurosurg 64:951-961.
101. Hall E, Wolf DL, Althaus JS, and Von Voigtlander PF (1987). Beneficial effects of the K opioid receptor agonist U50,488H in experimental acute brain and spinal cord injury. Brain Res 435:174-180.
102. Hamill RW, Woolf PD, McDonald J, Lee LA, and Kelley M (1987). Catecholamines predict outcome in traumatic brain injury. Ann Neurol 212:438-443.
103. Hansen AJ (1985). Effect of anoxia on ion distribution in the brain. Physiol Rev 65:101-148.
104. Hayashi T (1969). Study of intracranial pressure caused by head impact. J Faculty Eng Univ Tokyo (B) 30:59-72.
105. Hayes RL, Lyeth BG, Zimmerman R, Jenkins LW, Robinson SE, Clifton GL, McIntosh TK, and Young HF (1990). Possible protective effect of certain endogenous opioids in traumatic brain injury. J Neurosurg 72:252-261.
106. Hayes RL, Pechure CM, Katayama Y, Povlishock JT, Giebel ML, and Becker DP (1984). Activation of pontine cholinergic sites in unconsciousness following cerebral concussion in the cat. Science 233:301-303.
107. Hayward NJ, McKnight AT, and Woodruff GN (1992). The neuroprotective action of K-opioid agonists in the gerbil. Mol Neuropharmacol 2:221-227.
108. Hegestatt ED, Andersson KE, and Edvinsson L (1981). Mechanical reactivity of rat middle cerebral and basilar arteries in various vasoactive agents recorded in vitro. In: Fritschka E, editor. Cerebral microcirculation and metabolism. New York: Raven Press, 141-149.
109. Heizer M, Chao J, Holt S, and Ellis EF (1988). Increased extravascular kiniogen following experimental fluid percussion brain injury. FASEB J 2:A1519.
110. Hertz L (1982). Astrocytes. In: Laijtha A, editor. Handbook of neurochemistry. New York: Plenum Press, 319-355.
111. +-induced stimulation of oxygen uptake in cultured cerebral glial cells. Brain Res 60:517-520.
112. Hicks RR, Smith DH, Lowenstein DH, Saint Marie RL, and McIntosh TK (1993). Mild experimental brain injury in the rat induces cognitive deficits associated with regional neuronal loss in the hippocampus. J Neurotrauma 10:405-414.
113. Hicks RR, Smith DH, and McIntosh TK (1994). Kynurenate is neuroprotective following experimental brain injury in the rat. Brain Res 655:91-96.
114. Hicks RR, Smith DH, and McIntosh TK (1995). Temporal response and effects of excitatory amino acid antagonism on microtubule-associated protein 2 immunoreactivity following experimental brain injury in rats. Brain Res 678:151-160.
115. Holbourn AHS (1943). Mechanics of head injuries. Lancet 2:438-441.
116. Hovda DA, Yoshino A, Fireman I, Smith M, and Becker DP (1991). Intracellular calcium accumulates for at least 48 hours following fluid percussion brain injury in the rat. Proc Am Assoc Neurol Surg 1:452.
117. Hubschmann OR and Nathanson DC (1985). The role of calcium and cellular membrane dysfunction in experimental trauma and subarachnoid hemorrhage. J Neurosurg 62:698-703.
118. Isaac L, O'Malley T, Ristic H, and Stewart P (1990). MK-801 blocks dynorphin A(1-13)-induced loss of the tail-flick reflex in the rat. Brain Res 531:83-87.
119. Itoh J, Ukai M, and Kameyama T (1993). U-50,488H, a K-opioid receptor agonist, markedly prevents memory dysfunctions induced by transient cerebral ischemia in mice. Brain Res 619:223-228.
120. Jiang JY, Lyeth BG, Delahunty TM, Phillips LL, and Hamm RJ (1994). Muscarinic cholinergic receptor binding in rat brain at 15 days following traumatic brain injury. Brain Res 651:123-128.
121. 2+ and excitable membranes. Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 105-118.
122. Katayama Y, Becker DP, Tamura T, and Hovda DA (1990). Massive increases in extracellular potassium and the indiscriminate release of glutamate following concussive brain injury. J Neurosurg 73:889-900.
123. Kawamata T, Katayama Y, Hovda DA, Yoshino Y, and Becker DP (1992). Administration of excitatory amino acid antagonists via microdialysis attenuates the increase in glucose utilization seen following concussive brain injury. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 12:12-24.
124. Kimelberg HK (1979). Glial enzymes and ion transport in brain swelling. In: Popp AJ, Bourke RS, Nelson LR, and Kimelberg HK, editors. Neural trauma. New York: Raven Press, 137-153.
