Depression-related cognitive impairment: Possibilities for its pharmacological treatment

Journal of Affective Disorders

Volumn 36, Issue 3, 1996, Pages 79-87

  Mitchell, Alexander J ^a   Dening, Thomas R ^a  

^a FULBOURN HOSPITAL   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Cognition; Depression; Glucocorticoid; HPA axis; Pseudodementia; Treatment

Indexed keywords

GLUCOCORTICOID;

COGNITIVE DEFECT; DEPRESSION; DRUG THERAPY; HUMAN; HYPERACTIVITY; HYPOTHALAMUS HYPOPHYSIS ADRENAL SYSTEM; HYPOTHESIS; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW;

EID: 0030031691     PISSN: 01650327     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/0165-0327(95)00070-4     Document Type: Review

References (91)

1. Abas, M.A., Sahakian, B. and Levy, R. (1990) Neuropsychological deficits and CT scan changes in elderly depressives. Psychol. Med. 20, 507-520.
2. Alexopoulos, G.S., Meyers, B.S., Young, R.C., Mattis, S. and Kakuma, T. (1993a) The course of geriatric depression with reversible dementia: a controlled study. Am. J. Psychiatry 150, 1693-1699.
3. Alexopoulos, G.S., Young, R.C. and Meyers, B.S. (1993b) Geriatric depression: age of onset and dementia. Biol. Psychiatry 34, 141-145.
4. Amsterdam, J.D., Rosenzweig, M. and Mozley, P.D. (1994) Assessment of adrenocortical activity in refractory depression: steroid suppression with ketoconazole. In Nolan, W.A., Zohar, J., Rouse, S.P. and Amsterdam, J.D. (Eds.), Refractory Depression-Current Strategies and Future Directions, Chapter 20. John Wiley & Sons, New York, pp. 199-210.
5. Anand, R. and Wesnes, K.A. (1990) Cognition enhancing effects of moclobemide, a reversible MAO-inhibitor, in humans. Adv. Neurol. 51, 261-268.
6. Angeli, F. and Frairia, R. (1985) Ketoconazole therapy in Cushing's disease. Lancet i, 821.
7. Aperia, B., Bergman, H., Engelbrektson, K., Thoren, M. and Wetterberg, L. (1985) Effects of electroconvulsive therapy on neuropsychological function and circulatory levels of ACTH, cortisol, prolactin and TSH in patients with major depressive illness. Acta Psychiatr. Scand. 72, 536-541.
8. Aulakh, C.S., Hill, J.L. and Murphy, D.L. (1993) Attenuation of hypercortisolaemia in fawnhooded rats by antidepressant drugs. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 240, 83-88.
9. Axelson, D.A., Doraiswamy, P.M., McDonald, W.M., Boyko, O.B., Tupler, L.A., Patterson, L.J., Nemeroff, C.B., Ellinwood, Jr., E.H. and Krishnan, K.R.R. (1993) Hypercortisolemia and hippocampal changes in depression. Psychiatry Res. 47, 163-173.
10. Baldwin, R.C., Benbow, S.M., Marriott, A. and Tomenson, B. (1993) Depression in old age A reconsideration of cerebral disease in relation to outcome. Br. J. Psychiatry 163, 82-90.
11. Barden, N., Reul, J.M.H.M. and Holsboer, F. (1995) Do antidepressants stabilize mood through actions on the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenoccortical system? Trends Neurosci. 18, 6-11.
12. Beats, B., Levy, R. and Forstl, H. (1991) Ventricular enlargement and caudate hyperdensity in elderly depressives. Biol. Psychiatry 30, 452-458.
13. Bella, R., Biondi, R., Raffaele, R. and Pennisi, G. (1990) Effect of acetyl-L-carnitine on geriatric patients suffering from dysthymic disorders. Int. J. Clin. Pharmacol. Res. X (6), 355-360.
14. Bench, C.J., Friston, K.J., Brown, R.G., Frackowiak, R.S.J. and Dolan, R.J. (1993) Regional cerebral blood flow in depression measured by positron emission tomography: the relationship with clinical dimensions. Psychol. Med. 23, 579-590.
15. Bertagna, X., Escourolle, H., Pinquier, J.L., Coste, J., Raux-Demay, M.C., Perlea, P., Silvestre, L., Luton, J.P. and Strauch, G. (1994) Administration of RU-486 for 8 days in normal volunteers: antiglucocorticoid effect with no evidence of peripheral cortisol deprivation. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Methods 78, 375-380.
