Disseminated intravascular coagulation: Objective clinical and laboratory diagnosis, treatment, and assessment of therapeutic response

Seminars in Thrombosis and Hemostasis

Volumn 22, Issue 1, 1996, Pages 69-88

  Bick, Rodger L ^a,b  

^a Presbyt Comprehensive Cancer Center   (United States)

^b PRESBYTERIAN HOSPITAL OF DALLAS   (United States)

Author keywords

Defibrination syndrome; Disseminated intravascular coagulation; Hemorrhage; Sepsis; Thrombosis

Indexed keywords

ANTITHROMBIN III; ANTITHROMBOCYTIC AGENT; HEPARIN;

BLEEDING; BLOOD CLOTTING; DISSEMINATED INTRAVASCULAR CLOTTING; HUMAN; INTRAVENOUS DRUG ADMINISTRATION; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; SEPSIS; SUBCUTANEOUS DRUG ADMINISTRATION; THROMBOSIS;

EID: 0030010186     PISSN: 00946176     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1055/s-2007-998993     Document Type: Review

References (181)

1. Bick RL: Disseminated intravascular coagulation: Objective criteria for clinical and laboratory diagnosis and of therapeutic response. Clin Appl Thromb Hemostas 1:3, 1995.
2. Baker WF: Clinical aspects of disseminated intravascular coagulation: A clinician's point of view. Semin Thromb Hemostas 15:1, 1989.
3. Bick RL: Disseminated intravascular coagulation and related syndromes: A clinical review. Semin Thromb Hemostas 14:299, 1988.
4. Bick RL: Disseminated intravascular coagulation. In: Bick RL (Ed): Disorders of Thrombosis and Hemostasis: Clinical and Laboratory Practice. ASCP Press, Chicago, 1992, p 137.
5. Bick RL, WF Baker: Disseminated intravascular coagulation. Hematol Pathol 6:1, 1992.
6. Lasch HG, DL Henne, K Huth, W Sandritter: Pathophysiology, clinical manifestations, and therapy of consumptive coagulopathy. Am J Cardiol 20:381, 1967.
7. Rodriquez-Erdman F: Bleeding due to increased intravascular blood coagulation: Hemorrhagic syndromes caused by consumption of blood-clotting factors (consumption coagulopathies). N Engl J Med 273:1370, 1965.
8. Dubber AHC, GP McNicol, AS Douglas: Acquired hypofibrinogenemia: the "defibrination syndrome." A study of seven patients. Scott Med J 12:138, 1967.
9. Mersky C, AJ Johnson, GJ Kleiner, H Wohl: The defibrination syndrome: Clinical features and laboratory diagnosis. Br J Haematol 13:528, 1967.
10. Steiner PE, CC Lushbough: Maternal pulmonary embolism by amniotic fluid as a cause of shock and unexplained deaths in obstetrics. JAMA 117:1245, 1941.
11. Hafter R, H Graeff: Molecular aspects of defibrination in a reptilase-treated case of "dead-fetus syndrome." Thromb Res 7:391, 1975.
12. Steichele DF: Consumptive coagulopathy in obstetrics and gynecology. Thromb Diath Haemorrh (Suppl) 36:177, 1969.
13. Bonnar J, GP McNicol, AS Douglas: Coagulation and fibrinolytic systems in pre-eclampsia and eclampsia. Br Med J 1:12, 1971.
14. Roberts JM, WJ May: Consumption coagulopathy in severe preeclampsia. Obstet Gynecol 48:163, 1976.
15. Spivack JL, DB Sprangler, WR Bell: Defibrination after intraaminiotic injection of hypertonic saline. N Engl J Med 287:321, 1972.
16. Egeberg O: Blood coagulation and intravascular hemolysis. Scand J Clin Lab Invest 14:217, 1962.
17. Krevins JR, DP Jackson, DL Cowley, RC Hartman: The nature of the hemorrhagic disorder accompanying hemolytic transfusion reactions in man. Blood 12:834, 1957.
18. Langdell RD, EM Hedgpeth: A study of the role of hemolysis in the hemostatic defect of transfusion reactions. Thromb Diath Haemorrh 3:566, 1959.