125. Kimelberg HK, Biddlecome S, and Bourke RS (1979). Site-inhibitable C1 transport and Na-dependent H production in primary astrogllial cultures. Brain Res 173:111-124.
126. Kimelberg HK, Bourke RS, Stieg PE, Barron KD, Hirata H, Pelton EW, and Nelson LR (1982). Swelling of astroglia after injury to the central nervous system. In: Grossman RG and Gildenberg PL, editors. Head injury: Basic and clinical aspects. New York: Raven Press, 31-44.
127. Kochanek PM, Nemoto EM, Melick JA, Evans RW, and Burke DF (1988). Cerebrovascular and cerebrometabolic effects of intracarotid infused platelet-activating factor in rats. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 8:546-551.
128. Kontos HA (1985). Oxygen radicals in cerebral vascular injury. Circ Res 57:508-516.
129. Kontos HA (1989). Oxygen radicals in central nervous system damage. Chem Biol Interact 72:229-255.
130. Kontos H and Povlishock JT (1986). Oxygen radicals in brain injury. Cent Nerv Syst Trauma 3:257-263.
131. Kontos HA, Wei E, Ellis EF, Povlishock JT, and Dietrich W (1985). Prostaglandins in physiological and in certain pathological responses of the cerebral circulation. Fed Proc 40: 2326-2330.
132. Kornecki E and Ehrlich YH (1988). Neuroregularory and neuropathological actions of the etherphospholipid platelet-activating factor. Science 240:1792-1794.
133. Kotapka MJ, Graham DI, Adams JH, and Gennarelli TA (1994). Hippocampal pathology in fatal human head injury without high intracranial pressure. J Neurotrauma 11:317-324.
134. Kraig RP, Ferreira-Filhoard CR, and Nicholson C (1983). Alkaline and acid transients in cerebellar microenvironment. J Neurophysiol 49:831-850.
135. Kraus JF, McArthur DL, and Silberman TA (1994) Epidemiology of mild brain injury. Semin Neurol 14:1-7.
136. Krobert KA, Sutton RL, and Feeney DM (1994). Spontaneous and amphetamine-evoked release of cerebellar noradrenaline after sensorimotor cortex contusion: An in vivo microdialysis study in the awake rat. J Neurochem 62:2233-2240.
137. Lambert PD, Woodruff GN, Hughes J, and Hunter JC (1991). Inhibition of L-glutamate release: A possible mechanism of action for the neuroprotective effects of the K-selective agonist CI-977. Mol Neuropharmacol 1:77-82.
138. Lee YC and Advani SH (1975). Transient response of a sphere to torsional loading: A head injury model. Math Biosci 6:473-486.
139. Leonard JR, Maris DO, and Grady SM (1994). Fluid percussion injury causes loss of forebrain choline acetyltransferase and nerve growth factor receptor immunoreactive cells in the rat. J Neurotrauma 11:379-392.
140. Leslie JB and Watkins WD (1985). Eicosanoids in the central nervous system. J Neurosurg 63:659-668.
141. Levin HS (1985). Outcome after head injury. Part II. Neurobehavioral recovery. In: Status report on central nervous system trauma research. Bethesda: National Institute of Neurological and Communicative Disease and Stroke, 281-299.
142. Lighthall JW (1988). Controlled cortical impact: A new experimental brain injury model. J Neurotrauma 5:1-15.
143. Lindgren S and Rinder L (1965). Experimental studies in head injury. I. Some factors influencing results of model experiments. Biophysik 3:320-329.
144. Lindsberg P, Yue T-L, Freichs K, Hallenbeck J, and Feuerstein G (1990). Evidence for platelet-activiating factor as a novel mediator in experimental stroke in rabbits. Stroke 21:1452-1457.
145. Lindvall O, Ernfors P, Bengzon J, Kokaia Z, Smith M-L, Siesjö BK, and Persson H (1992). Differential regulation of mRNAs for nerve growth factor, brain-derived neurotrophic factor and neurotrophin 3 in the adult rat brain following cerebral ischemia and hypoglycemic coma. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 89:648-652.
146. Liu YK, Chandran KB, and von Rosenburg DV (1975). Angular acceleration of visoelastic (Kelvin) material in a rigid spherical shell: A rotational head injury model. J Biomech 8:285-292.
147. Logan A, Frautschy SA, Gonzalez AM, and Baird A (1992). A time course for the focal elevation of synthesis of basic fibroblast growth factor and one of its high-affinity receptors (fig) following a localized cortical brain injury. J Neurosci 12:3828-3837.
