Inflammation in EAE: Role of chemokine/cytokine expression by resident and infiltrating cells

Neurochemical Research

Volumn 21, Issue 4, 1996, Pages 511-525

  Eng, Lawrence F ^a,b   Ghirnikar, Roopa S ^b   Lee, Yuen Ling ^a,b  

^a VA PALO ALTO HEALTH CARE SYSTEM   (United States)

^b STANFORD UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

Author keywords

astrocytes; chemokines; cytokines; demyelination; EAE; inflammation

Indexed keywords

ANTISENSE OLIGONUCLEOTIDE; BETA INTERFERON; CHEMOKINE; CYTOKINE; GAMMA INTERFERON; GLIAL FIBRILLARY ACIDIC PROTEIN; GROWTH FACTOR; INTERLEUKIN 10; INTERLEUKIN 1BETA; INTERLEUKIN 4; TRANSFORMING GROWTH FACTOR BETA; TUMOR NECROSIS FACTOR ALPHA;

ALLERGIC ENCEPHALOMYELITIS; ANTIGEN PRESENTING CELL; ASTROCYTE; CELL INFILTRATION; DEMYELINATING DISEASE; HISTOPATHOLOGY; IMMUNOCOMPETENT CELL; INFLAMMATION; MICROGLIA; MULTIPLE SCLEROSIS; NONHUMAN; PATHOGENESIS; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROTEIN EXPRESSION; SHORT SURVEY;

ANIMALS; ASTROCYTES; BASE SEQUENCE; CHEMOKINES; CYTOKINES; ENCEPHALOMYELITIS, AUTOIMMUNE, EXPERIMENTAL; ENDOTHELIUM, VASCULAR; GENE EXPRESSION; GROWTH SUBSTANCES; LYMPHOCYTES; MACROPHAGES; MICROGLIA; MONOCYTES; MULTIPLE SCLEROSIS; OLIGODENDROGLIA; RNA, MESSENGER;

EID: 0030008758     PISSN: 03643190     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/BF02527717     Document Type: Short Survey

References (133)

1. Williams, K. C., Ulvestad, E., and Hickey, W. F. 1994. Immunology of multiple sclerosis. Clinical Neurosci. 2:229-245.
2. Trapp, B. D., and Bo, L. 1995. Cellular mechanisms of demyelination in multiple sclerosis brains. J. Neurochem. 64 Suppl. S74A.
3. Waksman, B. H. and Reynolds, W. E. 1984. Multiple sclerosis as a disease of immune regulation (41798). Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 175:282-294.
4. Raine, C. S. 1994. The Dale E. McFarlin Memorial Lecture: the immunology of the multiple sclerosis lesion. Ann. Neurol. 36 (Suppl):S61-S72.
5. Raine, C. S. 1994b. Multiple Sclerosis: immune system molecule expression in the central nervous system. J. Neuropathol. and Exp. Neurol. 53:328-337.
6. Ransohoff, R. M., Tuohy, V., and Lehmann, P. 1994. The immunology of multiple sclerosis: new intricacies and new insights. Current Opinion in Neurology 7:242-249.
7. Tani, M., and Ransohoff, R. M. 1994. Do chemokines mediate inflammatory cell invasion of the central nervous system parenchyma? Brain Pathol. 4:135-143.
8. Brosnan, C. F., Shafit-Zagardo, B., Aquino, D. A., and Berman, J. W. 1993. Expression of monocyte/macrophage growth factors and receptors in the central nervous system. Adv. Neurol. 59: 349-361.
9. Ransohoff, R. M., Hamilton, T. A., Tani, M., Stoler, M. H., Shick, H. E., Major, J. A., Estes, M. L., Thomas, D. M., and Tuohy, V. K.: 1993. Astrocyte expression of mRNA encoding cytokines IP-10 and JE/MCP-1 in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. FASEB J. 7:592-600.
10. Glabinski, A. R., Babcock, G. T., Aras, S., Charurvedi, P., Stoler, M. S., Tuohy, V. K., Hamilton, T. A., and Ransohoff. R. M. 1995. Astrocyte-derived chemokines and CNS inflammation. J. Neurochem. 64 Suppl. S74C.
11. Logan, A. and Berry, M. 1993. Transforming growth factor β1 and basic fibroblast growth factor in the injured CNS. TIPS 14: 337-343.