19. Surgenor DM: Erythrocytes and blood coagulation. Thromb Diath Haemorrh 32:247, 1974.
20. Abildgaard CF, JJ Corrigan, RA Seeler, JV Simone, I Schulman: Meningiococcemia associated with intravascular coagulation. Pediatrics 40:78, 1967.
21. McKay D, G Müller-Berghaus: Therapeutic implications of disseminated intravascular coagulation. Am J Cardiol 20:392, 1967.
22. Corrigan JJ: Changes in the blood coagulation system associated with septicemia. N Engl J Med 279:851, 1968.
23. Yoshikawa T, R Tanaka, LB Guze: Infection and disseminated intravascular coagulation. Medicine 50:237, 1971.
24. Cline MJ, KL Melmon, WC Davis, HE Williams: Mechanism of endotoxin interaction with leukocytes. Br J Haematol 15:539, 1968.
25. McKay DG, SS Shapiro: Alterations in the blood coagulation system induced by bacterial endotoxin I: in vitro (generalized Schwartzman reaction). J Exp Med 107:353, 1958.
26. Cronberg S, P Skansberg, K Nivenios-Larsson: Disseminated intravascular coagulation in septicemia caused by beta-hemolytic streptococci. Thromb Res 3:405, 1973.
27. Rubenberg WL, LR Baker, JA McBride, JA Sevitt, WL Brain: Intravascular coagulation in a case of Clostridium perfringens septicemia: Treatment by exchange transfusion and heparin. Br Med J 3:271, 1967.
28. Gagel C, M Linder, G Müller-Berghaus, H Lasch: Virus infection and blood coagulation. Thromb Diath Haemorrh 23:1, 1970.
29. McKay DG, W Margaretten: Disseminated intravascular coagulation in virus diseases. Arch Intern Med 120:129, 1967.
30. Salmon SJ, PH Lambert, J Louis: Pathogenesis of the intravascular coagulation syndrome induced by immunological reactions. Thromb Diath Haemorrh 45:161, 1971.
31. Bick RL: Hemostasis in malignancy. In: Bick RL (Ed): Disorders of Thrombosis and Hemostasis: Clinical and Laboratory Practice. ASCP Press, Chicago, 1992, p 239.
32. Bick RL: Coagulation abnormalities in malignancy. Semin Thromb Hemostas 18:353, 1992.
33. Bick RL: Alterations of hemostasis in malignancy. In: Bick RL, JM Bennett, RK Brynes (Eds.), Hematology: Clinical and Laboratory Practice. Mosby, Saint Louis, 1993, p 1583.
34. Brown RC, D Campbell, J Thompson: Increased fibrinolysis with malignant disease. Arch Intern Med 109:128, 1962.
35. Silverstein MH: Agnogenic Myeloid Metaplasia. Publishing Sciences Group, Acton, MA. 1975, p 10.
36. Mersky C: Altered blood coagulability in patients with malignant tumors. Ann NY Acad Sci 23:289, 1974.
37. Hartman RC, DE Jenkins: Paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobin-uria: Current concepts of certain pathophysiological features. Blood 25:850, 1965.
38. Holder LA, LL Malin, CL Fox: Hypercoagulability after thermal injuries. Surgery 54:316, 1963.
39. Saliba MJ, WL Demsey, JL Kniggel: Large burns in humans: Treatment with heparin. JAMA 225:261, 1973.
40. Al-Mondhiry H: Disseminated intravascular coagulation: Experience in a major cancer center. Thromb Diath Haemorrh 34:181, 1975.
41. Aoki N, M Moroi, M Matsuda: The behavior of alpha-2-plasmin inhibitor in fibrinolytic states. J Clin Invest 60:361, 1977.
42. Olson JD, H Kaufman, J Moake, K Hoots, K Wagner, C Brown, P Gildenberg: The incidence and significance of hemostatic abnormalities in patients with head injuries. Neurosurgery 24:825, 1989.
43. Touho H, K Hirakawa, A Hino, J Karasawa, Y Ohno: Relationship between abnormalities of coagulation and fibrinolysis and postoperative intracranial hemorrhage in head injury. Neurosurgery 19:523, 1986.
