Glucose and insulin metabolism in hypertension

American Journal of Nephrology

Volumn 16, Issue 3, 1996, Pages 223-236

  Cony, D B ^a   Tuck, M L ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

Author keywords

Antihypertensives; Diabetes; Hypertension; Insulin action; Insulin resistance

Indexed keywords

ALPHA ADRENERGIC RECEPTOR BLOCKING AGENT; ANTIHYPERTENSIVE AGENT; BETA ADRENERGIC RECEPTOR BLOCKING AGENT; CALCIUM ANTAGONIST; DIPEPTIDYL CARBOXYPEPTIDASE INHIBITOR; DIURETIC AGENT; GLUCOSE; INSULIN; LIPID;

ADRENERGIC SYSTEM; ARTICLE; BODY WEIGHT; DIABETES MELLITUS; ESSENTIAL HYPERTENSION; GLUCOSE BLOOD LEVEL; GLUCOSE METABOLISM; GLUCOSE TRANSPORT; HUMAN; HYPERTENSION; INSULIN BLOOD LEVEL; INSULIN METABOLISM; INSULIN RELEASE; INSULIN RESISTANCE; INSULIN SENSITIVITY; LIFESTYLE; LIPID METABOLISM; MORBIDITY; MORTALITY; MUSCLE GROWTH; POTASSIUM BALANCE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; SODIUM ABSORPTION; VASCULAR SMOOTH MUSCLE;

ANIMALS; ANTIHYPERTENSIVE AGENTS; BLOOD GLUCOSE; BLOOD PRESSURE; GLUCOSE; HUMANS; HYPERTENSION; INSULIN; INSULIN RESISTANCE;

EID: 0030012186     PISSN: 02508095     EISSN: 14219670     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1159/000169002     Document Type: Article

References (188)

1. Modan M, Halkin H, AlmogSetal: Hypcrinsu-lincmia: a link between hypertension obesity and glucose intolerance. J Clin Invest 1985:75: 809-817.
2. Shen DC, Shieh SM, Fuh MT, Wu DA, Chen YD, Reaven GM: Resistance to insulin-stimulated glucose uptake in patients w ith hypertension. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1988:66:580- 583.
3. Ferrannini E, Buzzigoli G, Bonadonna R, et al: Insulin resistance in essential hypertension. N Engl J Med 1987;17:350-357.
4. Stout R: Overview of the association between insulin and atherosclerosis. Metabolism 1985: 34(Suppl. I):7-12.
5. Miller JH, Bogdonoff MD: Antidiuresis associated with administration of insulin. J Appl Physiol 1954;6:509-512.
6. Rowe JW, Young JB, Minaker KL, Stevens AL, Pallotta J, Landsberg I: Elfect of insulin and glucose infusions on sympathetic nervous activity in normal man. Diabetes 1981;30:219-225.
7. Pollare T, Lithell H, Berne C: Insulin resistance is a characteristic feature of primary hypertension independent of obesity. Metabolism 1990: 39:167-174.
8. Doria A, Fioretto P, Avogaro A, Carraro A, Moroculti A, Trevisan R, Frigato F, Crepaldi G, Viberti G, Nosadini R: Insulin resistance is associated with high sodium-lithium coun-tcrtransport in essential hypertension. Am J Physiol 1991:261: E684- E691.
9. Rooney DP, Neely RDG, Ennis CN, Bell NP, Sheridan B, Atkinson AB, Trimble ER, Bell PM: Insulin action and hepatic glucose cycling inessential hypertension. Metabolism 1992:41: 317-324.
10. Natali A, Santoro D, Palotnbo C, Cerri M, Ghoine S, Ferrannini E: Impaired insulin action on skeletal muscle metabolism in essential hypertension. Hypertension 1991:17:170-178.
11. Istfan NW, Plaisted CS, Bistrian BR, Blackburn GL: Insulin resistance versus insulin secretion in the hypertension of obesity. Hypertension 1992: 19:385-392.
12. Welbom TA, Breckenridge A, Rubenstein AH, Dollery CT, Fraser TR: Serum-insulin inessential hypertension and peripheral vascular disease. Lancet 1966;i:1336-l337.
13. C'hrisllieb AR, Krolewski AS, Warram JH, Soeldener JS: Is insulin the link between hypertension and obesity? Hypertension 1985: 7(suppl. 2):54- 57.
14. Landsberg L: Diet, obesity and hypertension: an hypothesis involving insulin, the sympathetic nervous system, and adaptive thcrmogcnesis. Q J Med 1986:236:1081-1090.
15. Reaven GM, Hoffman BB: A role for insulin in the aetiology and course of hypertension. Lancet 1987;ii:435-436.
16. Berglund G, Larsson B, Andersson O, Larsson O, Svardsudd K, Bjorntorp P, Wilhelmsen L: Body composition and glucose metabolism in hypertensive middle-aged males. Acta Med Scand 1976:200:163-169.
17. Singer P, Godicke W, Voight S, Ilajdu I, Weiss M: Postprandial hyperinsulinemia in patients with mild essential hypertension. Hypertension 1985:7:182-186.