148. Lowenstein DH, Gwinn RP, Seren MS, Simon R, and McIntosh TK (1994). Increased expression of mRNA encoding Calbindin-D28K, the glucose-regulated proteins, or the 72 kDA heat-shock protein in three models of acute CNS injury. Mol Brain Res 22:299-308.
149. Lowenstein DH, Thomas MJ, Smith DH, and McIntosh TK (1992). Selective vulnerability of dentate hilar neurons following traumatic brain injury: A potential mechanistic link between head trauma and disorders of the hippocampus. J Neurosci 12:4846-4853.
150. Lundgren J, Zhang H, Agardh CD, Smith ML, Evans PJ, Halliwell B, and Siesjö BK (1991). Acidosis-induced ischemic brain damage: Are free radicals involved? J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 11:587-596.
151. Lyeth BG, Dixon CE, Hamm R, Jenkins LW, Young H, Stonnington H, and Hayes RL (1988). Effects of anticholinergic treatment on transient behavioral suppression and physiological responses following concussive brain injury to the rat. Brain Res 488:88-97.
152. Lyeth BG and Hayes RL (1992). Cholinergic and opioid mediation of traumatic brain injury. J Neurotrauma 9: S463-S474.
153. Lyeth BG, Jiang JY, Delahunty TM, Phillips LL, and Hamm RJ (1994). Muscarinic cholinergic receptor binding in rat brain following traumatic brain injury. Brain Res 640:240-245.
154. Lyeth BG, Ray M, Hamm R, Schnabel J, Saady JJ, Poklis A, Jenkins LW, Gudeman SK, and Hayes RL (1992). Postinjury scopolamine administration in experimental traumatic brain injury. Brain Res 569:281-286.
155. MacDermott A, Mayer M, Westbrook G, Smith S, and Barker J (1986). NMDA receptor activation increases cytoplasmic calcium concentration in cultured spinal cord neurones. Nature 321:519-522.
156. Mackay KB, Kusumoto K, Graham DI, and McCulloch J (1993). Focal cerebral ischemia in the cat: pretreatment with a kappa-1 opioid receptor agonist, CI-977. Brain Res 618: 213-219.
157. MacPherson P and Graham DI (1978). Correlation between angiographic findings and the ischaemia of head injury. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 41:122.
158. Magnoni MS, Govoni S, Battaini F, and Trabucchi M (1988). L-type calcium channels are modified in rat hippocampus by short-term experimental ischemia. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 8:96-99.
159. Margulies SS, Gennarelli TA, and Thibault LE (1990). Physical model simulations of brain injury in the primate. J Biomech 23:823-836.
160. Marion DW, Darby J, and Yonas H (1991). Acute regional cerebral blood flow changes caused by severe head injuries. J Neurosurg 74:407.
161. Marmarou A, Foda MAA-E, van den Brink W, Campbell J, Kita H, and Demetiadou K (1994). A new model of diffuse brain injury in rats. Part I. Pathophysiology and biomechanics. J Neurosurg 80:291-300.
162. Marmarou A, and Shime K (1990). Comparative studies of edema produced by fluid percussion injury with lateral and central modes of injury in cats. Adv Neurol 52:233-236.
163. Marshall LF, Toole BM, and Bowers SA (1983). The national traumatic coma data bank II. Patients who talk and deteriorate: Implications for treatment. J Neurosurg 59:285-288.
164. Maxwell WL, Irvine A, Adams JH, Graham DI, and Gennarelli TA (1988). Response of cerebral microvasculature to brain injury. J Pathol 155:327.
165. Mayer M and Miller RJ (1990). Excitatory amino acids receptors, second messengers and regulation of intracellular Ca2+ in mammalian neurons. Mol Pharmacol 11:254-260.
166. Mayer M, Westbrook G, and Cuthrie PB (1984). Voltage-dependent block by Mg++ of NMDA receptors in spinal cord neurones. Nature 309:261-263.
167. McClain C, Cohen D, Phillips R, Ott L, and Young B (1991). Increased plasma and ventricular fluid interleukin-6 levels in patiens with head injury. J Lab Clin Med 118:225-231.
168. McIntosh TK (1994). The neurochemical sequelae of traumatic brain injury: Therapeutic implications. Cerebrovasc Brain Metab Rev 6:109-162.
169. McIntosh TK, Hayes RL, DeWitt DS, Agura V, and Faden AI (1987a). Endogenous opioids may mediate secondary damage after experimental brain injury. Am J Physiol 253:E565-E574.
170. McIntosh TK, Head VA, and Faden AI (1987b). Alterations in regional concentrations of endogenous opioids following traumatic brain injury in the cat. Brain Res 425:225-233.
171. McIntosh TK, Fernyak S, Yamakami I, and Faden AI (1994a). Central and systemic K-opioid agonists exacerbate neurobehavioral response to brain injury in rats. Am J Physiol 267:R665-R672.