44. Bick RL: Hereditary hemorrhagic telangiectasia and disseminated intravascular coagulation: A new clinical syndrome. Ann NY Acad Sci 370:851, 1981.
45. Inceman S, Y Tangun: Chronic defibrination syndrome due to a giant hemangioma associated with microangiopathic hemolytic anemia. Am J Med 46:997, 1969.
46. Kasabach HH, KK Merritt: Capillary hemangioma with extensive purpura - report of a case. Am J Dis Child 59:1063, 1940.
47. Kazmier FJ, P Didisheim, VK Fairbanks, J Ludwig, WS Payne, EJW Bowie: Intravascular coagulation and arterial disease. Thromb Diath Haemorrh (Suppl) 36:295, 1969.
48. Schnetzer GW, JA Penner: Chronic intravascular coagulation syndrome associated with atherosclerotic aortic aneurysm. South Med J 66:264, 1973.
49. Owen CA, EJW Bowie: Chronic intravascular coagulation fibrinolysis (ICF) syndromes (DIC). Semin Thromb Hemostas 3:268, 1977.
50. Bick RL, N Tse: Hemostasis abnormalities associated with prosthetic devices and organ transplantation. Lab Med 23:462, 1992.
51. Bick RL: Alterations of hemostasis associated with surgery, cardiopulmonary bypass surgery, and prosthetic devices. In: Ratnoff OD, C Forbes (Eds): Disorders of Hemostasis. Saunders, Philadelphia, 1991, p 382.
52. Bick RL: Disseminated intravascular coagulation. Hematol Oncol Clin North Am 6:1259, 1992.
53. Müller-Berghaus G: Pathophysiologic and biochemical events in disseminated intravascular coagulation: Dysregulation of procoagulant and anticoagulant pathways. Semin Thromb Hemostas 15:58, 1989.
54. McKay DG, W Margaretten, I Csavossy: An electron microscope study of the effects of bacterial endotoxin on the blood-vascular system. Lab Invest 15:1815, 1966.
55. Owen CA, EJW Bowie, HA Cooper: Turnover of fibrinogen and platelets in dogs undergoing induced intravascular coagulation. Thromb Res 2:251, 1973.
56. Latallo ZS: Products of fibrin(ogen) proteolysis. Thromb Diath Haemorrh (Suppl) 24:145, 1973.
57. Marder VJ, HR Shulman, WR Carroll: High molecular weight derivatives of human fibrinogen produced by plasmin. I. Physicochemical and immunological characterization. J Biol Chem 244: 2111, 1969.
58. 2-terminal amino disulfide knot." J Biol Chem 247:4775, 1972.
59. Bang NU, M Chang: Soluble fibrin complexes. Semin Thromb Hemostas 1:91, 1974.
60. Breen FA, JZ Tullis: Ethanol gelation, a rapid screening test for intravascular coagulation. Ann Intern Med 69:111, 1968.
61. Fletcher AP, N Alkjaersig, S Fisher, S Sherry: The proteolysis of fibrinogen by plasmin: The identification of thrombin-clottable fibrinogen derivatives which polymerize abnormally. J Lab Clin Med 68:780, 1966.
62. Gurewich V, E Hutchinson: Detection of intravascular coagulation by protamine sulfate and ethanol gelation tests. Thromb Res 2:539, 1973.
63. Bick RL: The clinical significance of fibrinogen degradation products. Semin Thromb Hemostas 8:302, 1982.
64. Kopec M, Z Wegrzynowiczy, A Budzynski, Z Latallo, B Lipinski, E Kowalski: Interaction of fibrinogen degradation products with platelets. Exp Biol Med 3:73, 1968.
65. Niewiarowski S, E Regoeczi, G Stewart, A Senyi, J Mustard: Platelet interaction with polymerizing fibrin. J Clin Invest 51: 685, 1972.
66. Nilsson IM: Local fibrinolysis as a mechanism for haemorrhage. Thromb Diath Haemorrh 34:623, 1975.
67. Stormorken H: Relation of the fibrinolytic to other biological systems. Thromb Diath Haemorrh 34:378, 1975.
68. Schreiber AD, KF Austen: Interrelationships of the fibrinolytic, coagulation, kinin generation, and complement systems. Semin Hematol 6:593, 1973.