18. Fuh MM-T, Shieh S-M, Wu D-A, Chen Y-DI, Reaven GM: Abnormalities of carbohydrate and lipid metabolism in patients with hypertension. Arch Intern Med 1987:147:1035-1038.
19. Marigliano A, Tedde R, Sechi LA, Pala A, Risanu G, Pacifico A: Insulinemia and blood pressure: relationships in patients with primary and secondary hypertension, and with or without glucose metabolism impairment. Am J Hypcrtcns 1990:3:521-526.
20. Landin K, Lindgarde F, Saltin B, Smith U: The skeletal muscle Na:K ratio is not increased in hypertension: evidence for the importance of obesity and glucose intolerance. J Hypertens 1991:9:65-69.
21. Donatelli M, Searpinato A, Bucalo ML, Russo V, Iraci T, Vassallo G: Stepwise increase in plasma insulin and C-peptidc concentrations in obese, obese hypertensive and in obese hypertensive diabetic subjects. Diabetes Res 1991:17: 125-129.
22. Salvatorre T, Cozzolino D, Giunla R, Giugliano D, Torella R. D'Onofrio F: Decreased insulin clearance as a feature of essential hypertension. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1992;74:144-149.
23. Sechi LA, Melis A, Pala A, Marigliano A, Sechi G, Tedde R: Serum insulin, insulin sensitivity and erythrocyte sodium metabolism in normo-tensive and essential hypertensive subjects with or without overweight. Clin Exp Hypertens [AJ 1991:13:261-276.
24. Manicardi V, Camellini L, Bellodi G, Coscelli C, Ferrannini E: Evidence for an association of high blood pressure and hyperinsulinemia in obese men. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1986:62: 1302-1304.
25. Rose HG, Yalow RS, Schweitzer E: Insulin as a potential factor influencing blood pressure in amputees. Hypertension 1986;8:793-800.
26. Dcnker PS, Pollock VE: Fasting serum insulin levels in essential hypertension. A meta-analysis. Arch Intern Med 1992:152:1649-1651.
27. Mitchell BD, Stern MP, Hatfner SM et al: Risk factors for cardiovascular mortality in Mexican Americans and non-Hispanic whiles: the San Antonio Heart Study. Am J Epidemiol 1990: 131:423-433.
28. Mbanya JC, Thomas TH, Wilkinson R et al: Hypertension and hyperinsulinemia: a relation in diabetes but not essential hypertension. Lancet l988:i:733-734.
29. Laakso M, Sarlund H, Mykkanen L: Essential hypertension and insulin resistance in non-insulin dependent diabetes. Eur.J Clin Invest 1989; 19:519-526.
30. Haffner SM, Ferrannini E, Hazuda HP, Stern MP: Clustering of cardiovascular risk factors in confirmed prchypertensive individuals. Hypertension 1992;20:38-45.
31. Lind L, Lithell H, Gustalsson IB, Pollare T, Ljunghall S: Metabolic cardiovascular risk factors and sodium sensitivity in hypertensive subjects. Am J Hypertens 1992:5:502-505.
32. Sharma AM, Schorr U, Distler A: Insulin resistance in young salt-sensitive normotensive subjects. Hypertension 1993:21:273-279.
33. Reisin E: Sodium and obesity in the pathogenesis of hypertension. Am J Hypertens 1990:3: 164-167.
34. Fagan BM, Stepniakowski K, Nazzaro P: Insulin levels are similar in obese salt-sensitive and salt-resistant hypertensive subjects. Hypertension 1994:23(suppl. I):11-7.
35. Donovan DS, Solomon CG, Seely EW. Williams GH. Simonson DC: Effect of sodium intake on insulin sensitivity. Am J Physiol 1993:264: E730-E734.
36. Ferrari P, Weidman P, Shaw S, Giachino D, Riescn W, Allemann Y, Heynen G: Altered insulin sensitivity, hyperinsulinemia. and dyslipide-mia in individuals with a hypertensive parent. Am J Med 1991:91:589-596.
37. Widgren BR, Herlitz H, Wikstrand J, Sjoslrom L, Berglund G. Andersson OK: Increased waist/ hip ratio, metabolic disturbances, and family history of hypertension. Hypertension 1992:20: 563-568.
38. Neutel JM, Smith DH, Graettinger WF, Winer RL, Weber MA: Metabolic characteristics of hypertension: importance of positive family history. Am Heart J 1993:126:924-929.
39. Facchini F, Chen YD, Clinkingbeard C, Jep-pesen J, Reaven GM: Insulin resistance, hypcrin-sulincmia. and dyslipidemia in nonobcse individuals with a family history of hypertension. Am J Hypertens 1992;5:94-99.
40. Ishibashi F: Higher serum insulin level due to greater total body fat mass in offspring of patients with essential hypertension. Diabetes Res Clin Pracl 1993:20:63-68.
41. Beatty OL, Harper R, Sheridan B et al: Insulin resistance in offspring of hypertensive parents. BMJ 1993:307:92-96.
42. Ohno Y, Suzuki H, Yantakawa H, Nakamura M, Otsuka K, Saruta T: Impaired insulin sensitivity in young, lean normolensive offspring of essential hypertensives: possible role of disturbed calcium metabolism. J Hypertens 1993; 11:421-426.