172. McIntosh TK, Vink R, Noble L, Yamakami I, Fernyak S, and Faden AI (1989). Traumatic brain injury in the rat: Characterization of a lateral fluid percussion model. Neuroscience 28:233-244.
173. McIntosh TK, Yu T, and Gennarelli TA (1994b). Alterations in regional brain catecholamine concentrations after experimental brain injury in the rat. J Neurochem 63:1426-1433.
174. McLellan DR, Adams JH, Graham DI (1989). The structural basis of the vegetative state and prolonged coma after non-missile head injury. In: Papo I, Cohadon F, and Massorotti M, editors. Le coma traumatique. Padova: Liviana Editrice, 165-185.
175. Meaney DF, Smith DH, Ross DT, and Gennarelli TA (1993). Diffuse axonal injury in the miniature pig: Biomechanical development and injury threshold. AMD 169:169-175.
176. Melvin JW (1994). Biomechanics of brain injury. In: Nahum A and Melvin JW, editors. Accidental injury: Biomechanics and prevention. New York: Springer Verlag.
177. Miller JD (1985). Head injury and brain ischaemia: Implications for therapy. Br J Anaesth 57:120.
178. Miller LP, Lyeth BG, Jenkins LW, Oleniak L, Panchision D, Hamm R, Phillips LL, Dixon CE, Clifton G, and Hayes RL (1990). Excitatory amino acid receptor subtype binding following traumatic brain injury. Brain Res 526:103-107.
179. Moises HC and Walker JM (1985). Electrophysiological effects of dynorphin peptide on hippocampal pyramidal cells in rat. Eur J Pharmacol 108:85-98.
180. Mortimer JA, Van Duijn CM, Chandra L, Fratiglioni L, Graves AB, Heyman A, Jorm AF, Kokmen E, Kondo K, Rocca WA, Shalat SL, Soininen H, and Hoffman A (1991). Head trauma as a risk factor for Alzheimer's disease: A collaborative re-analysis of case-control studies. Int J Epidemiol 20:S28-S35.
181. Muizelaar JP, Marmarou A, DeSalles AF, Ward JD, Zimmerman R, Li Z, Choi SC, and Young HF (1989). Cerebral blood flow and metabolism in severely head injured children. I. Relationship with GCS score, outcome, ICP, and PVI. J Neurosurg 71:63.
182. Nakashima T, Takenaka K, Nishimura Y, Andoh T, Sakai N, Yamada H, Banno Y, Okano Y, and Nozawa Y (1993). Phospholipase C activity in cerebrospinal fluid following subarachnoid hemorrhage related to brain damage. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 13:255-259.
183. Needels DL, Nieto-Sampedro M, and Cotman CW (1986). Induction of a neurite-promoting factor in rat brain following injury or deafferentation. Neuroscience 18:517-526.
184. Newton MR, Greenwood RJ, Britton KE, Charlesworth M, Nimmon CC, Carroll MJ, and Dolke G (1992). A study comparing SPECT with CT and MRI after closed head injury. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 55:92.
185. Nieto-Sampedro M, Lewis ER, and Cotman CW (1982). Brain injury causes a time-dependent increase in neuronotrophic activity at the lesion site. Science 217:860-861.
186. Nilsson B, Ponten U, and Voight G (1977). Experimental head injury in the rat. Part I. Mechanics, pathophysiology, and morphology in an impact acceleration trauma model. J Neurosurg 47:241-251.
187. Nilsson P, Hillered L, Ponten U, and Urgerstedt V (1990). Changes in cortical extracellular levels of energy-related metabolites and amino acids following concussive brain injury in rats. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 10:631-637.
188. Nowak L, Bregestovski P, Ascher P, Herbelt A, and Prochiantz A (1984). Magnesium gates glutamate-activated channels in mouse central neurons. Nature 307:462-465.
189. Obrist WD, Langfitt TW, Jaggi JL, Cruz J, and Gennarelli TA (1984). Cerebral blood flow and metabolism in comatous patients with acute head injury: Relationship to intracranial hypertension. J Neurosurg 61:241.
190. Olney JW (1969). Glutamate induced retinal degeneration in neonatal mice: Electron microscopy of the actively evolving lesion. Science 134:719-721.
191. Olney JW, Ho OL, and Rhee V (1971). Cytotoxic effects of acidic and sulphur-containing amino acid on the infant mouse central nervous system. Exp Brain Res 14:61-76.
192. Olney JW, Price M, Salles K, Labruyere J, and Frierdich G (1987). MK-801 powerfully protects against N-methyl aspartate neurotoxicity. Eur J Pharmacol 141:357-361.