16. Brady, L.S., Whitfield, H.J., Fox, R.J., Gold, P.W. and Herkenham, M. (1991) Long term antidepressant administration alters corticotropin releasing hormone, tyrosine hydroxylase and mineralocorticoid receptor gene expression in the rat. J. Clin. Invest. 87, 831-837.
17. Brady, L.S., Gold, P.W., Herkenham, M., Lynn, A.B. and Whitfiels, H.J. (1992) The antidepressants fluoxetine, idazoxan and phenelzine alter corticotropin releasing hormone and tyrosine hydoxylase mRNA levels in rat brain: therapeutic implications. Brain. Res. 512, 117-125.
18. Brown, R.G., Scott, L.C., Bench, C.J. and Dolan, R.J. (1994) Cognitive function in depression: its relationship to the presence and severity of intellectual decline. Psychol. Med. 24, 829-847.
19. Bulbena, A. and Berrios, G.E. (1993) Cognitive function in the affective disorders: a prospective study. Psychopathology 26, 6-12.
20. Checkley, S. (1995) Lessons from social psychiatry for the biology of depression. Curr. Opin. Psychiatry 8, 1-2.
21. Deshmukh, V.D. and Deshmukh, S.V. (1990) Stress-adaption failure hypothesis of Alzheimer's disease. Med. Hypotheses 32, 293-295.
22. Desrosiers, G. (1992) Primary or depressive dementia: clinical features. Int. J. Geriatr. Psychiatry, 7, 629-638.
23. Devanand, P., Dwork, A.J., Hutchinson, E.R., Bolwig, T.G. and Sackeim, H.A. (1994) Does ECT alter brain structure. Am. J. Psychiatry 151, 957-970.
24. Diehl, D.J., Keshevan, M.S., Kanal, E., Nebes, R.D., Nichols, T.E. and Gillen, J.S. (1994) Post-ECT increases in MRI regional T2 relaxation times and their relationship to cognitive side effects: a pilot study. Psychiatry Res. 54, 177-184.
25. Dinan, T.G. (1994) Glucocorticoids and the genesis of depressive illness. A psychobiological model. Br. J. Psychiatry 164, 365-371.
26. Dobie, D.J. and Raskind, M.A. (1989) Biology in geriatric psychiatry: diagnostic implications. In Review of Psychiatry, Vol. 9. American Psychiatric Press. Chapter 12, 232-248.
27. Dubin, W.R., Jaffe, R., Roemer, R., Siegel, L., Shoyer, B. and Venditti, M.L. (1992) The efficacy and safety of maintenance ECT in geriatric patients. J. Am. Geriatr. Soc. 40, 706-709.
28. Emsley, R.A., Roberts, M.C., Aalbers, C., Taljaard, F.J.J. and Kotze, T.J.V.W. (1994) Endocrine function in alcoholic korsakoffs syndrome. Alcohol. Alcoholism 29, 187-191.
29. Englehardt, D. and Weber, M.M. (1994) Therapy of Cushing's Syndrome with steroid biosynthesis inhibitors. J. Steroid Biochem. Mol. Biol. 49, 261-267.
30. Fassbender, K., Schmidt, R., Mößner, R., Daffertshofer, M. and Hennerici, M. (1994) Pattern of activation of the Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis in acute stroke Relation to acute confusional state, extent of brain damage and clinical outcome. Stroke 25, 1105-1108.
31. Falk, W.E., Mahnke, M.W. and Poskanzer, D.C. (1979) Lithium prophylaxis of corticotropin-induced psychosis. JAMA 241, 1011-1012.
32. Finberg, J.P.M. (1995) Pharmacology of reversible and selective inhibitors of monoamine oxidase type A. Acta Psychiatr. Scand. 91 (Suppl. 386), 8-13.
33. Ferrier, I.N., Lister, E.S., Riordan, D.M., Scott, J.L., Lett, D.J., Leake, A. and McKeith, I.G. (1991) A follow-up study of elderly depressives and Alzheimer-type dementia - relationship with DST status. Int. J. Geriatr. Psychiatry 6, 1-8.
34. Foreman, P.J., Perez-Polo, J.R., Angelucci, L., Ramacci, M.T. and Taglialatela, G. (1995) Effects of acetyl-L-carnitine treatment and stress exposure on the nerve growth factor receptor (p. 75 NGFR) mRNA level in the central nervous system of aged rats. Prog. Neuropyschopharm. Biol. Psychiatry 19, 117-133.
35. Garzya, G., Corallo, D., Fiore, A., Lecciso, G., Petrelli, G. and Zotti, C. (1990) Evaluation of the effects of L-acetylcarnitine on senile patients suffering from depression. Drugs Exp. Clin. Res. 16, 101-106.