69. Kaplan A, H Meier, R Mandel: The Hageman factor dependent pathways of coagulation, fibrinolysis, and kinin generation. Semin Thromb Hemostas 3:6, 1976.
70. Bick RL, G Murano: Physiology of hemostasis. In Bick RL, JM Bennett, RK Brynes (Eds): Hematology: Clinical and Laboratory Practice. Mosby, Saint Louis, 1993, p 1285.
71. van Iwaarden F, B Bouma: Role of high molecular weight kininogen in contact activation. Semin Thromb Hemostas 13:15, 1987.
72. Beller FK, W Theiss: Fibrin derivatives, plasma hemoglobin and glomerular fibrin deposition in experimental intra-vascular coagulation. Thromb Diath Haemorrh 29:363, 1973.
73. McKay DG, MM Linder, VK Cruse: Mechanisms of thrombosis of the microcirculation. Am J Pathol 63:231, 1971.
74. Lerner RG: The defibrination syndrome. Med Clin N Am 60:871, 1976.
75. Robboy SJ, RW Coleman, JD Minna: Pathology of disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC). Analysis of 26 cases. Hum Pathol 3:327, 1972.
76. Müller-Berghaus G: Pathophysiology of generalized intravascular coagulation. Semin Thromb Hemostas 3:209, 1977.
77. Owen CA, EJW Bowie: Chronic intravascular syndromes. Mayo Clin Proc 49:673, 1974.
78. Bleyl U: Morphologic diagnosis of disseminated intravascular coagulation: Histologic, histochemical, and electron-microscopic studies. Semin Thromb Hemostas 3:247, 1977.
79. Skjorten F: Hyaline microthrombi in an autopsy material. A quantitative study with discussion of the relationship to small vessel thrombosis. Acta Pathol Microbiol Scand 76:361, 1969.
80. Morris JA, RW Smith, NS Assali: Hemodynamic action of vasopressor and vaso-depressor agents in endotoxin shock. Am J Obstet Gynecol 91:491, 1965.
81. Bleyl U, W Kuhn, H Graeff: Retikuloendotheliale clearance intravasaler. Fibrinmonomere in der Milz. Thromb Diath Haemorrh 22:87, 1969.
82. Boyd JF: Disseminated fibrin-thromboembolism among neonates dying within 48 hours of birth. Arch Dis Child 42:401, 1967.
83. Bull B, IN Kuhn: The production of schistocytes by fibrin strands (a scanning electron microscope study). Blood 35:104, 1970.
84. Heyes H, W Kohle, B Slijerpcevic: The appearance of schistocytes in the peripheral blood in correlation to degree of disseminated intravascular coagulation. Haemostasis 5:66, 1976.
85. Bull B, M Rubenberg, J Dacie, MC Brain: Microangiopathic hemolytic anemia: Mechanisms of red-cell fragmentation. Br J Haematol 14:643, 1968.
86. Slaastad RA, NC Godal: Coagulation profile and ethanol gelation test with special reference to components consumed during coagulation. Scand J Haematol 16:25, 1976.
87. Bick RL: Platelet Defects. In: Bick RL (Ed): Disorders of Hemostasis and Thrombosis: Principles of Clinical Practice. Thieme, New York, 1985, p 65.
88. Karpatkin S: Heterogeneity of human platelets. VI. Correlation of platelet function with platelet volume. Blood 51:307, 1978.
89. Eckhardt T, G Müller-Berghaus: The role of blood platelets in the precipitation of soluble fibrin endotoxin. Scand J Haematol 14: 181, 1975.
90. Blaisdell FW, RJ Stallone: The mechanism of pulmonary damage following traumatic shock. Surg Gynecol Obstet 130:15, 1970.
91. Van Breeman VL, HB Heustein, PD Bruns: Pulmonary hyaline membranes studied with the electron microscope. Am J Pathol 33:769, 1957.
92. Martin AM, HB Soloway, RL Simmons: Pathologic anatomy of the lungs following shock and trauma. J Trauma 8:687, 1968.
93. Holoway HB, Y Castillo, AM Martin: Adult hyaline membrane disease. Ann Surg 168:937, 1968.
94. Hardaway RM: Acute respiratory distress syndrome and disseminated intravascular coagulation. South Med J 71:596, 1978.