193. Ommaya AK, Hirsch AE, and Flamm ES (1966). Cerebral concussion in the monkey: an experimental model. Science 153:211.
194. Ommaya AK, Thibault LE, and Bandak F (1994). Mechanisms of impact head injury. Int J Impact Eng 15:535-560.
195. Oppenheimer DR (1968). Microscopic lesions of the brain following head injury. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 31:299-306.
196. Overgaad J, Mosdal C, and Tweed WA (1981). Cerebral circulation after head injury. III. Does reduced regional cerebral blood flow determine recovery of brain function after blunt head injury? J Neurosurg 55:63.
197. Palmer AM, Marion DW, Botscheller ML, Bowen DM, and DeKosky ST (1994). Increased transmitter amino acid concentration in human ventricular CSF after brain trauma. Neuroreport 6:153-156.
198. Palmer AM, Marion DW, Botscheller ML, Swedlow PE, Styren SD, and DeKosky ST (1993). Traumatic brain injury-induced excitotoxicity assessed in a controlled cortical impact model. J Neurochem 61:2015-2024.
199. Pappius HM (1981). Local cerebral glucose utilization in thermally traumatized rat brain. Am J Neurol 9:484-491.
200. Pappius HM and Dadoun R (1987). Effects of injury on the indoleamines in cerebral cortex. J Neurochem 49:321-325.
201. Patterson SL, Grady SM, and Bothwell M (1993). Nerve growth factor and a fibroblast growth factor-like neurotrophic activity in cerebrospinal fluid of brain injured human patients. Brain Res 605:43-49.
202. Peerless SJ and Newcastle NB (1967). Shear injuries of the brain. Can Med Assoc 96:577-582.
203. Perry DC, Lyeth BG, Miller LP, Getz RL, Jenkins LW, and Hayes RL (1992). Effects of traumatic brain injury in rats on binding to forebrain opiate receptor subtypes. Mol Chem Neuropathol 16:95-107.
204. Pettus EH, Christman CW, Giebel ML, and Polvishock JT (1994). Traumatically induced altered membrane permeability: Its relationship to traumatically induced reactive axonal change. J Neurotrauma 11:507-522.
205. Picone CM, Giotta JC, Earls R, Strong L, and Dedman J (1989). Immunohistochemical determination of calcium-calmodulin binding predicts neuronal damage after global ischemia. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 9:805-811.
206. Piek J, Chesnut RM, Marshall LF, van Berkum-Clark M, Klauber MR, Blunt BA, Eisenberg HM, Jane JA, Marmarou A, and Foulkes MA (1992). Extracranial complications of severe head injury. J Neurosurg 77:901-907.
207. Pierce JES, Trojanowski JQ, Smith DH, Gennarelli TA, and McIntosh TK (1995). Temporal changes in amyloid precursor protein following lateral fluid-percussion brain injury in the rat (abstract). J Neurotrauma 12:134.
208. Pope AM and Tailor AR (1991). Disability in America: Toward a national agenda for prevention. Washington, DC: National Academic Press.
209. Polvishock JT (1992). Traumatically induced axonal injury: Pathogenesis and pathological implications. Brain Pathol 2:1-12.
210. Polvishock JT, Becker DP, Ching CLY, and Vaughan GW (1983). Axonal change in minor head trauma. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 42:225-242.
211. Polvishock JT and Christman CW (1995). The pathology of traumatically induced axonal injury in animals and humans: A review. J Neurotrauma 12:555-564.
212. Polvishock JT, Hayes RL, Michel ME, and McIntosh TK (1994). Workshop on animal models of brain injury. J Neurotrauma 11:723-732.
213. Prasad MR, Ramaiah C, McIntosh TK, Dempsey RJ, Hipkens S, and Yurek D (1994). Regional levels of lactate and norepinephrine after experimental brain injury. J Neurochem 63: 1086-1094.
214. Prasad MR, Tzigaret C, Smith DH, Scares HD, and McIntosh TK (1992). Decreased alpha-adrenergic receptors after experimental brain injury. J Neurotrauma 9:269-279.
215. Quattrocchi KB, Frank EH, Miller CH, MacDermott JPA, Hein L, Frey L, and Wagner FC (1990). Suppresion of cellular immune activity following severe head injury. J Neurotrauma 7:77-87.
216. Quattrocchi KB, Issel BW, Miller CH, Frank EH, and Wagner FC (1992). Impairment of helper T-cell function following severe head injury. J Neurotrauma 9:1-9.
217. Raghupathi R, Welsh FA, Lowenstein DH, Gennarelli TA, and McIntosh TK (1995). Regional induction of c-fos and heat-shock protein-72 mRNA following fluid-percussion brain injury in the rat. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 15:467-473.