12. Lotan, M., and Schwartz, M. 1994. Cross talk between the immune system and the nervous system in response to injury: implications for regeneration. FASEB J. 8:1026-1033.
13. Kennedy, M. K., Torrance, D. S., Picha, K. S., and Mohler, K. M. 1992. Analysis of cytokine mRNA expression in the central nervous system of mice with experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis reveals that IL-10 mRNA expression correlates with recovery. J. Immunol. 149:2496-2505.
14. Van Damme, J., Rampart, M., Conings, R., Decock, B., Van Osselaer, N., Willems, J and Billiau, A. 1990. The neutrophil-activating proteins interleukin 8 and beta thromboglobulin: in vitro and in vivo comparison of NH2 terminally processed forms. European J. Immunol. 20:2113-2118.
15. Loetscher, M., Geiser, T., O'Reilly, T., Zwahlen, R., Baggiolini, M., and Moser, B. 1994. Cloning of a human seven-transmembrane domain receptor, LESTR, that is highly expressed in leukocytes. J. Biol. Chem. 269:232-237.
16. Nakagawa, H., Komorita, N., Shibata, F., Ikesue, A., Konishi, K., Fujioka, M., Kato, H. 1994. Identification of cytokine induced neutrophil chemoattractants (CINC), rat GRO/CINC-2 alpha and CINC-2 beta, produced by granulation tissue in culture: purification, complete amino acid sequences and characterization. Biochemical J. 301:545-550.
17. Wu, X., Wittwer, A. J., Carr, L. S., Crippes, B. A., DeLarco, J. E., and Lefkowith, J. B. 1994. Cytokine-induced neutrophil chemoattractant mediates neutrophil influx in immune complex glomerulonephritis in rat. J. Clinical Investigation 94:337-344.
18. Smoller, B. R. and Krueger, J. 1991. Detection of cytokine-induced protein gamma-immune protein -10 (gamma IP10) in atypical melanocytic proliferations. J. American Academy of Dermatology, 25:627-631.
19. Wilson, S. D., Billings, P. R., D'Eustachio, P., Fournier, R. E., Geissler, E., Lalley, P. A., Burd, P. R., Housman, D. E., Taylor, B. A. and Dorf, M. E. 1990. Clustering of cytokine genes on mouse chromosome 11. J. Experimental Medicine 171:1301-1314.
20. Minty, A., Chalon, P., Guillemot, J. C., Kaghad, M., Liauzun, P., Magazin, M., Miloux, B., Minty, C., Ramond, P., and Vita, N. et al. 1993. Molecular cloning of the MCP-3 chemokine gene and regulation of its expression. European Cytokine Network 4: 99-110.
21. Schmouder, R. L., Strieter, R. M., and Kunkel, S. L. 1993. Interferon gamma regulation of human renal cortical epithelial cell-derived monocyte chemotactic peptide-1. Kidney International 44:43-49.
22. Kawahara R. S., Deng, Z. W., Denkinger, D. J., and Deuel, T. F. 1994. Role of serine/threonine protein kinases in the induction of JE, a platelet derived growth factor inducible gene. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Comm. 203:1815-20.
23. Kuna, P., Reddigari, S. R., Schall, T. J., Rucinski, D., Sadick, M., and Kaplan, A. P. 1993. Characterization of the human basophil response to cytokines, growth factors, and histamine releasing factors of the intercrine/chemokine family. J. Immunol. 150:1932-43.
24. Dahinden, C. A., Geiser, T., Brunner, T., von Tschamer, V., Caput, D., Ferrara, P., Minty, A., and Baggiolini, M. 1994. Monocyte chemotactic protein 3 is a most effective basophil- and eosinophil-activating chemokine. J. Exp. Med. 179:751-756.
25. Luo, Y., Laning, J., and Dorf, M. E. 1993. Serologic analysis of a murine chemokine, TCA3. J. Immunol. 150:971-979.
26. Rathanaswami, P., Hachicha, M., Sadick, M., Schall, T. J., McColl, S. R. 1993. Expression of the cytokine RANTES in human rheumatoid synovial fibroblasts. Differential regulation of RANTES and interleukin-8 genes by inflammatory cytokines. J. Biol. Chem. 268:5834-5839.
27. Bischoff, S. C., Krieger, M., Brunner, T., Rot, A., von Tschamer, V., Baggiolini, M., and Dahinden, C. A. (1993) RANTES and related chemokines activate human basophil granulocytes through different G protein-coupled receptors. Euro. J. Immunol. 23:761-767.