43. Grunfeld B, Balzarcti M, Romo M, Giminez M, Gutman R: Hyperinsulinentia in normotensive offspring of hypertensive subjects. Hypertension 1994:23(Suppl. I):112-115.
44. Wing RR, Mathews KA, Kuller LH, Smith D, Becker D, Plantinga PL, Meilahn EN: Environmental and familial contributions to insulin levels and change in insulin levels in middle-aged women. JAMA 1992:2681:1890-1895.
45. Weisser B, Grunc S, Spuhler T, Kistler T, Vetter W: Plasma insulin is correlated with blood pressure only in subjects with a family history of hypertension or diabetes. J Hypertens Suppl 1993:5:S308-S309.
46. Saad MF, Lillioja S, Nyomba BI, Castillo C, Ferraro R, DeGrcgorio M, Ravussin E, Knowler WC, Bennett PH, Howard BV, Bogardus C: Racial differences in the relation between blood pressure and insulin resistance. N Engl J Med 1991:324:733-739.
47. Burke GL, Webber LS, Srinvasan ST, Radha-krishnamurthy B, Freedman DS, Berenson GS: Fasting plasma glucose and insulin levels and their relationship to cardiovascular risk factors in children: Bogalusa Heart Study. Metabolism 1986:35:441-446.
48. Cruikshank JK, Cooper J, Burnett M, MacDuff J, Drubra U: Ethnic differences in fasting plasma C-peptide and insulin in relation to glucose tolerance and blood pressure. Lancet 1991: 338:842-847.
49. Haffncr SM, Mitchell BD, Stern MP et al: Decreased prevalence of hypertension in Mexican Americans. Hypertension 1990:16:225-232.
50. Falkner B, Hulman S, Tannenbaum J, Kushner H: Insulin resistance and blood pressure in young black men. Hypertension 1990:16:706-711.
51. Dowse GK, Collins VR, Alberti KG, Zimmct PZ, Tuomilehlo J, Chitson P, Garecboo H: Insulin and blood pressure levels are not independently related in Mauritians of Asian Indian, Creole or Chinese origin. The Mauritius Non-communicable Disease Study Group. J Hypertens 1993:11:297-307.
52. Knight TM, Smith Z, Whittles A, Sahota P, Lockton JA, Hogg G, Bedford A, Toop M, Ker-nohan EE, Baker MR: Insulin resistance, diabetes. and risk markers for ischemic heart disease in Asian men and non-Asian in Bradford. Br Heart J 1992;67:343-350.
53. Haffner SM, Stern MP, Dunn J et al: Diminished insulin sensitivity and insulin response in non-obese. non-diabetic Mexican Americans. Metabolism 1990;39:842-847.
54. Haffner SM: Insulin and blood pressure: fact or fantasy. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1993:76: 541-543.
55. HafTner SM, Valdez R, Morales PA, Mitchell BD, Hazuda HP, Stern MP: Greater effect of glycemia on incidence of hypertension in women than in men. Diabetes Care 1992:15:1277- 1284.
56. McKcigue PM, Laws A, Chen YD, Marmot MG, Reaven GM: Relation of plasma triglyceride and ApoB levels to insulin-mediated suppression of nonesterified fatty acids. Artcrioscler Thromb 1993:13:1187-1192.
57. Falkner B, Hulman S, Kushner H: Insulin-stimulated glucose utilization and borderline hypertension in young adult blacks. Hypertension 1993:22:18-25.
58. Os I, Kjcldsen SE, Nordby G, Eide I, Lande K, Hjermann I, Westheim A: Sex dilferences in essential hypertension. J Intern Med 1993:23 313-19.
59. Cigolini M, Seidell JC, Charzewska J et al: Fasting scrum insulin in relation to fat distribution, serum lipid profile, and blood pressure in European woman: the European Fat Distribution Study. Metabolism 1991:40:781-787.
60. Baba T, Kodama T, Tomiyama T, Fujila N, Takebe K: Hyperinsulinemia and blood pressure in non-obese middle-aged subjects with normal glucose tolerance. Tohuku J Exp Med 1991;165:229-235.
61. Collins VR, Dowse GK, Finch CF, Zimmel PZ: An inconsistent relationship between insulin and blood pressure in three Pacific Island populations. J Clin Epidemiol 43; 1369-1378.
62. Moller DE, Flier JS: Insulin-resistance mechanisms, syndromes and implications. N Engl J Med 1991;32S:938-948.
63. Moller DE, Flier JS: Detection of an alteration in the insulin receptor gene in a patient with insulin resistance, acanthosis nigricans and polycystic ovary syndrome (type A insulin resistance). N Engl J Med 1988:379:1526-1529.
64. Bell GL, Kayano T, Buse JB et al: Molecular biology of mammalian glucose transporters. Diabetes Care 1990:13:198-208.
65. Bergman RN, Beard J, Chen M: The minimal modeling method. Assessment of insulin sensitivity and B-ceil function in vivo, in Lamer J. Pohl S (eds): Methods in Clinical Diabetes Research. New York. Wiley International. 1986. pp 13-20.
66. Bonora E, Bonadonna RC, Del Prato S, Gulli G, Solini A, Matsuda M, DeFronzo RA: In vivo glucose metabolism in obese and type II diabetic subjects with or without hypertension. Diabetes 1993:42:764-772.