218. 31P magnetic resonance spectroscopy study. Ann Neurol 28:661.
219. Rappaport ZH, Young W, and Flamm ES (1987). Regional brain calcium changes in the rat middle cerebral artery occlusion model of ischemia. Stroke 18:760-764.
220. Reynolds ME, Brunello N, Mocchetti I, and Wrathall JR (1991). Localization of nerve growth factor receptor mRNA in contused rat spinal cord by in situ hybridization. Brain Res 559:149-153.
221. Rice D and MacKenzie E (1989). Cost of injury in the United States. San Francisco: Institute for Health and Aging, University of California.
222. Rink AD, Fung K-M, Perri BR, Lee VM, Trojanowski JQ, Gennarelli TA, Neugebauer E, and McIntosh TK (1995). Programmed cell death after traumatic brain injury (abstract)? J Neurotrauma 12:137.
223. Robertson C, Clifton G, Taylor AA, and Grossman R (1983). Treatment of hypertension associated with head injury. J Neurosurg 59:455-460.
224. 1 muscarinic blockade on behavior and physiological responses following traumatic brain injury in the rat. Brain Res 511:141-148.
225. Rosner MJ (1985). Systematic response to experimental brain injury. In: Becker DP, Povlishock J, editors. Central nervous system trauma status report. Bethesda: National Institutes of Health, 405-416.
226. Rothman SM and Olney JW (1987). Excitotoxicity and the NMDA receptor. Trends Neurosci 10:299-302.
227. Saatman KE and McIntosh TK (1994). Regional and focal alterations in neurofilament and tubulin immunoreactivity in injured rat brain. Soc Neurosci Abstr 20: 1115.
228. Saatman KE, Murai H, Bartus RT, Hayward NJ, Perri BR, and McIntosh TK (in press, 1996). The calpain inhibitor AK295 improves outcome following experimental brain injury. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA.
229. Saija A, Robinson SE, Lyeth BG, Dixon CE, Yamamoto T, Clifton GL, and Hayes RL (1989). The effects of scopolamine and traumatic brain injury on central cholinergic neurons. J Neurotrauma 5: 61-170.
230. Schoettle RJ, Kochanek PM, Magaree MJ, Uhl MW, and Nemoto EM (1990). Early polymorphonuclear leukocyte accumulation correlates with the development of posttraumatic cerebral edema in rats. J Neurotrauma 7:207-217.
231. Scott G, Blumbergs PC, and Kloeden CN (in press, 1996). The sector scoring method: A quantitative approach to the documentation of vascular damage in head injury. J Neurotrauma.
232. Shapira Y, Shohami E, Sidi A, Soffer D, Freeman S, and Cotev S (1998). Experimental closed head injury in rats: Mechanical pathophysiologic and neurologic properties. Crit Care Med 16:258-265.
233. Shapira Y, Yadid G, Cotev S, and Shohami E (1989). Accumulation of calcium in the brain following head trauma. Neurol Res 11:169-171.
234. Sherriff FE, Bridges LR, and Sivaloganathan S (1994). Early detection of axonal injury after human head trauma using immunocytochemistry for β-amyloid precursor protein. Acta Neuropathol 87:55-62.
235. Shohami E, Shapira Y, Sidi A, and Cotev S (1987). Head injury induces increased prostaglandin synthesis in rat brain. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 7:58-63.
236. Shozuhara H, Onodera H, Katoh-Semba R, Kato K, Yamasaki Y, and Kogure K (1992). Temporal profiles of nerve growth factor β-subunit level in rat brain regions after transient ischemia. J Neurochem 59:175-180.
237. Shukla VK and Lemaire S (1995). Non-opioid effects of dynorphins: Possible role of the NMDA receptor. Trends Pharmacol Sci 15:420-424.
238. Siesjö BK (1981). Cell damage to the brain: A speculative hypothesis. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 1:155-185.
239. Siesjö BK and Wieloch T (1985). Brain injury: Neurochemical aspects. In: Becker DP, Povlishock J, editors. Central nervous system trauma status report. Bethesda: National Institutes of Health, 513-532.
240. Sinson G, Voddi M, and McIntosh TK (1995). Nerve growth factor administration attenuates cognitive but not neurobehavioral motor dysfunction or hippocampal cell loss following fluid-percussion brain injury in rats. J Neurochem 65:2209-2216.
241. Smith DH, Lenkinski RE, Meaney DF, Ross DT, McIntosh TK, and Gennarelli TA (1994a). Experimental diffuse axonal injury in miniature swine: Metabolic consequences (abstract). J Neurotrauma 11:128.