28. Meurer, R., Van Riper, G., Feeney, W., Cunningham, P., Hora, D. Jr., Springer, M. S., McIntyre, D. E., and Rosen, H. 1993. Formation of eosinophilic and monocytic intradermal inflammatory sites in the dog by injection of human RANTES but not human monocyte chemoattractant protein 1, human macrophage inflammatory protein 1 alpha or human interleukin 8. J. Exp. Med. 178:1913-1921.
29. Kojima, K., Berger, T., Lassman, H., Hinze-Selch, D., Zhang, Y., Gehrmann, J., Reske, K., Wekerle, H., and Linington, C. 1994. Experimental autoimmune panencephalitis and uveoretinitis transferred to the Lewis rat by T lymphocytes specific for the S100 beta molecule, a calcium binding protein of astroglia. J. Exp. Med. 180:817-829.
30. Wekerle, H., Kojima, K., Lannes-Vieira, J., Lassmann, H. and Linington, C. 1994. Animal models. Annals of Neurology 36 Suppl:S47-53.
31. Lin, R. F., Lin, T. S., Tilton, R. G., and Cross, A. H. 1993. Nitric oxide localized to spinal cords of mice with experimental allergic encephalomyelitis: an electron paramagnetic resonance study. J. Exp. Med. 178:643-648.
32. McCombe, P. A., de Jersey, J., and Pender, M. P. 1994. Inflammatory cells, microglia and MHC class II antigen-positive cells in the spinal cord of Lewis rats with acute and chronic relapsing experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. J. Neuroimmunol. 51:153-167.
33. Shimizu, Y., Newman, W., Tanaka, Y., Shaw, S. 1992. Lymphocyte interactions with endothelial cells. Immunol. Today 13: 106-112.
34. Baron, J. L., Madri, J. A., Ruddle, N. H., Hashim, G. and Janeway, C. A. Jr. 1993. Surface expression of alpha 4 integrin by CD4 T cells is required for their entry into brain parenchyma. J. Exp. Med. 177:57-68.
35. Ohmori, K., Hong, Y., Fujiwara, M., and Matsumoto, Y. 1992. In situ demonstration of proliferating cells in the rat central nervous system during experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. Evidence suggesting that most infiltrating T cells do not proliferate in the target organ. Lab. Invest. 66:54-62.
36. Matsumoto, Y., Hanawa, H., Tsuchida, M., and Abo, T. 1993. In situ inactivation of infiltrating T cells in the central nervous system with autoimmune encephalomyelitis. The role of astrocytes. Immunology 79:381-390.
37. Weiner, H. L., Friedman, A., Miller, A., Khoury, S. J., al-Sabbagh, A., Santos, L., Sayegh, M., Nussenblatt, R. B., Trentham, D. E., and Hafler, D. A. 1994. Oral tolerance: immunologic mechanisms and treatment of animal and human organ specific autoimmune diseases by oral administration of autoantigens. Ann. Rev. of Immunol. 12:809-837.
38. Mannie, M. D., Morrison-Plummer, J. and McConnell, T. J. 1993. Differentiation of encephalitogenic T cells confers resistance to an inhibitory anti-CD4 monoclonal antibody. J. Immunol., 151:7293-7306.
39. Weinberg, A. D., Wyrick, G., Celnick, B., Vainiene, M., Bakke, A., Offner, H., Vandenbark, A. A. 1993. Lymphokine mRNA expression in the spinal cords of Lewis rats with experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis is associated with a host recruited CD45R hi/CD4+ population during recovery. J. Neuroimmunol., 48:105-17.
40. Kuchroo, V. K., Martin, C. A., Greer, J. M., Ju, S-T., Sobel, R. A., and Dorf, M. E. 1993. Cytokines and adhesion molecules contribute to the ability of myelin proteolipid protein-specific T cell clones to mediate experimental allergic encephalomyelitis. J. Immunol. 151:4371-4382.
41. Pender, M. P., McCombe, P. A., Yoong, G., and Nguyen, K. B. 1992. Apoptosis of alpha beta T lymphocytes in the nervous system in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis: its possible implications for recovery and acquired tolerance. J. Autoimmunity, 5:401-410.
42. Schmied, M., Breitschopf, H., Gold, R., Zischler, H., Rothe, G., Wekerle, H., and Lassmann, U. 1993. Apoptosis of T lymphocytes in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. Evidence for programmed cell death as a mechanism to control inflammation in the brain. Am. J. Pathol. 143:446-452.
