Osteoporotic fractures: Background and prevention strategies

Maturitas

Volumn 23, Issue 2, 1996, Pages 193-207

  Wark, John D ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MELBOURNE   (Australia)

^b NONE

Author keywords

Calcium; Estrogen; Menopause; Osteoporosis; Progestin; Vitamin D

Indexed keywords

CALCIUM; ESTROGEN; GESTAGEN; VITAMIN D;

ADULT; ALCOHOL CONSUMPTION; CONFERENCE PAPER; FEMALE; FRACTURE; HORMONE SUBSTITUTION; HUMAN; POSTMENOPAUSE OSTEOPOROSIS; PREVENTIVE MEDICINE; RISK FACTOR; SMOKING;

EID: 0029994519     PISSN: 03785122     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/0378-5122(95)00974-4     Document Type: Conference Paper

References (140)

1. World Health Organization. Assessment of fracture risk and its application to screening for postmenopausal osteoporosis. Report of a WHO Study Group. Geneva, World Health Organization, Technical Report Series, No. 843, 1994.
2. Parfitt AM, Trabecular bone architecture in the pathogenesis and prevention of fracture. Am J Med 1987; 82 (Suppl 1B): 68-72.
3. Compston JE, Structural mechanisms of trabecular bone loss. In: Smith R, ed. Osteoporosis, London: Royal College of Physicians, 1990; 35-43.
4. Spotila LD et al. Mutation in a gene for type I procollagen (COL1A2) in a woman with postmenopausal osteoporosis: evidence for phenotypic and genotypic overlap with mild osteogenesis imperfecta. Proc Nat Acad Sci USA 1991; 88: 5423-5427.
5. Peck WA, Riggs BL, Bell NH, et al. Research directions in osteoporosis. Am J Med 1988; 84: 275-282.
6. Randell A, Sambrook PN, Nguyen TV et al. Direct clinical and welfare costs of all symptomatic osteoporotic fractures in elderly men and women. Bone 1995; 16: 120S.
7. Kelsey JL, Hoffman S. Risk factors for hip fracture. New Engl J Med 1987; 316: 404-406.
8. Poór G, Jacobsen SJ, Melton III LJ. Mortality following hip fracture. In: Vellas BJ, Albarede JL, Garry PJ, eds. Facts and Research in Gerontology. Paris: Serdi Publisher. Epidemiology and Aging, 1994; 91-109.
9. Chrischilles EA et al. A model of lifetime osteoporosis impact. Arch Intern Med 1991; 151: 2026-2032.
10. Solomon L. Osteoporosis and fracture of femoral neck in the South African Bantu. J Bone Joint Surg (British) 1968; 50: 2-13.
11. Nordin BEC. International patterns of osteoporosis. Clin Orthopaed 1966; 45: 17-30.
12. Trotter M, Broman GE, Peterson RR. Densities of bones of white and negro skeletons. J Bone Joint Surg (American) 1960; 42A: 50-58.
13. Cohn SH. Comparative skeletal mass and radial bone mineral content in black and white women. Metabolism 1977; 26: 171-178.
14. Garn SM, Pao EM, Rihl ME. Compact bone in Chinese and Japanese. Science 1964; 143: 1439-1440.
15. Yano K et al. Bone mineral measurements among middle aged and elderly Japanese residents in Hawaii. Am J Epidemiol 1984; 119: 751-764.
16. Cummings SR, Kelsey JL, Nevitt MC, O'Dowd KJ. Epidemiology of osteoporosis and osteoporotic fractures. Epidemiol Rev 1985; 7: 178-207.
17. Bloom RA, Pogrund H. Humeral cortical thickness in female Bantu: its relationship to the incidence of femoral neck fracture. Skeletal Radiol 1982; 8: 56-62.
18. Mehta S. Bone loss, contraception and lactation. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand 1993; 72: 148-156.
19. Lau EMC. Hip fracture in Asia - trends, risks factors and prevention. In: Christiansen C, Riis B, eds. Osteoporosis Proceedings, 1993. Rodovre: Fourth International Symposium on Osteoporosis, 1993; 58-61.
20. Melton LJ III, O'Fallon WM, Riggs BL, Secular trends in the incidence of hip fractures. Calc Tissue Int 1987; 41: 57-64.