36. Georgotas, A., Friedman, E., McCarthy, M., Mann, J., Krakowski, M., Siegel, R. and Ferris, S. (1983) resistant geriatric depressions and therapeutic response to monoamine oxidase in hibitors. Biol. Psychiatry 18, 195-205.
37. Georgotas, A., McCue, R.E., Kim, M., Hapworth, W.E., Reisberg, B., Stoll, P.M., Sinaiko, E., Fanelli, C. and Stokes, P.E. (1986) Dexamethasone suppression in dementia, depression and normal aging. Am. J. Psychiatry 143, 452-456.
38. Ghirardi, O., Milano, S., Ramacci, M.T. and Angelucci, L. (1989) Long-term acetyl-L-carnitine preserves spatial learning in the senescent rat. Prog. Neuropsychopharmacol. Biol. Psychiatry 13, 237-245.
39. Ghadirian, A.M., Engelsmann, F., Dhar, V., Filipini, D., Keller, R., Chouinard, G. and Murphy, B.E.P. (1995) The psychotropic effects of inhibitors of steroid biosynthesis in depressed patients refractory to treatment. Biol. Psychiatry 37, 369-375.
40. Grunhaus, L., Pande, A.C. and Haskett, R.F. (1990) Full and abbreviated courses of maintenance electroconvulsive therapy. Convuls. Ther. 6, 130-138.
41. Hoch, C.C., Reynolds III, C.F., Buysse, D.J., Fasiczka, A.L., Houck, P.R., Mazumdar, S. and Kupfer, D.J. (1993) Two-year survival in patients with mixed symptoms of depression and cognitive impairment: comparison with minor depression and primary degenerative dementia. Am. J. Geriatr. Psychiatry 1, 59-66.
42. Jones, B.N. and Reifler, B.V. (1994) Depression coexisting with dementia Evaluation and Treatment. In C. Eisdorfer and E.J. Olson (Eds.) Management of Patients with Alzheimer's and Related Dementias. Medical Clinics of North America Vol. 78, Part 4. W.B. Saunders, Philadelphia. pp. 823-840.
43. Kling, M.A., Geracioti, T.D., Licinio, J., Michelson, D., Oldfield, E.H. and Gold P.W. (1994) Effects of electroconvulsive therapy on the CRH-ACTH-Cortisol system in melancholic depression: preliminary findings. Psychopharmacol. Bull. 30 489-494.
44. Kral, V.A. and Emery, V.B. (1989) Long term follow up of depressive pseudodementia of the aged. Can. J. Psychiatry 34, 445-446.
45. Lachner, G. and Engel, R.R. (1994) Differentiation of dementia and depression by memory tests: a meta-analysis. J. Nerv. Mental Dis. 181, 34-39.
46. La Rue, A., Spar, J. and Hill, C.D. (1986) Cognitive impairment in late life depression: clinical correlates and treatment implications. J. Affect. Disord. 11, 176-184.
47. Landfield, P. (1987) Modulation of brain ageing correlates by long-term alterations of adrenal steroids and neurally active peptides. In E.R. DeKloet, V.W. Wiegant and D. DeWied (Eds.), Progress In Brain Research, Vol. 72, Chapter 25, Elsevier, Amsterdam. pp. 279-300.
48. Lipsey, J.R., Robinson, R.G., Pearlson, G.D., Rao, K. and Price, T.R. (1985) The dexamethasone suppression test and mood following stroke. Am. J. Psychiatry 142, 318-323.
49. Loosen, P.T. (1994) Cushing's syndrome and depression. Endocrinologist 4, 373-382.
50. Marchesi, C., De Risio, C., Campanini, G., Piazza, P., Grassi, M., Chiodera, P., Vescovi, P.P. and Coiro, V. (1994) Cerebral atrophy and plasma cortisol levels in alcoholics after short or a long period of abstinence. Prog. Neuropsychopharmacol. Biol. Psychiatry 18, 519-535.
51. Marcos, T., Salamero, M., Gutierrez, F., Catalan, R., Gasto, C. and Lazaro, L. (1994) Cognitive dysfunctions in recovered melancholic patients. J. Affect. Disord. 32, 133-137.
52. Mauri, M., Sinforiani, E., Bono, G., Vignati, F., Berselli, M.E., Attanasio, R. and Nappi, G. (1993) Memory impairment in Cushing's disease. Acta. Neurol. Scand. 87, 52-55.
53. McEwen, B.S. (1992) Re-examination of the glucocorticoid hypothesis of stress and aging. Prog. Brain Res. 93, 365-383.