43. Dijkstra, C. D., DeGroot, C. J., and Huitinga, I.: The role of macrophages in demyelination. Neuroimmunol. 40:183-188, 1992.
44. Hulkower, K., Brosnan, C. F., Aquino, D. A., Cammer, W., Kulshrestha, S., Guida, M. P., Rapoport, D. A., and Berman, J. W. 1993. Expression of CSF-1, c-fms, and MCP-1 in the central nervous system of rats with experimental allergic encephalomyelitis. J. Immunol. 150:2525-2533.
45. Nguyen, K. B., McCombe, P. A., and Pender, M. P. 1994. Macrophage apoptosis in the central nervous system in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. J. Autoimmun. 7:145-152.
46. Hickey, W. F., and Kimura, H. 1988. Perivascular microglial cells of the CNS are bone marrow-derived and present antigen in vivo. Science 239:290-292.
47. Bauer, J., Berkenbosch, F., Van Dam, A. M., and Dijkstra, C. D. 1993. Demonstration of interleukin-1 beta in Lewis rat brain during experimental allergic encephalomyelitis by immunocytochemistry at the light and ultrastructural level. J. Neuroimmunol. 48:13-21.
48. Smith, M. E. 1993. Phagocytosis of myelin by microglia in vitro. J. Neurosci. Res. 35:480-487.
49. Altman, J. 1994. Microglia emerge from the fog. TINS 17:47-49.
50. Benveniste, E. N. 1993. Astrocyte-microglia interactions. In: S. Murphy, ed., Astrocytes: Pharmacology and Function, Academic Press, Inc., San Diego, pp. 355-382.
51. Norton, W. T., Brosnan, C. F., Cammer, W., and Goldmuntz, E. A. 1990. Mechanisms and suppression of inflammatory demyelination. Acta Neurobiol. Exp. 50:225-235.
52. Claudio, L., Kress, Y., Factor, J., and Brosnan, C. F. 1990. Mechanisms of edema formation in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. The contribution of inflammatory cells. Am. J. Pathol. 137:1033-1045.
53. Claudio, L., Martiney, J. A. and Brosnan, C. F. 1994. Ultrastructural studies of the blood-retina barrier after exposure to interleukin-1 beta or tumor necrosis factor-alpha. Lab. Invest. 70: 850-861.
54. Knobler, R. L., Marini, J. C., Goldowitz, D. and Lublin, F. D. 1992. Distribution of the blood brain barrier in heterotopic brain transplants and its relationship to the lesions of EAE J. Neuropathol. and Exp. Neurol. 51:36-39.
55. Cannella, B., Cross, A. H., and Raine, C. S. 1991. Relapsing autoimmune demyelination: a role for vascular addressins. J. Neuroimmunol. 35:295-300.
56. Cannella, B., Cross, A. H., and Raine, C. S. 1991. Adhesion related molecules in the central nervous system. Upregulation correlates with inflammatory cell influx during relapsing experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. Lab. Invest. 65:23-31.
57. Raine, C. S., Cannella, B., Duijvestijn, A. M., and Cross, A. H. 1990. Homing to central nervous system vasculature by antigen-specific lymphocytes. II. Lymphocyte/endothelial cell adhesion during the initial stages of autoimmune demyelination. Lab. Invest. 63:476-489.
58. Seki, T., Joh, K., and Oh-ishi, T. 1993. Augmented production of interleukin-8 in cerebrospinal fluid in bacterial meningitis. Immunology 80:333-335.
59. Sobel, R. A., Blanchette, B. W., Bhan, A. K., and Colvin, R. B. 1984. The immunopathology of experimental allergic encephalomyelitis. II. Endothelial cell Ia increases prior to inflammatory cell infiltration. J. Immunol. 132:2402-2407.
60. Myers, K. J., Dougherty, J. P., and Ron, Y. 1993. In vivo antigen presentation by both brain parenchymal cells and hematopoietically derived cells during the induction of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. J. Immunol. 151:2252-2260.
61. Rodriguez, M., Scheithauer, B. W., Forbes, G., and Kelly, P. J. 1993. Oligodendrocyte injury is an early event in lesions of multiple sclerosis (see comments) Mayo Clinic Proceedings, 68:627-636.
62. Chung, I. Y., Norris, J. G., and Benveniste, E. N. 1991. Differential tumor necrosis factor alpha expression by astrocytes from experimental allergic encephalomyelitis-susceptible and -resistant rat strains. J. Exp. Med. 173:801-811.