21. Melton LJ III, Riggs BL. Epidemiology of age related fractures. In: Avioli LV, ed. The osteoporotic syndrome: detection, prevention and treatment. New York: Grune and Stratton 1983: 45-72.
22. Johnell O et al. The apparent incidence of hip fracture in Europe: a study of national register sources. Osteoporosis Int 1992; 2: 298-302.
23. Cooper C et al. Incidence of clinically diagnosed vertebral fractures: a population-based study in Rochester, Minnesota, 1985-1989. J Bone Mineral Res 1992; 7: 221-227.
24. Riggs BL, Melton LJ. Involutional osteoporosis. New Engl J Med 1986; 314: 1676-1686.
25. Gilsanz V, Gibbons DT, Roe TF, et al. Vertebral bone density in children: effect of puberty. Radiology 1988; 166: 847-850.
26. Glastre C, Braillon P, David L, et al. Measurement of bone mineral content of the lumbar spine by dual energy x-ray absorptiometry in normal children: correlations with growth parameters. J Clin Endocrinol Metabol 1990; 70: 1330-1333.
27. Young D, Hopper JL, Nowson CA et al. Determinants of bone mass in 10 to 26 year old females: a twin study. J Bone Min Res 1995; 10: 558-567.
28. Theintz G, Buchs B, Rizzoli R, et al. Longitudinal monitoring of bone mass accumulation in healthy adolescents; evidence for a marked reduction after 16 years of age at the levels of lumbar spine and femoral neck in female subjects. J Clin Endocrinol Metabol 1992; 75: 1060-1065.
29. Mazess RB. On aging bone loss. Clin Orthopaed 1982; 165: 239-252.
30. Kelly PJ, Twomey L, Sambrook PN, et al. Sex differences in peak adult bone mineral density. J Bone Min Res 1990; 5: 1169-1175.
31. Ott SM. Bone density in adolescents. New Engl J Med 1991; 325: 1646-1647.
32. Wark JD. Osteoporosis. In: Burger HG, ed. Bailliere's Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, International Practice and Research, The Menopause. London: Bailliere Tindall, 1993; 7: 151-181.
33. Pouilles JM, Tremollieres F, Ribot C. The effects of menopause on longitudinal bone loss from the spine. Calcif Tissue Int 1993; 52: 340-343.
34. Hui SL et al. A prospective study of change in bone mass with age in postmenopausal women. J Chron Dis 1982; 35: 715-725.
35. Murphy S et al. Endogenous sex hormones and bone mineral density among community-based postmenopausal women. Postgrad Med J 1992; 68: 908-913.
36. Steinberg KK. Sex steroids and bone density in premenopausal and perimenopausal women. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1989; 69: 533-539.
37. Slemenda C et al. Sex steroids and bone mass. A study of changes about the time of menopause. J Clin Invest 1987; 80: 1261-1269.
38. Spector TD. The relationship between sex steroids and bone mineral content in women soon after menopause. Clin Endocrinol 1991; 34: 37-41.
39. Prior JC. Progesterone as a bone-trophic hormone. Endocrine Rev 1990; 11: 386-398.
40. Prior JC, Vigna YM, Barr SI et al. Cyclic medroxyprogesterone treatment increases bone density. A controlled trial in active women with menstrual cycle disturbances. Am J Med 1994; 96: 521-530.
41. Riggs BL and Melton LJ. Involutational osteoporosis. New Engl J Med 1986; 314: 1676-1686.
42. Pocock NA, Eisman JA, Hopper JL et al. Genetic determinants of bone mass in adults. J Clin Invest 1987; 80: 706-710.
43. Christian JC, Yu P, Slemenda CW et al. Heritability of bone mass: a longitudinal study in ageing male twins. Am J Hum Genet 1989; 44: 429-433.
44. Krall EA, Dawson-Hughes B. Heritable and lifestyle determinants of bone mineral density. J Bone Min Res 1993; 8: 1-10.