95. Hardaway RM: Syndromes of Disseminated Intravascular Coagulation With Special Reference to Shock and Hemorrhage. Charles C Thomas, Springfield, IL, 1966.
96. Müller-Bergbaus G, B Mann: Precipitation of ancrod-induced soluble fibrin by aprotinin and norepinephrine. Thromb Res 2:305, 1973.
97. Latour JG, JB Prejean, W Margaretten: Corticosteroids and the generalized Schwartzman reaction. Mechanisms of sensitization in the rabbit. Am J Pathol 65:189, 1971.
98. Bick RL, LF Fekete, WL Wilson: Treatment of disseminated intravascular coagulation with antithrombin III Trans Am Soc Hematol 1976, p. 167 (Abstr).
99. Bick RL: Clinical hemostasis practice: The major impact of laboratory automation. Semin Thromb Hemostas 9:139, 1983.
100. Fareed J: New methods in hemostatic testing. In Fareed J, HL Messmore, J Fenton, KM Brinkhous (Eds): Perspectives in Hemostasis. Pergamon Press, New York, 1981, p 310.
101. Messmore HL: Automation in coagulation testing: Clinical applications. Semin Thromb Hemostas 9:335, 1983.
102. Bick RL: Disseminated intravascular coagulation: Clinical/laboratory correlations. Am J Clin Pathol 77:244, 1982.
103. Seegers WH, E Marciniak: Autoprothrombin C in irregular blood clotting. Thromb Diath Haemorrh 8:81, 1962.
104. Marder VJ, MO Matchett, S Sherry: Detection of serum fibrinogen and fibrin degradation products: Comparison of six techniques using purified products and application in clinical studies. Am J Med 51:71, 1971.
105. Myers AR, KJ Bloch, RW Coleman: A comparative study of four methods for detecting fibrinogen degradation products in patients with various diseases. N Engl J Med 283:663, 1970.
106. Gurewich V, B Lipinsky, I Lipinska: A comparative study of precipitation and paracoagulation by protamine sulfate and ethanol gelation tests. Thromb Res 2:539, 1973.
107. Hedner U, IM Nilsson: Parallel determinations of FDP and fibrin monomers with various methods. Thromb Diath Haemorrh 28: 268, 1972.
108. Sonnabend D, D Cooper, P Fiddes, R Penny: Fibrin degradation products in thromboembolic disease. Pathology 4:47, 1972.
109. Kidder WR, LJ Logan, SI Rapaport, MJ Patch: The plasma protamine paracoagulation test: Clinical and laboratory evaluation. Am J Clin Pathol 58:675, 1972.
110. Stibbe J, M Gomes, A de Ouda: The value of the FM-test (KABI) and thrombin-antithrombin-III complexes (TAT) in the management of DIC in cancer. Thromb Haemostas 65:1238, 1989.
111. Francis CW, VJ Marder: A molecular model of plasmic degradation of cross-linked fibrin. Semin Thromb Hemostas 8:25, 1982.
112. Plow EF, TS Edgington: Surface markers of fibrinogen and its physiologic derivatives related by antibody probes. Semin Thromb Hemostas 8:36, 1982.
113. Matsumoto T, Y Nishijima, Y Teramura, K Fujino, M Hibino, M Hirata: Monoclonal antibodies to fibrinogen-fibrin degradation products which contain D-domain. Thromb Res 38:279, 1985.
114. Rylatt DB, AS Blake, LE Cottis, DA Massingham, WA Fletcher, PP Masci, AN Whitaker, M Elms, I Bunce, AJ Weber, D Wyatt, PG Bundesen: An immunoassay for human D-dimer using monoclonal antibodies. Thromb Res 31:767, 1983.
115. Bick RL, W Baker: Diagnostic efficacy of the D dimer assay in DIC and related disorders. Thromb Res 65:785, 1992.
116. Lane DA, FE Preston, ME Van Ross, VV Kakkar: Characterization of serum fibrinogen and fibrin fragments produced during disseminated intravascular coagulation. Br J Haematol 40:609, 1978.
117. Elms MJ, IH Bunce, PG Bundesen, DB Rylatt, AJ Webber, PP Masci, AN Whitaker: Measurement of cross-linked fibrin degradation products - an immunoassay using monoclonal antibodies. Thromb Haemostas 50:591, 1983.