67. Lind L, Lithell H, Pollare T: Is it hyperinsulinemia or insulin resistance that is related to hypertension and other metabolic cardiovascular risk factors? J Hypertens Suppl 1993:11 :S 11-S16.
68. Giugliano D, Qualraro A, Minei A, De Rosa N, Coppola L, D'onofrio F: Hyperinsulinemia in hypertension: increased secretion, reduced clearance or both? J Endocrinol Invest 1993:16: 315-321.
69. Lillioja S, Young A A, Culler CL, Ivy JL, Abbott WG, Zawadzki JK, Yki-Jarvinen H, Christin L, Seeomb TW, Bogardus C: Skeletal muscle capillary density and fiber type are possible determinants of in vivo insulin resistance in man. J Clin Invest 1987:80:415-424.
70. Holmag A, Brezinska Z, Bjornlorp P: Effects of hyperinsulinemia on muscle fiber composition and capitalization in rats. Diabetes 1993;42: 1073-1081.
71. Baron AD, Laakso M, Brechtei G, Hit B, Walt C, Edelman SV: Reduced postprandial skeletal muscle blood flow contributes to glucose intolerance in human obesity. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1990:70:1525-1533.
72. Julius S, Gudbrandsson T: Early association of sympathetic overactivity, hypertension, insulin resistance, and coronary risk. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol l992:20(Suppl. 8):S40-S48.
73. Julius S, Gudbrandsson T, Jamerson K, Anderson O: The interconnection between sympa-thetics, microcirculation, and insulin resistance in hypertension Blood Press 1992:1:9-19.
74. Supiano MA, Hogikyan RV, Morrow LA, Ortiz-Alonso FJ, Herman WH, Bergman RN, Halter JB: Hypertension and insulin resistance: role of sympathetic nervous system activity. Am J Physiol 1992:263: E935-942.
75. Scchi LA, Melis A, Tedde R: Insulin hypersecretion: a distinctive feature between essential and secondary hypertension. Metabolism 1992;41: 1261-1266.
76. Reaven GM, Ho H: Renal vascular hypertension does not lead to hyperinsulinemia in Sprague-Dawley rats. Am J Hypertens 1992:5: 314-317.
77. Leighton B, Cooper GJS: Pancreaticamylin and calcitonin gene-related peptide cause resistance to insulin in skeletal muscle in vitro. Nature 1988:335:632-635.
78. Kautzky-Wilier AK, Thomascth K, Pacini G, Clodi M, Ludvik B, Streli C, Waldhausl W. Prager R: Role of islet amyloid polypeptide secretion in insulin-resistant humans. Diabetolo-gia 1994:37:188-194.
79. DeFronzo RA, Cooke CR, Andres R, Faloona GR, Davis PJ: The elfects of insulin on renal handling of sodium, potassium, calcium and phosphate in man. J Clin Invest 1975:55:845-855.
80. Skott P, Hother-Nielsen O, Brunn NE. Giesc J, Nielsen MD, Beck-Nielsen H, Parsing H-H: Effect of insulin on kidney function and sodium excretion in healthy subjects. Diabetologia 1989: 32:694-699.
81. Gans ROB, Toorn L, Bilo HJG, Nauta JJP, Heine RJ, Donker AMJ: Renal and cardiovascular effects of exogenous insulin in healthy volunteers. Clin Sei 1991;80:219-225.
82. DeFronzo RA. Goldberg M. Agus ZS: The effects of glucose and insulin on renal electrolyte transport. J Clin Invest 1976:58:83-90.
83. Kirchner KA: Insulin increases loop segment chloride reabsorption in the euglycentic rat. Am J Physiol 1988:F1206-FI213.
84. Baum M: Insulin stimulates volume absorption in the proximal convoluted tubule. J Clin Invest 1987:79:1104-1109.
85. Briffeuil P, Thu TH, Kolanowski J: Reappraisal of the role of insulin on sodium handling by the kidney: effect of intrarcnal insulin infusion m the dog. Eur J Clin Invest 1992:22:523 -528.
86. Ferri C, DeMaltia G, Belllini C, lauremi O, Bravi C, Baldoncini R, Bonavita MS, Santucci A, Balsano F: Octreotide, a somatostatin analog. reduced insulin secretion and increases renal Na ' excretion in lean essential hypertensive patients. Am J Hyperions l993:6(Suppl. 4): 276-281.
87. Hall JF, Coleman TG, Mizelle III, Smith MI: Chronic hyperinsulinemia and blood pressure regulation'Am J Physiol I990:258:F722-F73I.
88. Mogensen CE, Christensen NJ, Gunderson HJG: The acute effect of insulin on renal hemodynamics and protein excretion in diabetics. Di-abetologia 1978:15:153-157.
89. Christiansen JS, Frandsen M, Parsing HI: The effect of intravenous insulin infusion on kidney function in insulin-dependent diabetes mcllitus. Diabctologia 1981:20:199-204.
90. Rocchini AP, Katch V, Kreselis D, Moorehead C, Martin M, Lampman R, Gregory M: Insulin and renal sodium retention in obese adolescents. Hypertension 1989; 14:367-384.