63. Selmaj, K., Brosnan, C. F., Raine, C. S. 1991. Expression of heat shock protein-65 by oligodendrocytes in vivo and in vitro: implications for multiple sclerosis. Neurology, 42:795-800.
64. Kawai, K. and Zweiman, B. 1990. Characteristics of in vitro cytotoxic effects of myelin basic protein-reactive T cell lines on syngeneic oligodendrocytes. J. Neuroimmunol. 26:57-67.
65. Antel, J. P., Williams, K., Blain, M., McRea, E., and McLaurin, J. 1994. Oligodendrocyte lysis by CD44+ T cells independent of tumor necrosis factor. Annals of Neurol., 35:341-348.
66. D'Amelio, F. E., Smith, M. E. and Eng, L. F. 1990. Sequence of tissue responses in the early stages of experimental allergic encephalomyelitis (EAE): immunohistochemical, light microscopic and ultrastructural observations in the spinal cord. Glia 3: 229-240.
67. Merrill, J. E., Ignarro, L. J., Sherman, M. P., Melinek, J., and Lane T. E. 1993. Microglial cell cytotoxicity of oligodendrocytes is mediated through nitric oxide. J. Immunol, 151:2132-2141.
68. Prineas, J. W., Kwon, E. E., Goldenberg, P. Z., Cho, E. S., and Sharer, L. R. 1990. Interaction of astrocytes and newly formed oligodendrocytes in resolving multiple sclerosis lesions. Lab. Invest. 63:624-636.
69. Ghatak, N. R. 1992. Occurrence of oligodendrocytes within astrocytes in demyelinating lesions. J. Neuropathol. and Exp. Neurol., 51:40-46.
70. Banik, N. L. 1992. Pathogenesis of myelin breakdown in demyelinating diseases: role of proteolytic enzymes. Critical reviews in Neurobiol. 6:257-271.
71. Jewtoukoff, V., Amzazi, S., Lebar, R., Bach, M. A., and Marche, P. N. 1992. T cell receptor identification of an oligodendrocyte-specific autoreactive cytotoxic T-cell clone without self restriction. Scand. J. Immunol. 36:893-898.
72. Xiao, B. G., Linington, C., and Link, H. 1991. Antibodies to myelin-oligodendrocyte glycoprotein in cerebrospinal fluid from patients with multiple sclerosis and controls. J. Neuroimmunol. 31:91-96.
73. Massa, P. T., Ozato, K., and McFarlin, D. E. 1993. Cell type-specific regulation of major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I gene expression in astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, and neurons. Glia 8(3):201-207.
74. Rayner, D. C., Petrycky-Cok, L. D., Diocee, M., and Rector, E. 1993. Major histocompatibility complex class II-restricted cytotoxicity by self-myelin basic protein-reactive T-cell hybridomas: evidence for a tumor necrosis factor independent nucleotytic mechanism. Immunology 78 (2):273-8.
75. Wucherpfennig, K. W. 1994. Autoimmunity in the central nervous system: mechanisms of antigen presentation and recognition. Clinical Immunology and Immunopathology 72(3):293-306.
76. Bergsteindottir, K., Brennan, A., Jessen, K. R. and Mirsky, R. 1992. In the presence of dexamethasone gamma interferon induces rat oligodendrocytes to express major histocompatibility complex class II molecules. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 89: 9054-9058.
77. Li, Y., Atashi, J., Hayes, C., Reap, E., Hunt, S. 3rd, and Popko, B. 1995. Morphological and molecular response of the MOCH-1 oligodendrocyte cell line to serum and interferon-gamma: possible implications for demyelinating disorders. J. Neuroscience Res. 40(2):189-198.
78. Eng, L. F., and Ghirnikar, R. S. 1994. GFAP and astrogliosis. Brain Pathol. 4:229-237.
79. Eng, L. F., and Lee, Y. L. 1995. Intermediate filaments in astrocytes. Pages 650-667, in H. Kettenmann and B. R. Ransom, eds., Neuroglia, Oxford University Press, New York.
80. Smith, M. E., and Eng, L. F. 1987. The Immune System in Neuropathology. Glial fibrillary acidic protein in chronic relapsing experimental allergic encephalomyelitis in SJL/J mice. Neurosci. Res. 18:203-208.