242. Smith DH, Lowenstein DH, Gennarelli TA, and McIntosh TK (1994b). Persistent memory dysfunction is associated with bilateral hippocampal damage following experimental brain injury. Neurosci Lett 168:151-154.
243. Smith DH, Okiyama K, Thomas MJ, Claussen B, and McIntosh TK (1991). Evaluation of memory dysfunction following experimental brain injury using the Morris Water Maze. J Neurotrauma 8:259-269.
244. Smith DH, Okiyama K, Thomas MJ, and McIntosh TK (1993). Effects of the excitatory amino acid receptor antagonists kynurenate and indole-2-carboxylic acid on behavioral and neurochemical outcome following experimental brain injury. J Neurosci 13:5383-5392.
245. Smith DH, Soares HD, Pierce JES, Perlman KG, Saatman KE, Meaney DF, Dixon CE, and McIntosh TK (1995). A model of parasagittal controlled cortical impact in the mouse: Cognitive and histopathologic effects. J Neurotrauma 12:169-178.
246. Smith R (1979). The response of umembalmed cadaveric and living cerebral vessels to graded injury: A pilot study. In: Proceedings of the 23rd Stapp Car Crash Conference. San Diego: Society of Automotive Engineers, 543.
247. Soares HD, Hicks RR, Smith DH, and McIntosh TK (1995). Inflammatory leukocytic recruitment and diffuse neuronal degeneration are separate pathological processes resulting from traumatic brain injury. J Neurosci 15:8223-8233.
248. Soares HD, Thomas M, Cloherty K, and McIntosh TK (1992). Development of prolonged focal cerebral edema and regional cation change following experimental brain injury in the rat. J Neurochem 58:1845-1852.
249. Sosin DM, Sacks JJ, and Smith SM (1989). Head injury-associated deaths in the United States from 1979 to 1986. JAMA 262:2251-2255.
250. Strich SJ (1956). Diffuse degeneration of the cerebral white matter in severe dementia following head injury. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 19:163-185.
251. Sugaya E, Takato M, and Noda Y (1975). Neuronal and glial activity during spreading depression in cerebral cortex of cat. J Neurophysiol 38:822-841.
252. Sullivan HG, Martinez J, Becker DP, Miller JD, Griffin R, and Wist AO (1976). Fluid percussion model of mechanical brain injury in the cat. J Neurosurg 45:520-534.
253. Taft WC, Yang K, Dixon CE, and Hayes RL (1992). Microtubule-associated protein 2 levels decrease in hippocampus following traumatic brain injury. J Neurotrauma 9:281-290.
254. Takahashi H, Tanaka S, and Sano K (1981). Changes in extracellular potassium concentration in cortex and brain stem during the acute phase of experimental closed head injury. J Neurosurg 55:708-717.
255. Takeda A, Onodera H, Yamasaki Y, Furukawa K, Kogure K, Obinata M, and Shibahara S (1992). Decreased expression of neurotrophin-3 mRNA in the rat hippocampus following transient forebrain ischemia. Brain Res 569:177-180.
256. Tanabe Y, Masu M, Ishii T, Shigemoto R, and Nakanishi S (1992). A family of metabotropic glutamate receptors. Neuron 8:169-179.
257. Tang AH (1985). Protection from cerebral ischemia by U-50, 4884, a specific kappa opioid analgesic agent. Life Sci 37:1475-1482.
258. Tanno H, Nockels RP, Pitts LH, and Noble LJ (1992). Breakdown of the blood brain barrier after fluid percussion injury in the rat. Part I. Distribution and time course of protein extravasation. J Neurotrauma 9:21-32.
259. Taupin V, Toulmond S, Serrano A, Benavides J, and Zavala F (1993). Increase in IL-6, IL-1 and TNF levels in rat brain following traumatic lesion: Influence of pre- and posttraumatic treatment with Ro5 4864, a peripheral-type (p site) benzodiazepine ligand. J Neuroimmunol 42:177-186.
260. Teasdale G, Teasdale E, and Hadley D (1992). Computed tomographic and magnetic resonance imaging classification of head injury. J Neurotrauma 9(Suppl 1):S249.
261. Thibault LE and Gennarelli TA (1982). Biomechanics of acute subdural hematoma. J Trauma 22:680-686.
262. Toulmond S, Duval D, Serrano A, Scatton B, and Benavides J (1993). Biochemical and histological alterations induced by fluid percussion brain injury in the rat. Brain Res 620:24-31.
263. Traystman RJ, Kirsch JR, and Koehler RC (1991). Oxygen radical mechanisms of brain injury following ischemia and reperfusion. J Appl Physiol 71:1185-1195.
264. Tsuiki K, Takada A, Nagahiro S, Grdisa M, Diksic M, and Lappius HM (1995). Synthesis of serotonin in traumatized rat brain. J Neurochem 64:1319-1325.