91. O'Hare JA, Corral RJM: Dc nalrio diabeticorum: increased exchangeable sodium in diabetes. Diabct Med 1988:5:22-26.
92. Friedberg CE, Koomans HA, Bijlsma JA, Ra-bclink TJ, Dorhout Mees EJ: Sodium retention; by insulin may depend on decreased plasma potassium. Metabolism 1991:40:201-204.
93. Viberti GC: Introduction to a structural basis for renal and vascular complications in diabetes and hypertension. J Hypertens Suppl 1992:10: SI-S4.
94. Corrv DB, Tuck ML: Hypertension and diabetes Semin Nephrol 1991:11:561-570.
95. O’Harc JA, Minaker KL, Mencilly GS, Rowe JW, Pallotta JA, Young JB: Effect of insulin on plasma norepinephrine and 3,4-dihydroxyphe-nylalanine in obese men. Metabolism 1989:38: 322-329.
96. Tuck ML: Obesity, the sympathetic nervous system and essential hypertension. Hypertension 1992:19(Suppl. l):167-177.
97. Anderson E, Sinkey CA, Lawton WJ, Mark AL: Elevated sympathetic nerve activity in borderline hypertensive humans: evidence from direct intraneuronal recordings. Hypertension 1989: 14:177-183.
98. Berne C, Fagius J, Pollare T, Hjcmdahl P: The sympathetic response to euglycentic hyperinsulinemia. Evidence from microelectrode nerve recordings in healthy subject. Diabctologia 1992: 35:873-879.
99. Anderson EA, Balon TW, Hoffman RP, Sinkey CA, Mark AL: Insulin increases sympathetic activity but not blood pressure in borderline hypertensive humans. Hypertension 1992:19: 621-627.
100. Lembo G, Napoli R, Capaldo B, Rendina V, Laccarino G, Volpe M, Trimarco B, Sacca L: Abnormal sympathetic overactivity evoked by insulin in the skeletal muscle of patients with essential hypertension. J Clin Invest 1992:90: 24-29.
101. Page M, Watkins PJ: Provocation of postural hypotension by insulin in diabetic autonomic neuropathy. Diabetes 1976:25:90-95.
102. Mitrakou A, Mokan M, Bolli G, Veneman T, Jenssen T, Crycr P, Gerisch J: Evidence against the hypothesis that hyperinsulinemia increases sympathetic nervous system activity in man. Metabolism 1992:41:198-201.
103. Rosie NK, Srandaert ML, Polict RJ: The mechanism of insulin stimulation of Na'/K ATPase activity in muscle. J Biol Client 1985: 260:6202-6212.
104. Tirupattur PR, Ram JL, Standlcy PR. Sowers JR: Regulation of Na'.K'-ATPase gene expression by insulin in vascular smooth muscle cells. Am J Hypertens 1993:6:626-629.
105. Pontremoli R, Zerbini G, Rivera A, Canessa M: Insulin activation of red blood cell Na*/ H exchange decreases the affinity of sodium sites. Kidney Ini 1994:46:365-375.
106. Fidelman ML, Seeholzer SH, Walsh KB, Moore RD: Intracellular pH mediates action of insulin on glycolysis in frog skeletal muscle Am J Physiol 1982;242:C87-C93.
107. Mahnensmith RL, Aronson PS: The plasma membrane sodium hydrogen exchanger and its role in physiological and pathophysiological processes. Circ Res 1985:56:773-788.
108. Aviv A: The roles of cell C'a’", protein kinase C and the Na'” II' antiport in the development of hypertension and insulin resistance. J Am Soc Nephrol 1992:3:1049-1063.
109. Herman WH, Prior DE, Yassine MD, Weder AB: Nephropathy in NIDDM is associated with cellular markers for hypertension. Diabetes Care 1993;16:815-818
110. Canessa M, Falkner B, Hulman S: Red blood cell sodium proton exchange in hypertensive blacks with insulin-resistant glucose disposal. Hypertension 1993:22:204-213.
111. Mattiasson I, Bernlorp K, Lindgardc F: Sodium lithium countertransport and platelet cytosolic free calcium concentration in relation to peripheral insulin sensitivity in postmenopausal woman. Clin Sci 1992:83:319 324.
112. Blaustein MP: Sodium ions, calcium ions, blood pressure regulation and hypertension: A reassessment and a hypothesis. Am J Physiol 1977;232:C165-CI73.
113. Draznin B, Kao M, Sussman KE: Insulin and glyburide increase cytosolic free V' concentrations in isolated rat adipocytes. Diabetes 1987:36:174-178.
114. Laakso M, Edelman SV, Brechtel G. Baron AD: Decreased effect of insulin to stimulate skeletal muscle blood flow in obese man. A novel mechanism for insulin resistance. J Clin Invest 1990:85:1844-1852.
115. Baron AD, Steinberg H, Brechtel G. Johnson A: Skeletal muscle blood flow independently modulates insulin-mediated glucose uptake. Am J Physiol I994;226:E234-E253.
116. Baron AD, Brechtel G: Insulin differentially regulates systemic and skeletal muscle vascular resistance. Am J Physiol 1993:265:E61-E67.