118. Ellis DR, AS Eaton, MC Plank, BT Butman, RF Ebert: A comparative evaluation of ELISA's for D-dimer and related fibrin(ogen) degradation products. Blood Coagul Fibrinolysis 4:537, 1993.
119. Murano G: The molecular structure of fibrinogen. Semin Thromb Hemostas 1:1, 1974.
120. Rosenberg JS, DL Beeler, RD Rosenberg: Activation of human prothrombin by highly purified human factors V and Xa in the presence of human antithrombin. J Biol Chem 250:1607, 1975.
121. 1+2 fragment and thrombin-antithrombin complex. Blood 59:1086, 1982.
122. Boneu B, G Bes, H Pelzer, P Sie, H Boccalon: D-dimers, thrombin-antithrombin complexes and prothrombin fragments 1+2: Diagnostic value in clinically suspected deep vein thrombosis. Thromb Haemostas 65:28, 1991.
123. Bruhn HD, J Conard, M Mannucci, J Montaegudo, H Pelzer, JC Reverter, M Samama, A Tripodi, C Wagner: Multicentric evaluation of a new assay for prothrombin fragment F 1+2 determination. Thromb Haemostas 68:413, 1992.
124. Ceriello A, R Giacomello, A Colatutto, C Taboga, F Gonano: Increased prothrombin fragment 1+2 in Type I diabetic patients. Haemostasis 22:50, 1992.
125. Demers C, JS Ginsberg, P Henderson, FA Ofosu, JI Weitz, MA Blajchman: Measurements of markers of activated coagulation in antithrombin III deficient patients. Thromb Haemostas 67:542, 1992.
126. Okamoto K, A Takaki, S Takeda, H Katoh, K Ohsato: Coagulopathy in disseminated intravascular coagulation due to abdominal sepsis: Determination of prothrombin fragment 1+2 and other markers. Haemostasis 22:17, 1992.
127. Pelzer H, A Schwarz, W Stuber: Determination of human prothrombin activation fragment 1+2 in plasma with an antibody against a synthetic peptide. Thromb Haemostas 65:153, 1991.
128. Sorensen JV, HP Jensen, HR Rahr, L Borris, MR Lassen, F Knudsen: F 1+2 and FPA in urine from patients with multiple trauma and healthy individuals: A pilot study. Thromb Res 67:429, 1992.
129. Bick RL, ML Dukes, WL Wilson, L Fekete: Antithrombin III (AT-III) as a diagnostic aid in disseminated intravascular coagulation. Thromb Res 10:721, 1977.
130. Bick RL: Clinical relevance of antithrombin III. Semin Thromb Hemostas 8:276, 1982.
131. Bick RL, BJ McClain: A clinical comparison of chromogenic, fluorometric, and natural (fibrinogen) substrates for determination of antithrombin-III. Thromb Haemostas 46:364, 1981.
132. Fareed J, HL Messmore, JM Walenga, EW Bermes, RL Bick: Laboratory evaluation of antithrombin III: A critical overview of currently available methods for antithrombin III measurements. Semin Thromb Hemostas 8:288, 1982.
133. Asakura H, M Saito, K Ito, Y Jokaji, C Uotani, I Kumabashiri, T Matsuda: Levels of thrombin-antithrombin III complex in plasma in cases of acute promyelocytic leukemia. Thromb Res 50:895, 1988.
134. Cronlund M, J Hardin, J Burton, L Lee, I Haber, KJ Bloch: Fibrinopeptide-A in plasma of normal subjects and patients with disseminated intravascular coagulation and systemic lupus erythematosus. J Clin Invest 58:142, 1976.
135. Douglas JT, M Shah, GDO Lowe, CRM Prentice: Fibrinopeptide-A and beta-thromboglobulin levels in pre-eclampsia and hypertensive pregnancy. Thromb Haemostas 46:8, 1981.
136. Bauer KA, LM Weiss, D Sparrow, PS Vokonas, RD Rosenberg: Aging-associated changes in indices of thrombin generation and protein C activation in humans. Normative aging study. J Clin Invest 80:1527, 1987.