265. Uhl MW, Biagas KV, Grundl PD, Barmada MA, Schiding JK, Nemoto EM, and Kochanek PM (1994). Effects of neutropenia on edema, histology, and cerebral blood flow after traumatci brain injury in rats. J Neurotrauma 11:303-315.
266. Unterberg A, Maier-Hauff K, Dautermann C, Hack U, Schurer L, and Baethman A (1986). Role of mediator compounds in secondary brain damage. In: Baethmann A, Go KG, Unterberg A, editors. Mechanisms of secondary brain damage. New York: Plenum Press, 139-150.
267. Varon S, Hagg T, and Manthorpe M (1991). Nerve growth factor in CNS repair and regeneration. Adv Exp Biol Med 296:267-276.
268. Vink R and McIntosh TK (1990). Pharmacological and physiological effects of magnesium on experimental traumatic brain injury. Magn Res 3:163-169.
269. Vink R, McIntosh TK, Demediuk P, Weiner MW, and Faden AI (1988). Decline in intracellular free Mg2+ is associated with irreversible tissue injury following brain trauma. J Biol Chem 263:757-761.
270. 2+, bioenergetic state and neurological outcome following traumatic brain injury in rats. J Neurosci 10:3524-3530.
271. Weber M, Grolimund P, and Seller RW (1990). Evaluation of post traumatic cerebral blood flow velocities by transcranial Doppler ultrasonography. Neurosurgery 27:106.
272. Wei EP, Lamb RG, and Kontos HA (1982). Increased phospholipase C activity after experimental brain injury. J Neurosurg 56:95-698.
273. West M, Labella FS, Havlicet V, and Parkinson D (1981). Cerebral concussion in rats rapidly induces hypothalmic specific effects on opiate and cholinergic receptors. Brain Res 225:271-277.
274. Whittemore SR, Nieto-Sampedro M, Needels DL, and Cotman CW (1985). Neuronotrophic factors for mammalian brain neurons: Injury induction in neonatal, adult and aged rat brain. Dev Brain Res 20:169-178.
275. Willinger R, Kopp CM, and Cesari D (1992). New concept of contrecoup lesion mechansim: modal analysis of a finite element model of the head. In: Proceedings of the 1992 International Conference on the Biomechanics of Impacts. Verona, Italy, 283-297.
276. Woodroofe MN, Sarna GS, Wadhwa M, Hayes GM, Loughlin AJ, Tinker A, and Cuzner ML (1991). Detection of interleukin-1 and interleukin-6 in adult rat brain, following mechanical injury, by in vivo microdialysis: Evidence of a role for microglia in cytokine production. J Neuroimmunol 33:27-236.
277. Yaghmai A and Polvishock JT (1992). Traumatically induced reactive change as visualized through the use of monoclonal antibodies targeted to neurofilament subunits. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 151:158-176.
278. Yamakami I and McIntosh TK (1991). Alterations in regional cerebral blood flow following brain injury in the rat. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 11:655-660.
279. Yan HQ, Banos MA, Herregodts P, Hooghe R, and Hooghe-Peters EL (1992). Expression of interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-6 and their respective receptors in the normal rat brain and after injury. Eur J Immunol 22:2693-2971.
280. Yergey JA and Heyes MP (1990). Brain eicosanoid formation following acute penetration injury as studied by in vivo microdialysis. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 10:43-146.
281. Yoshino A, Hovda DA, Kawamata T, Katayama Y, and Becker DP (1991). Dynamic changes in local cerebral glucose utilization following cerebral concussion in rats: Evidence of hyperand subsequent hypometabolic state. Brain Res 561: 106-119.
282. Young W, Rappaport ZH, Chalif DJ, and Flamm ES (1987). Regional brain sodium, potassium, calcium and water changes in the rat middle cerebral artery occlusion model of ischemia. Stroke 18:751-759.
283. Yuan X-Q, Prough D, Smith TL, and DeWitt DS (1981). The effects of traumatic brain injury on regional cerebral blood flow in rats. J Neurotrauma 5:289-301.
284. Zhuang J, Shackford SR, Schmoker JD, and Anderson ML (1993). The association of leukocytes with secondary brain injury. J Trauma 35:415-422.
285. Zieglansberger W, French ED, Siggins GR, and Bloom FE (1979). Opioid peptides may excite hippocampal pyramidal neurons by inhibiting adjacent inhibitory interneurons. Science 205:415-417.
286. Zimmerman RA, Bilaniuk LT, and Gennarelli TA (1978). Computed tomography of shearing injuries of the cerebral white matter. Radiology 127:393-396.