117. Baron AD, Brechtel-Hook G, Johnson A, Hardin D: Skeletal muscle blood flow. A possible link between insulin resistance and blood pressure. Hypertension 1993:21:129-135.
118. Randin D, Vollenweider P, Tappy L, Jequier E, Nicod P, Scherrer U: Effects of adrenergic and cholinergic blockade on insulin-induced stimulation of calf blood flow' in humans. Am.J Physiol 1994:266:R809-R816.
119. Alexander WD, Oake RJ: The effect of insulin on vascular reactivity to norepinephrine. Diabetes 1977:26:61l-614.
120. Yagi S, Takata S, Hiyokawa H, Yamamoto M, Noto Y. Ikeda T. Hattori N: Effects of insulin on vasoconstrictive response to norepinephrine and angiotensin II in rabbit femoral artery and vein. Diabetes 1988:37:1064-1067.
121. Townsend RR, Yamamoto R, Nickols M, Di-Pette DJ, Nickols GA: Insulin enhances pressor responses to norepinephrine in rat mesenteric vasculature. Hypertension 1992: l9(Suppl. I):l1105-11110.
122. Sakai K, Imai/mi T, Masaki H, Takeshita A: Intra-arterial infusion of insulin attenuates va-soreactivity in human forearm. Hypertension 1993:22:67 -73.
123. Feldman RD, Bierbrier GS: Insulin-mediated vasodilation: impairment with increased blood pressure and body mass. Lancet 1993:342:707 -709.
124. Standlev PR, Zhang F, Ram JL, Zemel MB. Sowers JR: Insulin attenuates vasopressin-induced calcium transients and a voltage-dependent calcium response in rat vascular smooth muscle cells. J Clin Invest 1991:88: 1230 -1236.
125. Saito F, Hori MT, Fittingoff M, Hino T, Tuck ML: Insulin attenuates agonist-mediated calcium mobilization in cultured rat vascular smooth muscle cells. J Clin Invest 1993:92: 1161-1167.
126. Kahn AM, Seidel CL, Allen JC, Shelat H, Song T: Insulin reduces contraction and intracellular calcium concentration in vascular smooth muscle. Hypertension 1993:22:735-742.
127. Touyz RM, Tolloczko B, Schtffrin EL: Insulin attenuates agonist-evoked calcium transients in vascular smooth muscle cells. Hypertension 1994;23(Suppl. 0):125-128.
128. Anderson EA, Mark AL: The vasodilator action of insulin. Implications for the insulin hypothesis of hypertension. Hypertension 1993: 21:136-141.
129. Kitamura S, Selo S, Nagao S, Matsuo K, Aka-lioshi M., Yano K: Chronic hyperinsulinemia augments deoxycorticosterone acctate-salt hypertension. Hypertension l994;23(Suppl. I): I-16-1-19.
130. Tomiyama H, Kushiro T, Abeta H, Tagaguchi H, Kuga N, Saito F, Kobayashi F, Otsuka Y, Kanmatsuse K: Blood pressure response to hyperinsulinemia in salt-sensitive and salt-resistant rats. Hypertension 1992;20:596-600.
131. Brands MW, Hildebrandt DA, Mizzele HI, Hall JE: Hypertension during chronic hyperinsulinemia in rats is not salt-sensitive. Hypertension l992:19(Suppl. I): 183-189.
132. Pfeille B, Dutschuncit H: Effect of insulin on the growth of cultured smooth muscle cells. Diabclologia 1980:120:155-158.
133. Stolar MW: Atherosclerosis in diabetes: the role of hyperinsulinemia. Metabolism 1988:34: 51-59.
134. Stout RW: Insulin and atheroma: a 20 year perspective. Diabetes Care 1990:13:631-654.
135. The Fifth Report of the Joint National Committee on Detection. Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Pressure (JNC V). Arch Intern Med 1993:153:154-183.
136. Bengtsson C, Blohme G, Lapidus L, et al: Do antihypertensive drugs precipitate diabetes? BMJ 1984;289:1495-1497.
137. Lundgren H, Bjorkman L: Diabetes in patients with hypertension receiving pharmacological treatment. BMJ 1988:297:1512-1515.
138. Stern N, Tuck ML: Drug therapy of hypertension in diabetic patients. J Hum Hypertens 1991:5:295-305.
139. Mohler H, Bravo EL, Tarazi RC: Long-term use of beta blockers may precipitate diabetes. Am Fam Physician 1979:20:128.
140. Sleight P: Is cardioprotection important in the treatment of hypertension? Considerations for the ideal agent J Hypertens Suppl 1993:11(4): S49-S53.
141. Moser M, Hebert P., Hcnnckens CH: An overview of the mela-analyscs of the hypertension treatment trials. Arch Intern Med 1991:151: 1277-1279.
142. National High Blood Pressure Education Program Working Group Report on Hypertension in Diabetes. Hypertension 1993:23:145-158.
143. Nilsson PM, Lindholm LH, Schemen BF: Life style changes improve insulin resistance in hyperinsulinaentic subjects: a one-year intervention study of hypertensives and nornto-tensive in Dalby. J Hypertens 1992:10: 1071-1078.