45. Flicker L, Hopper JL, Rodgers L et al. Bone density determinants in elderly women: a twin study. J Bone Min Res 1995; 10: 1607-1613.
46. Morrison NA, Qi JC, Tokita A et al. Prediction of bone density from vitamin D receptor alleles. Nature 1994; 367: 284-287.
47. Frost HM. Mechanical microdamage, bone remodelling and osteoporosis: a review. In: Deluca HF, Frost HM, Jee WSS et al, eds. Osteoporosis: Recent Advances in Pathogenesis and Treatment. Baltimore: University Park Press 1981; 185-190.
48. Johnston CC, Slemenda CW. Risk assessment: Theoretical considerations. Am J Med 1993; 95 (Suppl 5A): 2S-5S.
49. Faulkner KG et al. Simple measurement of femoral geometry. J Bone Min Res 1993; 8: 1211-1217,
50. Faulkner KG, Flicker L, Hopper J et al. Hip axis length in elderly female twins. Bone 1995; 16: 106S.
51. Ross PD et al. Pre-existing fractures and bone mass predict vertebral fracture incidence in women. Ann Intern Med 1991; 114: 919-923.
52. Gibson MJ. The prevention of falls in later life. Dan Med Bull 1987; 34: 1-24.
53. Ray WA, Griffin MR, Schaffner W, et al. Psychotropic drug use and the risk of hip fracture. New Engl J Med 1987; 316: 363-368.
54. Black DM, Cummings SR, Genant HK, et al. Axial and appendicular bone density predict fractures in older women. J Bone Min Res 1992; 7: 633-638.
55. Ross PD, Wasnich RD, Vogel JM. Detection of prefracture spinal osteoporosis using bone mineral densitometry. J Bone Min Res 1988; 3: 1-11.
56. Eastell R, Wahner HW, O'Fallon WM, et al. Unequal decrease in bone density of lumbar spine and ultradistal radius in Colles' and vertebral fracture syndromes. J Clin Invest 1989; 83: 168-174.
57. Cummings et al. Bone density at various sites for prediction of hip fractures: The Study of Osteoporotic Fractures Research Group. Lancet 1993; 341: 72-75.
58. Kelly TL, Slovik DM, Schoenfeld DA, et al. Quantitative digital radiography versus dual photon absorptiometry of the lumbar spine. J Clin Endocrinol Metabol 1988; 67: 839-844.
59. Cummings SR. Position papers. Bone mineral densitometry. Ann Intern Med 1987; 107: 932-936.
60. Hans D, Arlot ME, Schott AM et al. Do ultrasound measurements on the os calcis reflect more the bone microarchitecture than the bone mass?: a two-dimensional histomorphometric study. Bone 1995; 16: 295-300.
61. Agren et al. Ultrasound attenuation of the calcaneus: a sensitive and specific discriminator of osteopenia in postmenopausal women. Calc Tiss Int 1991; 48: 240-244.
62. Salamone et al. Comparison of broadband ultrasound attenuation to single X-ray absorptiometry measurements at the calcaneus in postmenopausal women. Calc Tiss Int 1994; 54: 87-90.
63. Porter RW, Miller CG, Grainger D, et al. Prediction of hip fracture in elderly women: a prospective study. Br Med J 1990; 301: 638-641.
64. Christiansen C, Riis BJ, Rødbro P. Prediction of rapid bone loss in postmenopausal women. Lancet 1987; i: 1105-1107.
65. Robins SP. An enzyme-linked immunoassay for the collagen cross-link pyridinoline. Biochem J 1982; 207: 617-620.
66. Eyre DR, Koob TJ, Van Ness KP. Quantitation of hydroxypyridinium crosslinks in collagen by high-performance liquid chromatography. Anal Biochem 1984; 137: 38-388.
67. Uebelhart D et al. Urinary excretion of pyridinium crosslinks: a new marker of bone resorption in metabolic bone disease. Bone Min 1990; 8: 87-96.
68. Uebelhart D et al. Effect of menopause and hormone replacement therapy on the urinary excretion of pyridinium cross-links. J Clin Endocrinol Metabol 1991; 72: 367-373.