81. Ludowyk, P. A., Hughes, W., Hugh, A., Willenborg, D. O., Rockett, K. A., and Parish, C. R. 1993. Astrocytic hypertrophy: an important pathological feature of chronic experimental autoimmune encephalitis in aged rats. J. Neuroimmunol. 48:121-134.
82. Smith, M. E., Somera, F. P., Eng, L. F. 1983. Immunocytochemical staining for glial fibrillary acidic protein and the metabolism of cytoskeletal proteins in experimental allergic encephalomyelitis. Brain Res 264:241-253.
83. Goldmuntz, E. A., Brosnan, C. F., Chiu, F.-C., and Norton, W. T. 1986. Astrocytic reactivity and intermediate filament metabolism in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis: the effect of suppression with prazosin. Brain Res. 397:16-26.
84. 125 gamma globulin and leukocytes in allergic encephalomyelitis. J. Neuropathol. Exp. Neurol. 26:558-571.
85. Levine, S., Simar, J., and Wenk, E. J. 1966. Edema of the spinal cord in experimental allergic encephalomyelitis. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 123:539-541.
86. Juhler, M., Barry, D. I., Offner, H., Konat, G., Klinken, L., and Paulson, O. B. 1984. Blood-brain and blood-spinal cord barrier permeability during the course of experimental allergic encephalomyelitis in the rat. Brain Res. 302:347-355.
87. Eng, L. F., D'Amelio, F. E., and Smith, M. E., 1989. Dissociation of GFAP intermediate filaments in EAE: Observations in the lumbar spinal cord. Glia 2:308-317.
88. Lee, J. C. 1982. Anatomy of the blood-brain barrier under normal and pathological conditions. In: Histology and Histopathology of the Nervous System. W. Haymaker and R. D. Adams, eds., Charles Thomas, pp. 798-890.
89. Miquel, J., Foncin, J.-F., Gruner, J. E., and Lee, J. C. 1982. Cerebral edema. In: W. Haymaker and R. D. Adams, eds., Histology and Histopathology of the Nervous System, Charles Thomas, pp. 871-919.
90. Bourke, R. S., Kimelberg, H. K., Nelson, L. R., Barron, K. D., Auen, E. L., Popp, A. J., and Waldman, J. B. 1980. Biology of glial swelling in experimental brain edema. In: J. Cervos-Navarro and R. Ferszt, eds., Brain Edema. Pathology, Diagnosis, and Therapy, Advances in Neurology, Vol. 28., pp. 99-109.
91. Chan, P. H. and Fishman, R. A. 1985. Brain edema. In: A. Lajtha, ed., Handbook of Neurochemistry, Plenum Press, New York, pp. 153-174.
92. Halliwell, B. and Gutteridge, J. M. C. 1985. Oxygen radicals and the nervous system. Trends Neurosci. 8:22-26.
93. Wahl, M., Unterberg, A., Baethmann, A., and Schilling, L. 1988. Mediators of blood-brain barrier dysfunction and formation of vasogenic brain edema. J. Cerebral Blood Flow Metab. 8:621-634.
94. Kimelberg, H. K., Bourke, R. S., Stieg, P. E., Barron, K. D., Hirata, H., Pelton, E. W., and Nelson, L. R. 1982. Swelling of astroglia after injury to the central nervous system: Mechanisms and consequences. Pages 31-44. in: R. G. Grossman and P. L. Gildenberg, (eds.), Head Injury: Basic and Clinical Aspects, Raven Press, New York.
95. Aquino, D. A., Chiu, F.-C., Brosnan, C. F., and Norton, W. T. 1988. Glial fibrillary acidic protein increases in the spinal cord of Lewis rats with acute experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. J. Neurochem. 51:1085-1096.
96. Kothavale, A., Gregoria, D. D., Somera, F. P., and Smith, M. E. 1995. GFAP mRNA fluctuates in synchrony with chronic relapsing EAE symptoms in SJL/J mice. Glia 14:216-224.
97. Balasingam, V., Tejada-Berges, T., Wright, E., Bouckova, R., and Yong, V. W. 1994. Reactive astrogliosis in the neonatal mouse brain and its modulation by cytokines. J Neurosci. 14: 846-856.
98. Eddleston, M. and Mucke, L. 1993. Molecular profile of reactive astrocytes; implications for their role in neurologic diseases. Neuroscience 54:15-36.
99. Rudge, J. S. 1993. Astrocyte-Derived Neurotrophic factors. In: S. Murphy, ed., Astrocytes: Pharmacology and Function, Academic Press, Inc., San Diego, pp. 267-305.