144. Fagerbcrg B, Berglund A, Andersson OK. Berglund G: Weight reduction versus antihypertensive drug therapy in obese men with high blood pressure: effects upon plasma insulin levels and association with changes in blood pressure and serum lipids. J Hypertens 1992: 10:1053-1061.
145. Swislocki A: Insulin resistance and hypertension. Am J Med Sei 1990:300:104-115.
146. Pollare T, Lithell H, Berne C: A comparison of the effects of hydrochlorothiazide and Captopril on glucose and lipid metabolism in patients with hypertension. N Engl J Med 1989:321:868-873.
147. Heldcrman JH, Elahi D, Andersen DK: Prevention of the glucose intolerance of thiazide diuretics by maintenance of body potassium. Diabetes 1983:32:106 III.
148. Gurwitz JH, Bohn RL, Glynn R.I, Monase M, Mogum H. Avorn J: Antihypertensive drug therapy and the initiation of treatment for diabetes mellitus. Ann Intern Med 1993:118:273-278.
149. Ames RP The effects of antihypertensive drugs on serum lipids and lipoproteins. I. Diuretics. Drugs 1986:32:260-278.
150. Pollare T, Lithell H, Sclinus I, Berne C: Sensitivity to insulin during treatment with atenolol and metoprolol: a randomized double-blind study of the effects on carbohydrate and lipoprotein metabolism in hypertensive patients. BMJ 1989:298:1152-1157.
151. Dornhorst A, Powell SH, Pensky I: Aggravation by propranolol of hyperglycemic effect of hydrochlorothiazide in type II diabetics w ithout alteration of insulin secretion. Lancet 1985:i: 123-126.
152. Pollare T, Lithell H, Sclinus I, Berne C: Ap plication of prozasin is associated with an increase in insulin sensitivity in obese patients with hypertension. Diabclologia 1988:31:415 -420.
153. Suzuki M, Hi rose J. Asakura Y, Sato A, Kage-yanta A, Harano Y, Omae T: Insulin insensitivity in nonobese. nondiabetic essential hypertension and its improvement by an alpha l-blocker (bunazosin). Am J Hypertens 1992; 5:869-874.
154. Shieh SM, Sheu WH, Shen DC, Fuh MM, Chen YD, Reaven GM: Glucose, insulin, and lipid metabolism in doxazosin-treated patients with hypertension. Am J Hypertens 1992:5: 827-831.
155. Lehtonen A: Doxazosin effects on insulin and glucose in hypertensive patients. The Finnish Multiccnler Study Group. Am Heart J 1991; 121:1307 1311.
156. The Treatment of Mild Hypertension Research Group. The Treatment of Mild Hypertension Study: a randomized, placebo-controlled trial of a nutritional hygienic regimen along with various drug monotherapies. Arch Intern Med 1991;151:1413-1423.
157. Trost BN, Weidmann P: Effects of calcium antagonists on glucose homeostasis and serum lipids in non-diabetic and diabetic subjects: a review. J Hypertens Suppl 1987:4:981-1104.
158. Pollare T, Lithell H, Morlin C: Metabolic effects of diltiazem and atenolol: results from a randomized, double-blind study w ith parallel groups. J Hypertens 1989:7:551 559.
159. Tcntoria A, Ghilardi G., Pedroncelli A et al: Insulin secretion and glucose tolerance in noninsulin dependent diabetic patients after chronic nifedipine treatment. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 1989:36:311-313.
160. Andersson D, Rojdmark S: Improvement of glucose tolerance by verapamil in patients with non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. Acta Med Scand 1981:210:27-33.
161. Tuck ML, Bravo EL, Krakolf HR, Friedman CP, Modern Approach to the Treatment of Hypertension Study Group: Endocrine and renal effects of nifedipine gastrointestinal therapeutic system in patients with essential hypertension: results of a multiccnler trial. Am.I Hypertens 1990;3:3335-3415.
162. DeCourlcn M, Ferrari P, Bohlen L, Shaw S, Riesen W, Heynen G, Weidmann P: Lack of effect of long-term amlodipine on insulin sensitivity and plasma insulin in obese patients with essential hypertension. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 1993:44:457-462.
163. Beer NA, Jakubowicz DJ, Beer RM, Nestler JE: The calcium channel blocker amlodipine raises scrum dehydroepiandroslerone sulfate and androstenedione. but lowers serum cortisol. in insulin-resistant obese and hypertensive men. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1993:76:1464- 1469.
164. Beer NA, Jakubowicz DJ, Beer RM, Arocha IR, Nestler JE: Effects of nitrendipine on glucose tolerance and serum insulin and dchydro-epiandrosterone sulfate levels in insulin resistant obese men. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1993;76:178-183.
165. Gugliano D, Saccomanno F, Paolisso G, C'cri-ello A, Torella R, Varricchio M, D'Onofrio F: Nicardipine does not cause deterioration of glucose homeostasis in man. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 1992:43:39-45.
166. Sheu WH, Swislocki AL, Hoffman B, Chen YD, Reaven GM: Comparison of the effects of atenolol and nifedipine on glucose, insulin, and lipid metabolism in patients with hypertension. Am J Hypertens 1991:4:199-205.
167. Rett K, Jauch KW, Wicklmayr M, Dietze G, Fink E, Mehnert H: Angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors in diabetes: Experimental and human experience. Postgrad Med J 1986; 62(Suppl. l):59-64.