69. Delmas PD et al. Urinary excretion of pyridinoline crosslinks correlates with bone turnover measured on iliac crest biopsy in patients with vertebral osteoporosis. J Bone Min Res 1991; 6: 639-644.
70. Hanson DA et al. A specific immuno-assay for monitoring human bone resorption: quantitation of type 1 collagen cross-linked N-Telopeptides in urine. J Bone Min Res 1992; 7: 1251-1258.
71. Bonde M, Quist P, Fledelius C et al. Applications of an enzyzme immunoassay for a new marker of bone resorption (Crosslaps): follow-up on hormone replacement therapy and osteoporosis risk assessment. J Clin Endocrinol Metabol 1995; 80: 864-868.
72. Norman AW, Collins ED. Correlations between vitamin D receptor allele and bone mineral density. Nutr Rev 1994; 52: 147-149.
73. Krall EA, Parry P, Lichter JB et al. Vitamin D receptor alleles and rates of bone loss: influences of years since menopause and calcium intake. J Bone Min Res 1995; 10: 9788-984.
74. Reid IR, Chin K, Evans ME, et al. Relations between increase in length of hip axis in older women between 1950s and 1990s and increase in age specific rates of hip fracture. Br Med J 1994; 309: 508-509.
75. Johnston CC et al. Calcium supplementation and increases in bone mineral density in children. New Engl J Med 1992; 327: 82-87.
76. Lloyd T et al. Calcium supplementation and bone mineral density in adolescent girls. J Am Med Assoc 1993; 270: 841-844.
77. Nowson CA, Green RM, Guest CS, et al. The effect of calcium supplementation on bone mass in adolescent female twins. In Burkhardt P, Heaney RP eds. Challenges of Modern Medicine, Vol. 7. Ares-Serono Symposia Publications. 1995; 169-175.
78. Heaney RP. Bone mass, nutrition and other lifestyle factors. Am J Med 1993; 95 (Suppl 5A): 29S-33S.
79. Nowson CA, Sherwin AJ, Green RM et al. Limitations of dietary calcium assessment in female twins of different ages. In: Burkhardt P, Heaney RP, eds. Challenges of Modern Medicine, Vol. 7. Ares-Serono Symposia Publications 1995; 97-104.
80. Dawson-Hughes B et al. A controlled trial of the effect of calcium supplementation on bone density in post menopausal women. New Engl J Med 1990; 323: 878-883.
81. Chapuy MC et al. Vitamin D3 and calcium to prevent hip fractures in elderly women. New Engl J Med 1992; 327: 1637-1642.
82. Reid IR et al. Effect of calcium supplementation on bone loss in postmenopausal women. New Engl J Med 1993; 328: 460-464.
83. Elders PJM et al. Calcium supplementation reduces vertebral bone loss in perimenopausal women: a controlled trial in 248 women between 46 and 55. J Clin Endocrinol Metabol 1991; 73: 533-540.
84. Osteoporosis: Consensus Conference. J Am Med Assoc 1984; 252: 799-802.
85. Heaney RP, Recker RR, Saville PD. Menopausal changes in calcium balance performance. J Lab Clin Med 1978; 92: 953-963.
86. Charles P. Metabolic bone disease evaluated by a combined calcium balance and tracer kinetic study. Dan Med Bull 1989; 36: 463-479.
87. DeLuca HF. The vitamin D story: a collaborative effort of basic science and clinical medicine. FASEB J 1988; 2: 224-236.
88. Francis RM et al. Calcium malabsorption in elderly women with vertebral fractures: evidence for resistance to the action of vitamin D metabolites on the bowel. Clin Sci 1984; 66: 103-107.
89. Slovik DM et al. Deficient production of 1.25-dihydroxyvitamin D in elderly osteoporotic patients. New Engl J Med 1981; 305: 372-374.
90. Dawson-Hughes B et al. Effect of vitamin D supplementation on wintertime and overall bone loss in healthy postmenopausal women. Ann Int Med 1991; 115: 505-512.