137. Farced J, RL Bick, J Walenga, HL Messmore, EW Bermes: Clinical and experimental studies using a modified radioimmunoassay for B-beta 15-42 related peptides. Thromb Haemostas 50:300, 1983.
138. Fareed J, RL Bick, G Squillaci, J Walenga, HL Messmore, EW Bermes: Clinical and experimental utilization of a modified radioimmunoassay for B-beta 15-42 related peptides. Clin Chem 29:1161, 1983.
139. Harpel PC: Alpha-2-plasmin inhibitor and alpha-2-macroglobulin-plasmin complexes in plasma. J Clin Invest 68:46, 1981.
140. Clavin SA, JL Bobbitt, RT Shuman, EL Smithwick: Use of peptidyl-4-methoxy-2-naphthylamides to assay plasmin. Anal Biochem 80:355, 1977.
141. Triplett DA, C Harms, L Hermelin, RM Huseby, GA Mitchell, SP Pochron: Clinical studies of the use of fluorogenic substrate assay method for the determination of plasminogen. Thromb Hemostas 42:50, 1979.
142. Kowalski E, M Kopec, S Niewiarowski: An evaluation of the euglobulin method for the determination of fibrinolysis. J Clin Pathol 12:215, 1959.
143. Menon IS: A study of the possible correlation of euglobulin lysis time and dilute blood clot lysis time in the determination of fibrinolytic activity. Lab Pract 17:334, 1968.
144. Collen P: Identification and some properties of a new fast-acting plasmin inhibitor in human plasma. Eur J Biochem 69:209, 1976.
145. Harpel PC, MW Mosesson, NR Cooper: Studies on the structure and function of alpha-2-macroglobulin and C1 inactivator. In Reich E, DB Rifkin, E Shaw (Eds): Proteases and Biological Control. Cold Spring Harbor Symp., Cold Spring Harbor, NY, 1975, p 387.
146. Takahashi H, T Koike, N Yoshida, O Kitahara, M Hanono, A Hibata, N Aoki: Excessive fibrinolysis in suspected amyloidosis: Demonstration of plasmin-alpha-2 plasmin inhibitor complex and von Willebrand factor fragment in plasma. Am J Hematol 23:153, 1986.
147. Wiman B, L Jacobsson, M Andersson, G Mellbring: Determination of plasmin-alpha-2-plasmin inhibitor complex in plasma samples by means of a radioimmunoassay. Scand J Clin Lab Invest 43:27, 1983.
148. Takahashi H, M Hanano, S Takizawa, W Tatewaki, A Shibata: Plasmin-alpha-2-plasmin inhibitor complex in plasma of patients with disseminated intravascular coagulation. Am J Hematol 28:162, 1988.
149. Matsuda T, T Seki, M Ogawara, R Miura, M Yokouchi, M Murakami: Comparison between plasma levels of B-thromboglobulin and platelet factor 4 in various disease. Thromb Haemostas 42:288, 1979.
150. Zahavi J, VV Kakkar: B-thromboglobulin-a specific marker of in vivo platelet release reaction. Thromb Haemostas 44:23, 1980.
151. Kwaan HC: Disseminated intravascular coagulation. Med Clin N Am 56:177, 1972.
152. Bick RL: Disseminated intravascular coagulation: Objective criteria for diagnosis and management. Med Clin N Am 78:511, 1994.
153. Bick RL: Clinical implications of molecular markers in hemostasis and thrombosis. Semin Thromb Hemostas 10:252, 1984.
154. Feinstein DI: Treatment of disseminated intravascular coagulation. Semin Thromb Hemostas 14:351, 1988.
155. Heene DL: Blood coagulation mechanism and endotoxins: Hemostatic defect in septic shock. In: Urbaschek B (Ed): Gram-Negative Bacterial Infections and Mode of Endotoxin Actions. Springer-Verlag, Vienna, 1975, p 367.
156. Leroy J, JD Lamagnere, C Mercier: La coagulopathic de consommation au cours des purpuras fulminans et son traitment (10 observations). Sem Hop Paris 50:843, 1974.
157. Lo SS, WH Hitzig, PG Frick: Clinical experience with anticoagulant therapy in the management of disseminated intravascular coagulation in children. Acta Haematol 45:1, 1971.