168. Jauch KW. Hartl W, Guenther HN, Wicklmayr M, Reil K, Dietze G: Captopril enhances insulin responsiveness of forearm muscle tissue in noninsulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. Eur J Clin Invest 1987;17:448-454.
169. Donnelly R: Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors and insulin sensitivity: metabolic effects in hypertension, diabetes, and heart failure. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol 1992:20(Suppl. 11):538-544.
170. Paolisso G, Gambradella A, Verza M, D'A-more A. Sgambato S. Varricchio M: ACE inhibition improves insulin-sensitivily in aged insulin-resistant hypertensive patients. J Hum Hypertens 1992:6:175-179.
171. Shionoiri H, Sugimoto K, Minamisawa K, Ueda S, Ehin T, Matsukawa T, Gotoh F, Ishii M: Glucose and lipid metabolism during longterm treatment with cilazapril in hypertensive patients with or without impaired glucose metabolism. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol 1990:15: 933-938.
172. Santoro D, Galvan AQ, Natali A, Ferranini E: Some metabolic aspects of essential hypertension and its treatment. Am J Med 1993:94: 325-395.
173. Ludvik B, Kueenburg E, Brunnbauer M, Schernthaner G, Prager R: The effects of rami-pril on glucose tolerance, insulin secretion, and insulin sensitivity in patients with hypertension. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol 1991:18(Suppl. 2):S157-S159.
174. Bak JE, Gerdes LU, Sorenson NS, Pederson D: Effects of perindopril on insulin sensitivity and plasma lipid profile in hypertensive noninsulin dependent diabetic patients. Am J Med 1992;92:69S-72S.
175. Bjorntorp K, Lindgarde F, Mattiasson I: Long-term effects on insulin sensitivity and sodium transport in glucose-intolerant hypertensive subjects when beta-blockade is replaced by eaptopril treatment. J Hum Hypertens 1992:6:291-298.
176. Allcmann Y, Baumann S, Jost M, Ferrari P, Shaw S, Riesen W, Weidmann P: Insulin sensitivity in normotensive subjects during angiotensin converting enzyme inhibition with fosinopril. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 1992:42:275-280.
177. Prince MJ, Stuarl CA, Padia RN, Bandi Z, Holland B: Metabolic effects of hydrochlorothiazide and enalapril during treatment of the hypertensive diabetic patient: enalapril for hypertensive diabetics. Arch Intern Med 1988: 148:2363-2368.
178. Lithell HO: Effect of antihypcrtensivc drugs on insulin, glucose, and lipid metabolism. Diabetes Care 1991:14:203-209.
179. Alkarouf J, Nalinikumari K, Corry D, Tuck M: Long-term effects of the angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitor eaptopril on metabolic control in noninsulin dependent diabetes mcllitus. Am J Hypertens 1993:6:337-343.
180. Torlone E, Britta M, Rambotti AM, Pericllo G, Santeusanio F, Brunctti P. Botli GB: Improved insulin action and glycemic control after long-term angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibition in subjects w ith arterial hypertension and type II diabetes. Diabetes Care 1993:16:1347-1355.
181. Tomiyama H, Kushiro T, Abeta H, Ishii T, Takahashi A, Furukawa L, Asagami T, Hino T, Saito F, Otsuka Y: Kinins contribute to the improvement of insulin sensitivity during treatment with angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitor. Hypertension 1994:23:450-455.
182. Ferrannini E, Galvan AQ, Santoro D, Natali A: Potassium as a link between insulin and the renin angiotcnsin-aldosterone system. J Hypertens Suppl 1992:10:S5-S10.
183. Townsend RR, DiPette DJ: Pressor doses of angiotensin II increase insulin-mediated glucose uptake in normotensive men. Am J Physiol 1993:265:E362-E366.
184. Widgren BR, Urbanavicius V, Wikstrand J, Attval S, Persson B: Low-dose angiotensin II increases glucose disposal rate during eugly-ccmic hyperinsulinemia. Am J Hypertens 1993:6:892-895.
185. Gugliano D, DeRosa N, DiMaro G, Marfella R, Acampora R, Buoninconti R, D’Onofrio F: Metformin improves glucose, lipid metabolism, and reduces blood pressure in hypertensive. obese women. Diabetes Care 1993:16: 1387-1390.
186. Kemnitz JW, Elson DF, Roccker EB, Baum ST, Bergman RN, Meglasson MD: Pioglitazonc increases insulin sensitivity, reduces blood glucose. insulin, and lipid levels, and lowers blood pressure in obese, insulin-resistant rhesus monkeys Diabetes 1994:43:204-211.
187. Bhanot S, McNeill JH, Bryer-Ash M: Vanadyl sulfate prevents fructose-induced hyperinsulinemia and hypertension in rats. Hypertension 1994:23:308-312.
188. Doria A, Fioretto P, Avogaro A, Carraro A, Moroculti A, Trevisan R, Frigato F, Crepaldi G, Viberti G, Nosadini R: Insulin resistance is associated with high sodium-lithium coun-tcrtransport in essential hypertension. Am J Physiol 1991:261: E684- E691.