91. Heikinheimo RJ et al. Annual injection of vitamin D and fractures of aged bones. Calc Tiss Int 1992; 51: 105-110.
92. Parfitt AM et al. Vitamin D and bone health in the elderly. Am J Clin Nutr 1982; 36: 1014-1031.
93. Chesnut CH. Bone mass and exercise. Am J Med 1993; 95 (Suppl 5A): 34S-36S.
94. Notelovitz M et al. Estrogen therapy and variable-resistance weight training increase bone mineral in surgically menopausal women. J Bone Min Res 1991; 6: 583-590.
95. Krolner B et al. Physicial exercise as prophylaxis against involutional vertebral bone loss: a controlled trial. Clin Sci 1983; 64: 541-546.
96. Donaldson CL et al. Effect of prolonged bed rest on bone mineral. Metabolism 1970; 19: 1071-1084.
97. Vogel JM et al. Bone mineral measurement, experiment MO78. In: Biomedical Results from Skylab, National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Washington DC, GPO 1977; 183-190.
98. Drinkwater BL et al. Bone mineral content of amenorrheic and eumenorrheic athletes. New Engl J Med 1984; 311: 277-281.
99. Prince R et al. Prevention of osteoporosis: a comparative study of exercise, calcium supplementation, and hormone-replacement therapy. New Engl J Med 1991; 325: 1189-1195.
100. Kirk S et al. Effect of long-distance running on bone mass in women. J Bone Min Res 1989; 4: 515-522.
101. Gleeson PB et al. Effects of weight lifting on bone mineral density in premenopausal women. J Bone Min Res 1990; 5: 153-158.
102. Drinkwater BL, Bruemner B, Chesnut CH. Menstrual history as a determinant of current bone density in young athletes. J Am Med Assoc 1990; 263: 545-548.
103. Krall EA, Dawson-Hughes B. Smoking and bone loss among postmenopausal women. J Bone Min Res 1991; 6: 331-337.
104. Hopper JL, Seeman E. The bone density of female twins discordant for tobacco use. New Engl J Med 1994; 330: 387-392.
105. Seeman E, Allen T. Risk factors for osteoporosis. Austr New Zeal J Med 1989; 19: 69-75.
106. Cassidenti DL et al. A re-evaluation of estrogen status in postmenopausal women who smoke. Am J Obstetr Gynecol 1992; 166: 1444-1448.
107. Hemenway D et al. Fractures and lifestyle: effect of cigarette smoking, alcohol intake, and relative weight on the risk of hip and forearm fractures in middle-aged women. Am J Pub Health 1988; 78: 1554-1558.
108. Holbrook TL, Barrett-Connor E. A prospective study of alcohol consumption and bone mineral density. Br Med J 1993; 306: 1506-1509.
109. Lindsay R. Sex steroids in the pathogenesis and prevention of osteoporosis. In: Riggs BL, ed. Osteoporosis: Etiology, Diagnosis and Management. New York: Raven Press 1988; 333.
110. Lindsay R. Hormone replacement therapy for the prevention and treatment of Osteoporosis. Am J Med 1993; 95 (Suppl 5A): 37S-39S.
111. Cummings SR et al. Should prescription of postmenopausal hormone therapy be based on the results of bone densitometry? Ann Intern Med 1990; 113: 565-567.
112. Ettinger B, Genant HK, Cann CE. Postmenopausal bone loss is prevented by treatment with low-dosage estrogen with calcium. Ann Intern Med 1987; 106: 40-45.
113. Lindsay R et al. Prevention of spinal osteoporosis in oophorectomised women. Lancet 1980; ii: 1151-1154.
114. Ettinger B, Grady D. The waning effect of postmenopausal oestrogen therapy on osteoporosis. New Engl J Med 1993; 329: 1192-1193.
115. Felson DT et al. The effect of postmenopausal estrogen therapy on bone density in elderly women, New Engl J Med 1993; 329: 1141-1146.
116. Ettinger B, Grady D. Maximising the benefit of estrogen therapy for prevention of osteoporosis. Menopause 1994; 1: 19-24.