54. Meaney, M.J., Viau, V., Bhatnagar, S., Betito, K., Iny, L.J., O'Donnell, D. and Mitchell, J.B. (1991) Cellular mechanism underlying the development and expression of individual differences in the HPA stress response. J. Steroid Bioch. Mol. Biol. 39, 265-274.
55. Miller, J.W. and Capro, L. (1993) The medical treatment of Cushing's disease. Endocrinol. Rev. 14, 443-458.
56. Mitchell, A.J. (1994) Glucocorticoids and the genesis of depressive illness. Br. J. Psychiatry (Lett.) 164, 853-854.
57. Mitchell, A.J. (1995) The contribution of hypercortisolaemia to the cognitive decline of geriatric depression. Int. J. Geriatr. Psychiatry 10, 401-409.
58. Moffoot, A.P.R., O'Carroll, R.E., Bennie, J., Carroll, S., Dick, H., Ebmeier, K.P. and Goodwin, G.M. (1994) Diurnal variation of mood and neuropsychological function in major depression with melancholia. J. Affect. Disord. 32, 257-269.
59. Munck, A., Guyre, P. and Holbrook, N. (1984) Physiological functions of glucocorticoids during stress and their relation to pharmacological actions. Endocinol. Rev. 5, 25-44.
60. Newcomer, J.W., Craft, S., Hershey, T., Askins, K. and Bradgett, M.E. (1994) Glucocorticoid-induced impairment in declarative memory performance in adult humans. J. Neurosci. 14, 2047-2053.
61. Patacchioli, F.R., Amenta, F., Ramacci, M.T., Taglialatela, G., Maccari, S. and Angelucci, L. (1989) Acetyl-L-carnitine reduces the age dependant loss of glucocorticoid receptors in the rat hippocampus: an autoradiographic study. J. Neurosci. Res. 23, 462-466.
62. Pearlson, G.D., Rabins, P.V., Kim, W.S., Seedie, L.J., Moberg, P.J., Burns, A. and Bascom, M.J. (1989) Structural brain CT changes and cognitive deficits in elderly depressives with and without reversible dementia(pseudodementia). Psychol. Med. 19, 573-584.
63. Pepin, M.C., Pothier, F. and Border, N. (1992) Impaired glucocorticoid receptor function in transgenic mice expressing antisense RNA. Nature 355, 725-738.
64. Pettegrew, J.W., Klunk, W.E., Panchalingam, K., Kanfer, J.N. and McClure, R.J. (1995) Clinical and neurochemical effects of acetyl-L-carnitine in Alzheimer's disease. Neurobiol. Aging 16, 1-4.
65. Postma, J.U. and Vranesic, D. (1983) Moclobemide in the treatment of depression in demented geriatric patients. Arch. Ther. 11, 1-4.
66. Rabins, P.V. and Pearlson, G.D. (1994) Depression induced cognitive impairment. In A. Burns and R. Levy (Eds.) Dementia, Chapter 41. Chapman and Hall, London. pp. 669-679.
67. Rabins, P.V., Merchant, A. and Nestadt, G. (1984) Criteria for diagnosing reversible dementia caused by depression: validation by 2-year follow-up. Br. J. Psychiatry 144, 488-492.
68. Reding, M., Haycox, J. and Blass, J.(1985) Depression in patients referred to a dementia clinic: a three year prospective study. Arch. Neurol. 42, 894-896.
69. Reul, J.M.H.M., Labeur, M.S., Grigoriadis, D.E., De Souza, E.B. and Holsboer, F. (1994) Hypothalamic-pituiatry-adrenocortcal axis changes in the rat after long term treatment with the reversible monoamine oxidase-A inhibitor moclobemide. Neuroendocrinology 60, 509-519.
70. Reynolds, C.F., Perel, J.M., Kupfer, D.J., Zimmer, B., Stack, J.A. and Hoch, C.C. (1987) Open-trial to antidepressant treatment in elderly patients with mixed depression and cognitive impairment. Psychiatry Res. 21, 111-122.
71. Ribeiro, S.C.M., Tandon, R., Grunhaus, L. and Greden, J.F. (1993) The DST as a predictor of outcome in depression: a meta analysis. Am. J. Psychiatry 150, 1618-1629.
72. Ricci, A., Ramacii, M.T., Ghirardi, O. and Amenta, F. (1989) Age related changes of the mossy fiber system in the rat hippocampus: effect of long term acetyl-L-carnitine treatment. Arch. Geront. Geriatr. 8, 63-71.
73. Rubin, R.T., Phillips, J.J., Sadow, T.F. and McCracken, J.T. (1995) Adrenal gland volume in major depression Increase during the depressive episode and decrease with successful treatment. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 52, 213-218.