100. Shrikant, P., Chung, I. Y., Ballestas, M. E., and Benveniste, E. N. 1994. Regulation of intercellular adhesion molecule-1 gene expression by tumor necrosis factor-alpha, interleukin-1 beta, and interferon-gamma in astrocytes. J. Neuroimmunol., 51:209-220.
101. Murphy, G. M., Jr., Jia, X-C., Yu, A. C. H., Lee, Y. L., Tinklenberg, J. R., and Eng, L. F. 1993. Reverse transcription-PCR for quantification of mRNA in primary astrocyte cultures. J. Neurosci. Res. 35:643-651.
102. Murphy, G. M., Jr., Lee, Yuen Ling, Jia, Xiao-Chi, Yu, Albert C. H., Majeewska, Anna, Song, Yaoli, Schmidt, Karen, and Eng, L. F. 1995. Tumor Necrosis Factor alpha and Basic Growth Factor Decrease Glial Fibrillary Acidic Protein and its Encoding mRNA in Astrocyte Cultures and Glioblastoma Cells, J. Neurochem., 65:2716-2724.
103. Rubio, N., and Capa, L. 1993. Differential IL-1 synthesis by astrocytes from Theiler's murine encephalomyelitis virus-susceptible and -resistant strains of mice. Cellular Immunol. 149:237-247.
104. Endoh, M., Maiese, K., and Wagner, J. 1994. Expression of the inducible form of nitric oxide synthase by reactive astrocytes after transient global ischemia. Brain Res. 651:92-100.
105. Galea, E., Reis, D. J., and Feinstein, D. L. 1994. Cloning and expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase from rat astrocytes. J. Neurosci. Res. 37:406-414.
106. Cross, A. H., Misko, T. P., Lin, R. F., Hickey, W. F., Trotter, J. L., Tilton, R. G. 1994. Aminoguanidine, an inhibitor of inducible nitric oxide synthase ameliorates experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis in SJL mice. J. Clin. Invest. 93:2684-2690.
107. Brenner, T., Brocke, S., Szafer, F., and Steinman, L. 1995. Inhibition of nitric oxide synthase for the treatment of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. J. Neurochem. 64 Suppl. S4D.
108. Kaprowski, H., Zheng, Y. M., Heber-Katz, E., Fraser, N., Rorke, L., Fu, Z. F., Hanlon, C., and Dietzschold, B. 1993. In vivo expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase in experimentally induced neurologic diseases. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 90: 3024-3027.
109. Merrill, J. E., Kono, D. H., Clayton, J., Ando, D. G., Hinton, D. R.; and Hofman, F. M. 1992. Inflammatory leukocytes and cytokines in the peptide-induced disease of experimental allergic encephalomyelitis in SJL and B10-PL mice (published erratum appears in Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 89:10562, 1992). Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 89:574-578.
110. DeGroot, C. J., Sminia, T., Dijkstra, C. D., Van der Pal, R. H., Lopes-Cardozo, M. 1991. Interferon-gamma induced IA antigen expression on cultured neuroglial cells and brain macrophages from rat spinal cord and cerebrum. International J. Neurosci. 59: 53-65.
111. Halachmi, E., Ben-Nun, A., Lehman, D., Karussis, D., Wekerle, H and Berke, G. 1992. Delineation of tissue damage mechanisms in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE). I. Cell detachment and lysis induced by encephalitogenic CD4+ T lymphocytes. J. Autoimmunity 5:411-425.
112. Halachmi, E., Pinkus, R., Miron, S., Ben-Nun, A., Wekerle, H., and Berke, G. 1992. Delineation of tissue damage mechanisms in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE). II. Characteristics of astrocyte detachment mediated by myelin basic protein (MBP) specific CD4+ T lymphocytes J. Autoimmunity 5: 427-441.
113. Baker, D., O'Neill, J. K., and Turk, J. L. 1991. Cytokines in the central nervous system of mice during chronic relapsing experimental allergic encephalomyelitis. Cell Immunol. 134:505-510.
114. Weinberg, A. D., Wyrick, G., Celnick, B., Vainiene, M., Bakke, A., Offner, H., and Vandebark, A. A. 1993. Lymphokine mRNA expression in the spinal cords of Lewis rats with experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis is associated with host recruited CD45R hi/CD4+ population during recovery, J. Neuroimmunol. 48:105-118.