117. Christiansen C, Riis BJ. 17 Beta-estradiol and continuous norethisterone: a unique treatment for established osteoporosis in elderly women. J Clin Endocrinol Metabol 1990; 71: 836-841.
118. Genant HK et al. Effect of estrone sulfate on postmenopausal bone loss. Obstetr Gynecol 1990; 76: 579-584.
119. Ettinger B et al. Low-dosage micronized 17 beta-estradiol prevents bone loss in postmenopausal women. Am J Obstetr Gynecol 1992; 166: 479-488.
120. Christiansen C, Lindsay R. Estrogens, bone loss and preservation. Osteoporosis Int 1991; 1: 7-13.
121. Ettinger B, Genant HK. Calcium enhances the bone-sparing effects of low-dosage oestrogen in postmenopausal women. Osteoporosis Int 1993; 3 (Suppl 1): 157-158.
122. Writing group for the PEPI Trial. Effects of estrogen or estrogenprogestin regimens on heart disease risk factors in postmenopausal women. The postmenopausal estrogen progestin interventions (PEPI) trial. J Am Med Assoc 1995; 273: 199-208.
123. Colditz GA, Hankinson SE, Hunter DJ et al. The use of oestrogens and progestins and the risk of breast cancer in postmenopausal women. New Engl J Med 1995; 332: 1589-1593.
124. Lauritzen JB, Petersen MM, Lund B, Effect of external hip protectors on hip fractures. Lancet 1993; 341: 11-13.
125. Reginster JY. Calcitonin for prevention and treatment of osteoporosis. Am J Med 1993; 95 (Suppl 5A): 44S-47S.
126. Kanis JA et al. Evidence for efficacy of drugs affecting bone metabolism in preventing hip fracture. Br Med J 1992; 305: 1124-1128.
127. Rico H et al. Salmon calcitonin reduces vertebral fracture rate in postmenopausal crush fracture syndrome. Bone Min 1992; 16: 131-138.
128. Overgaard K, Christiansen C. Long-term treatment of established osteoporosis with intranasal calcitonin. Calcif Tissue Int 1991; 49: S60-S63.
129. Papapoulos SE. The role of bisphosphonates in the prevention and treatment of osteoporosis. Am J Med 1993; 95 (Suppl 5A): 48S-52S.
130. Storm T et al. Effect of intermittent cyclical etidronate therapy on bone mass and fracture rate in women with postmenopausal osteoporosis. New Engl J Med 1990; 322: 1265-1271.
131. Watts NB et al. Intermittent cyclical etidronate treatment of postmenopausal osteoporosis. New Engl J Med 1990; 323: 73-79.
132. Tilyard MW, Spears GF, Thomson J, Dovey S. Treatment of post-menopausal osteoporosis with calcitriol or calcium. New Engl J Med 1992; 326: 357-362.
133. Orimo H et al. Reduced occurrence of vertebral crush fractures in senile osteoporosis treated with 1 alpha (OH)-vitamin D3. Bone Min 1987; 3: 47-52.
134. farley JR, Wergedal JE, Baylink DJ. Fluoride directly stimulates proliferation and alkaline phosphatase activity of bone forming cells. Science 1983; 222: 330-332.
135. Mamelle N et al. Risk-benefit ratio of sodium fluoride treatment in primary vertebral osteoporosis. Lancet 1988; ii: 361-365.
136. Riggs BL et al. Effects of fluoride treatment on the fracture rate in postmenopausal women with osteoporosis. New Engl J Med 1990; 322: 802-809.
137. Lindsay R. Fluoride and bone-quality versus quality. New Engl J Med 1990; 322: 45-46.
138. Heaney RP et al. Fluoride therapy for the vertebral crush fracture syndrome. A status report. Ann Intern Med 1989; III: 678-680.
139. Dure-Smith BA et al. Fluoride therapy for osteoporosis: a review of dose response, duration of treatment, and skeletal sites of action. Calc Tiss Int 1991; 49 (Suppl): S64-S67.
140. Inkovaara JA. Is fluoride treatment justified today? Calc Tiss Int 1991; 49 (Suppl): S68-S69.