158. Corrigan JJ, CM Jordan: Heparin therapy in septicemia with disseminated intravascular coagulation. Effect on mortality and correction of hemostatic defects. N Engl J Med 283:778, 1970.
159. Good RA, L Thomas: Studies on the generalized Schwartzman reaction: Prevention of the local and generalized Schwartzman reactions with heparin. J Exp Med 97:871, 1953.
160. Heene DL: Disseminated intravascular coagulation: Evaluation of therapeutic approaches. Semin Thromb Hemostas 3:291, 1977.
161. Bick RL: Disseminated intravascular coagulation: A clinical/laboratory study of 48 patients. Ann NY Acad Sci 370:843, 1981.
162. Kuhn W, H Graef: Gerinnungsstörungen in der Geburtshilfe. Thieme Verlag, Stuttgart, 1977, p. 90.
163. Minna JD, S Robboy, RW Coleman: Clinical approach to a patient with suspected DIC. In Minna JD, S Robboy, RW Coleman (Eds): Disseminated Intravascular Coagulation. Charles C. Thomas, Springfield, IL, 1974, p 167.
164. Thaler E, K Lechner: Antithrombin III deficiency and thromboembolism. Clin Haematol 10:369, 1981.
165. Bentley PG, VV Kakkar, MF Scully, IR MacGregor, P Webb, P Chan: An objective study of alternative methods of heparin administration. Thromb Res 18:177, 1980.
166. Jaques LB: The premises involved in the clinical use of heparin. Semin Thromb Hemostas 4:275, 1978.
167. Vinazzer HA: Antithrombin III in shock and disseminated intravascular coagulation. Clin Appl Thromb Hemostas 1:62, 1995.
168. Fourrier F, C Chopin, J Huart, I Runge, C Caron, J Goudemand: Double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of antithrombin III concentrates in septic shock with disseminated intravascular coagulation. Chest 104:882, 1993.
169. Talbot M: Biology of recombinant hirudin (CGP 39393): A new prospect in the treatment of thrombosis. Semin Thromb Hemostas 15:293, 1989.
170. Niada R, R Prota, R Pescador, M Mantovani, G Prino: Thrombolytic activity of Defibrotide against old venous thrombi. Semin Thromb Hemostas 15:474, 1989.
171. Ulutin OH: Clinical effectiveness of Defibrotide in vaso-occlusive disorders and its mode of action. Semin Thromb Hemostas 14:58, 1988.
172. Umeki S, M Adachi, M Watanabe, S Yaji, R Soejima: Gabexate as a therapy for disseminated intravascular coagulation. Arch Intern Med 148:1409, 1988.
173. Bick RL, WR Schmalhorst, LF Fekete: Disseminated intravascular coagulation and blood component therapy. Transfusion 16: 361, 1976.
174. Avvisati G, HR Büller, JW ten Cate, F Mandelli: Tranexamic acid for control of haemorrhage in acute promyelocytic leukemia. Lancet 2:122, 1989.
175. Schwartz BS, EC Williams, MG Conlan, D Mosher: Epsilon-aminocaproic acid in the treatment of acute promyelocytic leukemia and acquired alpha-2-plasmin inhibitor deficiency. Ann Intern Med 105:873, 1986.
176. Gralnick HR, P Greipp: Thrombosis with epsilon-amino-caproic acid therapy. Am J Clin Pathol 56:151, 1971.
177. McNicol GP, AS Douglas: Thrombolytic therapy and fibrinolytic inhibitors. In: Human Blood Coagulation, Haemostasis, and Thrombosis. Oxford University Press, London, 1972, p 393.
178. Ratnoff OD: Epsilon aminocaproic acid: A dangerous weapon. N Engl J Med 280:1124, 1969.
179. Patterson WP, QS Ringenberg: The pathophysiology of thrombosis in cancer. Semin Oncol 17:140, 1990.
180. Bick RL: Alterations of hemostasis in malignancy. In: Bick RL (Ed): Disorders of Hemostasis and Thrombosis: Principles of Clinical Practice. Thieme, New York, 1985, p 262.
181. Goodnight SH: Bleeding and intravascular clotting in malignancy: A review. Ann NY Acad Sci 230:271, 1974.