115. Godiska, R., Chantry, D., Dietsch, G. N., and Gray, P. W. 1995. Chemokine expression in murine experimental allergic encephalomyelitis. J. Neuroimmunol. 58:167-176.
116. Lee, Y. L., Smith, M. E., Kou, A., Wang, J., and Eng, L. F. 1995. Cytokine mRNAs in the spinal cord of mice with EAE. J. Neurochem. 64 (Suppl.) S91D.
117. Racke, M. K., Dhib-Jalbut, S., Cannella, B., Albert, P. S., Raine, C. S., and McFarlin, D. E. 1991. Prevention and treatment of chronic relapsing experimental allergic encephalomyelitis by transforming growth factor beta 1. J. Immunol., 146:3012-3017.
118. Racke, M. K., Sriram, S., Carlino, J., Cannella, B., Raine, C. S., and McFarlin, D. E. 1993. Long-term treatment of chronic relapsing experimental allergic encephalomyelitis by transforming growth factor-beta 2. J. Neuroimmunol. 46:175-183.
119. Johns, L. D., Flanders, K. C., Raanges, G. E., and Sriram, S. Successful treatment of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis with transforming growth factor-β-1 J. Immunol. (1991) 147:11792-1796.
120. Gao, Y. L., Brosnan, C. F., and Raine, C. S. 1995. Experimental Autoimmune Encephalomyelitis: Qualitative and semiquantitative differences in heat shock protein 60 expression in the central nervous system. J. Immunol. 154:3548-3556.
121. Issazadeh, S., Mustafa, M., Ljungdahl, A., Hojeberg, B., Dagerlind, A., Elde, R., and Olsson, T. 1995. Interferon γ, Interleukin 4 and Transforming Growth Factor β in Experimental Autoimmune Encephalomyelitis in Lewis Rats: Dynamics of Cellular mRNA expression in the central nervous system and lymphoid cells. J Neurosci Res. 40:579-590.
122. Racke, M. K., Burnett, D., Pak, S-H., Albert, P. S., Cannella, B., Raine, C. S., McFarlin, D. E., and Scott, D. E. 1995. Retinoid treatment of experimental allergic encephalomyelitis: IL-4 production correlates with improved disease course. J. Immunology 154:450-458.
123. Santambrogio, L., Hochwald, G. U., Saxena, B., Lev, C. H., Martz, J. E., Carlino, J. A., Ruddle, N. H., Palladino, M. A., Gold, L. I., and Thorbecke, G. J. 1993. Studies on the mechanisms by which transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) protects against allergic encephalomyelitis. J. Immunol. 153:1116-1127.
124. Yu, A. C. H., Lee, Y. L., and Eng, L. F. 1991. Inhibition of GFAP synthesis by antisense RNA in astrocytes. J. Neurosci. Res. 30:72-79.
125. Yu, A. C. H., Lee, Y. L., and Eng, L. F. 1993. Astrogliosis in culture. I. The model and the effect of antisense oligonucleotides on glial fibrillary acidic protein synthesis. J. Neurosci. Res. 34: 295-303.
126. Ghirnikar, R. S., Yu, A. C. H., and Eng, L. F. 1994. Astrogliosis in culture III. Effect of recombinant retrovirus expressing antisense glial fibrillary acidic protein RNA. J. Neurosci. Res. 38: 376-385.
127. Fisher, L. J. and Gage, F. D. 1994. Intracerebral transplantation: basic and clinical applications to the neostriatum. FASEB, 8: 489-496.
128. 1 on scar production in the injured central nervous system of the rat. Eur. J. Neurosci. 6:355-363.
129. Logan, A., Frautschy, S. A., Gonzalez, A-M., Sporn, M. B., and Baird, A. 1992. Enhanced expression of transforming growth factor b1 in the rat brain after a localized cerebral injury. Brain Res. 587:216-225.
130. Panitch, H. S. 1994. Influence of infection on exacerbations of multiple sclerosis. Annals of Neurology, 36 Suppl:S25-8.
131. Panitch, H. S., and Bever, C. T. Jr. 1993. Clinical trials of interferons in multiple sclerosis. What have we learned? J. Neuroimmunol. 46(1-2):155-64.
132. McFarland, H. F. 1995. Therapeutic approaches to multiple sclerosis. J. Neurochem. 64 Suppl. S73C.
133. Weber, F. and Rieckmann, P. 1995. Pathogenesis and therapy of multiple sclerosis. The role of cytokines. Nervenarzt 66(2):150-155.