74. Sapolsky, R.M. (1992) Glucocorticoids endanger hippocampal neurons. In R.M. Sapolsky (Ed.), Stress, the Aging Brain and the Mechanisms of Neuron Death, Chapter 7. MIT Press, Cambridge Massachusetts. pp. 119-145.
75. Seckle, J.R. and Fink, G. (1992) Antidepressants increase glucocorticoid and mineralocorticoid receptor mRNA expression in rat hippocampus in vivo. Neuroendocrinology 55, 621-626.
76. Siegel, B., Gurevich, D. and Oxenkrug, G.F. (1989) Cognitive impairment and cortisol resistance to dexamethasone suppression test in elderly depression. Biol. Psychiatry 25, 229-234.
77. Starkman, M.N., Schteingart, D.E. and Schork, M.A. (1986) Cushing's syndrome after treatment: changes in cortisol and ACTH levels and amelioration of the depressive syndrome. Psychiatry. Res. 19, 177-188.
78. Stein, B. and Sapolsky, R. (1988) Chemical adrenalectomy reduced hippocampal damage induced by Kainic acid. Brain Res. 473, 175.
79. Stoudemire, A., Hill, C.D., Morris, R., Martino-Saltzman, D., Markwalter, H. and Lewinson, B. (1991) Cognitive outcome following tricyclic and electroconvulsive treatment of major depression in the elderly. Am. J. Psychiatry 148, 1336-1340.
80. Stoudemire, A., Hill, C.D., Morris, R., Martino-Saltzman, D. and Lewinson, B. (1993) Long-term affective and cognitive outcome in depressed older adults. Am. J. Psychiatry 150, 896-900.
81. Stoudemire, A., Hill, C.D., Morris, R. and Dalton, S.T. (1995) Improvement in depression-related cognitive dysfunction following ECT. J. Neuropsychiatry Clin. Neurosci. 7, 31-34.
82. Terao, T., Mizuki, T., Ohji, T. and Abe, K. (1994) Antidepressant effect of lithium in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus and cerebral infarction, treated with corticosteroid. Br. J. Psychiatry 164, 109-111.
83. Thakore, J.H. and Dinan, T.G. (1995) Cortisol synthesis inhibition: a new treatment strategy for the clinical and endocrine manifestations of depression. Biol. Psychiatry 37, 364-368.
84. Van Ojen, R., Hooijer, C., Bezemer, D., Jonker, C., Lindeboom, J. and Tilburg, W.V. (1995) Late-life depressive disorder in the community. I. The relationship between MMSE score and depression in subjects with and without psychiatric history. Br. J. Psychiatry 166, 311-315.
85. Varney, N.R., Alexander, B. and Maclndoe, J.H. (1984) Reversible steroid dementia in patients without steroid psychosis. Am. J. Psychiatry 141, 369-372.
86. Veith, R.C., Lewis, N., Langohr, J.I., Murburg, M., Ashleigh, E.A., Castillo, S., Peskind, E.R., Pascualy, M., Bissette, G., Nemeroff, C.B. and Raskind, M.A. (1993) Effect of desipramine on cerebrospinal concentrations of corticotropin releasing factor in human subjects. Psychiatry Res. 46, 1-8.
87. Watanabe, Y., Gould, E., Danies, D., Cameron, H. and McEwen, B.S. (1992) Tianeptine attenuates stress induced morphological changes in the hippocampus. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 588, 341-345.
88. Wesnes, K.A., Simpson, P.M., Christmas, L., Anand, R. and McClelland, G.R. (1989) The effects of moclobemide on cognition. J. Neural. Transm. 28 (Supp. 1), 91-102.
89. Wolkowitz, O.M., Reus, V.I., Manfredi, F., Ingbar, J. and Brizendine, L. (1992) Antiglucocorticoid strategies in hypercorti-solemic states. Psychopharmacol. Bull. 28, 247-251.
90. Wolkowitz, O.M., Reus, V.I., Manfredi, F., Ingbar, J. and Brizendine, L. (1993a) Ketoconazole administration in hypercorti-solemic depression. Am. J. Psychiatry 150, 810-812.
91. Wolkowitz, O.M., Weingartner, H., Rubinow, D.R., Jimerson, D., Kling, M., Berretini, W., Thompson, K., Breier, A., Doran, A., Reus, V.I. and Pickar, D. (1993b) Steroid modulation of human memory: biochemical correlates. Biol. Psychiatry 33, 744-746.